Social:Timor–Alor–Pantar languages
| Timor–Alor–Pantar | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Timor and neighboring islands |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea or independent language family
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | timo1261[2] |
The Timor–Alor–Pantar (TAP) languages are a family of Papuan (non-Austronesian) languages spoken in Timor, Kisar, and the Alor archipelago in Southern Indonesia.
Holton and Klamer (2018) classify Timor–Alor–Pantar as an independent language family, since they find links with Trans-New Guinea too unconvincing.[3]
Languages
The languages are demonstrably related, with the Alor–Pantar languages forming a distinct subgroup.[4][5] The following conservative classification is from Ross (2005), Schapper et al. (2012), and Holton et al. (2012).
- Alor–Pantar family
- East Timor (Oirata–Makasai) family
- Bunak
The list given above is conservative, without any undemonstrated groups.
Bunak and the Alor–Pantar languages are sometimes grouped together as "West Timor", while Bunak and East Timor have been grouped as "Timor–Kisar". Although the Alor–Pantar languages are clearly related, as are the Timor–Kisar languages and the two groups to each other, until comparative work is done on all languages simultaneously it will not be clear whether Bunak is closer to East Timor or to Alor–Pantar, or whether Alor–Pantar is a valid node. Kaiping and Klamer (2019), though, found Bunak to be the most divergent Timor-Alor-Pantar language, splitting off before East Timor and Alor-Pantar did.[6]
Languages in Central and East Alor are generally more agglutinative than languages in Pantar and Timor, which are more isolating.[3]
History and classification
Despite their geographic proximity, the Papuan languages of Timor are not closely related, and demonstration of a relationship between any of them is difficult, apart from the clearly related Alor–Pantar languages on the islands neighboring Timor.
Arthur Capell first proposed that the Timor languages were a family in 1941, and Watuseke & Anceaux did the same for Timor–Alor–Pantar in 1973. Both units have been broken up in more recent classifications, though their ultimate relationship is generally accepted.[7]
In 1957 HKL Cowan linked the Timor languages to the West Papuan family. However, when Stephen Wurm expanded Trans–New Guinea in 1975, he decided Timor–Alor–Pantar belonged there, and he linked it to the South Bird's Head languages in a South Bird's Head – Timor–Alor–Pantar branch of that phylum. Wurm noted similarities with West Papuan, a different family, but suggested this was due to substratum influence.
Ross (2005) classifies Timor–Alor–Pantar with the West Bomberai languages, the two groups forming a branch within West Trans–New Guinea. Based on a careful examination of new lexical data, Holton & Robinson (2014) find little evidence to support a connection between TAP and TNG.[8] However, Holton & Robinson (2017) concedes that a relationship with Trans-New Guinea and West Bomberai in particular is the most likely hypothesis, though they prefer to leave it unclassified for now.[9]
Language contact
The Timor–Alor–Pantar languages have been in considerable contact with these Austronesian languages:[10]
- Kawaimina languages (Kairui, Waima’a, Midiki, Naueti)
- Kisar–Luangic languages (Kisar / Meher, Leti, Luang, possibly also Makuva)
Proto-language
Phonology
Proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar consonants are:[3]
p t k q b d g m n s w j l, r, ʀ
In contrast, proto-Alor-Pantar has the voiceless uvular stop /q/, which is absent in proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar.[3]
Pronouns
Proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar pronouns as reconstructed by Ross (2005) are:
sg pl 1excl *ani~na *ini 1incl *api 2 *ai *i 3 *ga (*gi)
Ross (2005) suggest these pronouns reflect proto-Trans–New Guinea 1st person *na, *ni and 2nd person *ga, *gi, and possibly the pTNG dual/inclusive *-pi-, but this has not been demonstrated to the satisfaction of other linguists, many of whom view Timor–Alor–Pantar as a distinct family.[11] In particular the pronoun relationships requires positing a "flip-flop" in which TNG 2nd person corresponds to TAP 3rd person pronouns.
