View source for Astronomy:Commercial use of space

{{Short description|General space-related commerce}}
[[File:Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko with a Starlink user terminal.jpg|thumb|330x330px|[[Engineering:Starlink|Starlink]] user terminals used in Ukraine]]
'''Commercial use of space''' is the provision of goods or services of commercial value by using equipment sent into [[Astronomy:Geocentric orbit|Earth orbit]] or [[Astronomy:Outer space|outer space]].

The first commercial use of outer space occurred in 1962, when the [[Engineering:Telstar 1|Telstar 1]] satellite was launched to transmit television signals over the Atlantic Ocean. By 2004, global investment in all space sectors was estimated to be US$50.8 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=SPACE A Report on the Industry |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA449454.pdf |year=2005 |last=Romano |first=Anthony F. |access-date=15 May 2011 |archive-date=8 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008112510/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449454 |url-status=live }}</ref>
As of 2010, 31% of all space launches were commercial.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/faq/ |title=Frequently Asked Questions |access-date=2019-09-19 |archive-date=2018-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122141046/https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/faq/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==

The first commercial use of satellites may have been the [[Engineering:Telstar 1|Telstar 1]] satellite, launched in 1962, which was the first privately sponsored space launch, funded by AT&T and Bell Telephone Laboratories. Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the [[Earth:Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]], and was the first satellite to transmit live television, [[Engineering:Telephone|telephone]], [[Engineering:Fax|fax]], and other data signals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Telephone a Star |url=http://www.porticus.org/bell/pdf/nat_geo_telstar_ocr.pdf |author=National Geographic |date=May 1962 |access-date=15 May 2011 |archive-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906104741/http://www.porticus.org/bell/pdf/nat_geo_telstar_ocr.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1962-029A |title=Telstar 1 |author=NASA |author-link=NASA |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |date=26 April 2011 |access-date=15 May 2011 |archive-date=14 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214081003/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1962-029A |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, the [[Company:Hughes Aircraft Company|Hughes Aircraft Company]] developed the Syncom 3 satellite, a geosynchronous [[Astronomy:Communications satellite|communications satellite]], leased to the Department of Defense. Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the [[Physics:International Date Line|International Date Line]], was used to telecast the 1964 Olympic Games from [[Place:Tokyo|Tokyo]] to the {{wipe|United States}}.<ref name="NASA-SP-93">{{cite web|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660009169_1966009169.pdf|title=Significant Achievements in Space Communications and Navigation, 1958–1964|year=1966|work=NASA-SP-93|publisher=NASA|pages=30–32|access-date=2009-10-31|archive-date=2013-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103023426/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660009169_1966009169.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-047A |title=Syncom 3 |date=26 April 2011 |access-date=16 May 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |archive-date=14 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214081046/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-047A |url-status=live }}</ref>