Lexicon
Schapper, et al. (2017: 141-143) reconstruct the following proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar, proto-Alor-Pantar, and proto-Timor forms, demonstrating the relatedness of the Timor and Alor-Pantar languages.[12]
- proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar reconstructions (Schapper, et al. 2017)
gloss proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar proto-Alor-Pantar proto-Timor bamboo *mari *mari *mari banana *mugul *mogol *mugu bark, call *lVu *le(k)u(l) bat *madel *madel *maTa bathe *weLi *weli *weru bird *(h)adul *(a)dVl *haDa bite *ki(l) *(ta)ki *(ga)gel blood *waj *wai *waj bone *se(r, R) *ser *(se)sa(r, R) breast *hami *hami *hami child *-uaQal *-uaqal *-al clew *ma(i)ta(r) *maita *matar coconut *wata *wata *wa(t, D)a crawl *er *er *er crouch *luk(V) *luk(V) *luk die *mV(n) *min(a) *-umV dirty *karV(k) *karok *gari dream *(h)ipar *hipar *ufar(ana) ear *-waRi *-uari *-wali eat *nVa *nai *nua excrement *(h)at(V) *has *a(t, D)u face *panu *-pona *-fanu far *le(t, d)e *lete *eTar fire *hada *hada *haTa fish *habi *habi *hapi flat *tatok *tatok *tetok garden *magad *magad(a) *(u, a)mar girl *pan(a) *pon *fana give *-(e, i)na *-ena *-inV grandparent *(t, d)ama *tam(a, u) *moTo green *lugar *(wa)logar *ugar hand *-tan(a) *-tan *-tana hear *mage(n) *magi *mage(n) inside *mi *mi *mi itchy *iRak *(i)ruk *ilag laugh *jagir *jagir *jiger leg *buta *-bat *buta low *po *po *ufe mat *bit *bis *biti meat *isor *iser *seor moon *hur(u) *wur *huru mountain *buku *buku *bugu name *-en(i, u) *-nej new *(t, s)iba(r) *siba(r) *(t, s)ipa(r) new place *lan *lan *lan nose *-mVN *-mim *-muni one *nukV *nuk *uneki other *abe(nVC) *aben(VC) *epi Pterocarpus indicus *matar *matar *ma(t, D)ar path *jega *jega *jiga person *anV(N) *anin *anu pig *baj *baj *baj pound *tapa(i) *tapai *tafa price *boL *bol *bura rain *anu(r, R) *anur *ine(r, R) rat *dur(a) *dur *Dura ripe *tena *tena *tena run *tipar *tiara *tifar scorpion *pV(r, R) *pVr *fe(r, R)e scratch *karab *karab *gabar sea *tam(a) *tam *mata shark *sibar *sib(a, i)r *supor sit *mit *mis *mit six *talam *talam *tamal sleep *tia(r) *tia *tia(r) spit *puRV(n) *purVn *fulu(k, n) spoon *suRa *surV *sula stand *nat(er) *nate(r) *nat star *jibV *jibV *ipi(-bere) stone *war *war *war sugarcane *ub(a) *huːba *upa sun *wad(i, u) *wadi *waTu taboo *palu(l, n) *palol *falu(n) tail *-oRa *-ora *-ula(ʔ) tongue *-lebuR *-lebur *-ipul tooth *-wasin *-uasin *-wasin tree *hate *tei *hate vagina *-ar(u) *-ar *-aru wake *tan(i) *-ten *Tani walk (1) *lak(Vr) *laka *lagar walk (2) *lamV *lam(ar) *male water *jira *jira *ira weave *sine(N) *sine(N) *sina yellow *bagur(V) *bagori *gabar 1pi *pi *pi- *fi 1sg *na- *na- *n- 3 *gie *ge *gie 3poss *ga- *ga- *g-
Evolution
Pawley and Hammarström (2018) list the following probable reflexes of Proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar (pTAP) and proto-Alor-Pantar (pAP; reconstructions drawn from Holton and Klamer 2018) from proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG; reconstructions from Pawley and Hammarström 2018).[3][13]
- Key
- pTNG = proto-Trans New Guinea, pTAP = proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar, pAP = proto-Alor-Pantar
- pTNG *am(i,u) ‘breast’ > pTAP *hami ‘breast’
- pTNG *na ‘eat’ > pTAP *nVa ‘eat, drink’
- pTNG *ata ‘excrement’ > pTAP *(h)at(V) ‘excrement’
- pTNG *kumV- ‘die’ > pTAP *mV(n), pAP *min(a) ‘die’, pTimor *-mV ‘die’
- pTNG *inda ‘tree, wood’ > pTAP *hate ‘fire, wood’
- pTNG *panV > pTAP *pan(a) ‘girl’
- pTNG *nan(a,i) ‘older sibling’ > pAP *nan(a) ‘older sibling’
- pTNG *me ‘come’ > pAP *mai ‘come’
- pTNG *mundu ‘nose’ > pTAP *mVN ‘nose’
- pTNG *tukumba[C] ‘short’ > pAP *tukV ‘short’
- pTNG *ŋgatata ‘dry’ > pAP *takata
- pTNG *(m,mb)elak ‘lightning’ > Blagar merax, Retta melak ‘lightning’
However, Holton and Robinson (2014) classify Timor-Alor-Pantar as an independent language family, rather than as part of Trans-New Guinea.
References
- ↑ New Guinea World, West Bomberai
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Timor–Alor–Pantar". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/timo1261.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Holton, Gary; Klamer, Marian (2018). "The Papuan languages of East Nusantara and the Bird’s Head". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 569–640. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- ↑ Holton, Gary; Klamer, Marian; Kratochvíl, František; Robinson, Laura C.; Schapper, Antoinette (2012). "The historical relation of the Papuan languages of Alor and Pantar". Oceanic Linguistics 51 (1): 87–122. doi:10.1353/ol.2012.0001.
- ↑ Schapper, Antoinette; Huber, Juliette; van Engelenhoven, Aone (2012), "The historical relation of the Papuan languages of Timor and Kisar", in Hammarström, Harald; van der Heuvel, Wilco, History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages, Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of New Guinea
- ↑ Gereon A. Kaiping and Marian Klamer. 2019b. Subgrouping the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages using systematic Bayesian inference. Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Universiteit Leiden.
- ↑ Capell, Arthur (1944). "Peoples and languages of Timor". Oceania 15 (3): 19–48. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1944.tb00409.x.
- ↑ Holton, Gary; Robinson, Laura C. (2014), "The linguistic position of the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages", in Klamer, Marian, Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology, Berlin: Language Sciences Press, pp. 155–198, doi:10.17169/langsci.b22.48
- ↑ Holton, Gary; Robinson, Laura C. (2017), "The linguistic position of the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages", in Klamer, Marian, Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology Second Edition, Berlin: Language Sciences Press, pp. 147–190, doi:10.5281/zenodo.437098
- ↑ Juliette Huber and Antoinette Schapper. 2019. The Austronesian-Papuan contact history of eastern Timor: What lexical borrowing can tell us. 11th International Austronesian and Papuan Languages and Linguistics Conference (APLL11), 13-15 June 2019, Leiden University.
- ↑ Ross, Malcolm (2005), "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages", in Pawley, Andrew; Attenborough, Robert; Golson, Jack et al., Papuan Pasts: Cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics
- ↑ Antoinette Schapper, Juliette Huber & Aone van Engelenhoven. 2017. The relatedness of Timor-Kisar and Alor-Pantar languages: A preliminary demonstration. In Marian Klamer (ed.), The Alor-Pantar languages, 91–147. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.569389
- ↑ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
Further reading
- Klamer, Marian, Paul Trilsbeek, Tom Hoogervorst and Chris Haskett. 2015. Language Archive of Insular Southeast Asia and West New Guinea (LAISEANG). http://hdl.handle.net/1839/00-0000-0000-0018-CB72-4@view
- Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
- Greenhill et al., 2008. In: Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
External links
- LexiRumah (part of the Lesser Sunda linguistic databases)
- Reconstructing the past through languages of the present: the Lesser Sunda Islands
- The Languages of East Timor: Some Basic Facts (Revised 24.8.2004) Geoffrey Hull
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