Between 1960 and 1966, NASA launched a series of early weather satellites known as [[Engineering:Television Infrared Observation Satellite|Television Infrared Observation Satellite]]s (TIROS). These satellites greatly advanced [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorology]] worldwide, as satellite imagery was used for better forecasting, for both public and commercial interests.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TIROS |url=https://science.nasa.gov/missions/tiros/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=16 May 2011 |archive-date=26 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526135316/https://science.nasa.gov/missions/tiros |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ecosys/cdroms/AVHRR97_d1/avhrr2.htm |title=The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR): A Brief Reference Guide |first=David A. |last=Hastings |author2=William J. Emery |publisher=[[Organization:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |year=1992 |access-date=16 May 2011 |archive-date=31 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131234758/https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ecosys/cdroms/AVHRR97_d1/avhrr2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On April 6, 1965, the [[Company:Hughes Aircraft Company|Hughes Aircraft Company]] placed the [[Engineering:Intelsat I|Intelsat I]] [[Astronomy:Communications satellite|communications satellite]] geosynchronous orbit over the Atlantic Ocean. Intelsat I was built for the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), and demonstrated that satellite-based communication was commercially feasible. Intelsat I allowed for near-instantaneous contact between [[Earth:Europe|Europe]] and [[Earth:North America|North America]] by handling television, telephone and fax transmissions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/satcomhistory.html |title=Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible |first=David J. |last=Whalen |date=30 November 2010 |access-date=16 May 2011 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=6 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106161448/https://history.nasa.gov/satcomhistory.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.intelsat.com/about-us/history/intelsat-1960s.asp |title=Intelsat's Satellite Communication Highlights from the 60's |publisher=[[Company:Intelsat|Intelsat]] |access-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713045321/http://www.intelsat.com/about-us/history/intelsat-1960s.asp |archive-date=13 July 2011 }}</ref> Two years later, the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] launched the [[Engineering:Orbita (TV system)|Orbita]] satellite, which provided television signals across {{wipe|Russia}}, and started the first national [[Engineering:Satellite television|satellite television]] network.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Communication satellites |first=Donald H. |last=Martin |publisher=AIAA |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-884989-09-4 |page=220}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sputnik and Russia's Outer Space Activities |first=Vladimir |last=Putkov |date=April 2007 |access-date=16 May 2011 |url=http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2661.pdf |publisher=United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727192746/http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2661.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}</ref> Similarly, the 1972 [[Engineering:Anik (satellite)|Anik A]] satellite, launched by Telesat Canada, allowed the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation to reach [[Place:Northern Canada|northern Canada]] for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/anik_a/anik_a.html |title=The World's First National Synchronous Communications Satellite |publisher=Boeing Company |year=2011 |access-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108183450/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/anik_a/anik_a.html |archive-date=8 January 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ANIK The World's First Domestic Synchronous Communication Satellite |url=http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/anik/anik_about.html |publisher=[[Organization:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |access-date=16 May 2011 |archive-date=12 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012110341/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/anik/anik_about.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1980, Europe's [[Company:Arianespace|Arianespace]] became the world's first commercial [[Engineering:Launch service provider|launch service provider]].<ref name=Jaeger1986>
{{Cite conference |conference=Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science |location=Tokyo, Japan |date=May 1986 |title=Ariane — The first commercial space transportation system |bibcode=1986spte.conf.1431J |publisher=AGNE Publishing, Inc. |publication-date=1986 |volume=2 |id=A87-32276 13–12 |author1=Jaeger, Ralph-W. |author2=Claudon, Jean-Louis }}</ref><ref name=arianespace1980>
{{cite web |title=Arianespace was founded in 1980 as the world's first launch services company |url=http://www.arianespace.com/site/about/arianespace_today_sub_index.html |publisher=arianespace.com |access-date=7 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218002917/http://www.arianespace.com/site/about/arianespace_today_sub_index.html |archive-date=18 February 2008}}</ref>

Beginning in 1997, [[Company:Iridium Communications|Iridium Communications]] began launching a series of satellites known as the [[Engineering:Iridium satellite constellation|Iridium satellite constellation]], which provided the first satellites for direct satellite telephone service.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.wiredreread.com/2010/03/iridium-satellite-phone-always-rings.html |title=Iridium – the satellite phone always rings twice |magazine=Wired |date=7 March 1999 |access-date=13 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219012621/http://www.wiredreread.com/2010/03/iridium-satellite-phone-always-rings.html |archive-date=19 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/quarter9702.pdf |title=Commercial Space Transportation QUARTERLY LAUNCH REPORT |publisher=Federal Aviation Administration |year=1997 |access-date=13 June 2011 |archive-date=18 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918012248/https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/quarter9702.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Spaceflight==
[[File:Delta IV Medium Rocket DSCS.jpg|thumb|150px|Delta IV Medium launch carrying DSCS III-B6]]
The commercial [[Engineering:Spaceflight|spaceflight]] industry derives the bulk of its revenue from the launching of satellites into the Earth's orbit. Commercial launch providers typically place private and government satellites into [[Astronomy:Low Earth orbit|low Earth orbit]] (LEO) and geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO).

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has licensed six commercial spaceports in the United States: [[Organization:Wallops Flight Facility|Wallops Flight Facility]], Kodiak Launch Complex, Spaceport Florida, Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, and the {{wipe|Vandenberg Air Force Base}}. Launch sites within {{wipe|Russia}}, {{wipe|France}}, and {{wipe|China}} have added to the global commercial launch capacity. The [[Engineering:Delta IV|Delta IV]], [[Engineering:Atlas V|Atlas V]], and [[Engineering:SpaceX launch vehicles|Falcon]] family of launch vehicles are made available for commercial ventures for the United States, while Russia promotes eight families of vehicles.

Between 1996 and 2002, 245 launches were made for commercial ventures while government (non-classified) launches only total 167 for the same period. Commercial space flight has spurred investment into the development of an efficient [[Astronomy:Reusable launch vehicle|reusable launch vehicle]] (RLV) which can place larger payloads into orbit. Several companies such as [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]] and [[Company:Blue Origin|Blue Origin]] are currently developing new RLV designs.

In the {{wipe|United States}}, Office of Commercial Space Transportation (generally referred to as FAA/AST or simply AST) is the branch of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) that approves any commercial [[Engineering:Rocket|rocket]] launch operations—that is, any launches that are not classified as [[Engineering:Model rocket|model]], amateur, or "by and for the [[Social:Government|government]]."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/ | title = FAA – Office of Commercial Space Transportation | publisher = FAA | access-date = 2019-09-19 | archive-date = 2019-08-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190830062323/https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

== Satellites and equipment ==
[[File:Estcube-1 2012-12-27.jpg|right|thumb|ESTCube-1, a low-cost [[Engineering:CubeSat|CubeSat]] for education.]]
;Satellite manufacturing
Commercial satellite manufacturing is defined by the United States government as satellites manufactured for civilian, government, or non-profit use. Not included are satellites constructed for military use, nor for activities associated with any human space flight program. Between the years of 1996 and 2002, satellite manufacturing within the United States experienced an annual growth of 11%. The rest of the world experienced higher growth levels of around 13%.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

;Ground equipment manufacturing
Operating satellites communicate via receivers and transmitters on Earth. The manufacturing of satellite [[Astronomy:Ground station|ground station]] communication terminals (including VSATs), mobile satellite telephones, and home television receivers are a part of the ground equipment manufacturing sector. This sector grew through the latter half of the 1990s as it manufactured equipment for the satellite services sector. Between the years of 1996 and 2002 this industry saw a 14% annual increase.{{Citation needed|reason=A source is needed to validate this stated increase in industry growth.|date=May 2011}}

;Transponder leasing
Businesses that operate satellites often lease or sell access to their satellites to data relay and [[Engineering:Telecommunication|telecommunication]] firms. This service is often referred to as transponder leasing. Between 1996 and 2002, this industry experienced a 15% annual growth. The United States accounts for about 32% of the world's transponder market.{{Citation needed|reason=This figure is not supported by any resources.|date=May 2011}}

== Subscription satellite services ==

In 1994, [[Company:DirecTV|DirecTV]] debuted direct broadcast satellite by introducing a signal receiving dish 18inches in diameter. In 1996, Astro started in Malaysia with the launch of the MEASAT satellite. In November 1999, the Satellite Home Viewer Improvement Act became law, and local stations were then made available in satellite channel packages, fueling the industry's growth in the years that followed. By the end of 2000, DTH subscriptions totaled over 67 million.{{Citation needed|reason=Another figure with unsupported claims.|date=May 2011}}

[[Physics:Satellite radio|Satellite radio]] was pioneered by XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio. XM's first satellite was launched on March 18, 2001 and its second on May 8, 2001.<ref name="kbonsor">Kevin Bonsor, [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm "How Satellite Radio Works,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126111436/http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio.htm |date=2016-01-26 }} HowStuffWorks. Accessed May 1, 2013.</ref> Its first broadcast occurred on September 25, 2001, nearly four months before Sirius.<ref name="sparker">Steve Parker, [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-parker/xm-plus-sirius-satellite_b_114678.html "XM plus Sirius = Satellite Radio Monopoly,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413184116/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-parker/xm-plus-sirius-satellite_b_114678.html |date=2016-04-13 }} ''Huffington Post'', July 24, 2008.</ref> Sirius launched the initial phase of its service in four cities on February 14, 2002,<ref>[http://radiomagonline.com/currents/business/radio_sirius_begins_satellite/ "Sirius Begins Satellite Service,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607222527/http://www.radiomagonline.com/currents/business/radio_sirius_begins_satellite |date=2017-06-07 }} ''[[Engineering:Radio (magazine)|Radio]]'', February 14, 2002.</ref> expanding to the rest of the contiguous United States on July 1, 2002.<ref name="sparker"/> The two companies spent over $3 billion combined to develop satellite radio technology, build and launch the satellites, and for various other business expenses.<ref name="spacefoundation">[http://www.spacefoundation.org/programs/space-technology-hall-fame/inducted-technologies/satellite-radio-technology "Satellite Radio Technology,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065004/http://www.spacefoundation.org/programs/space-technology-hall-fame/inducted-technologies/satellite-radio-technology |date=2016-03-04 }} spacefoundation.org, 2002. Accessed May 1, 2013.</ref>

== Satellite imagery ==
{{main|Astronomy:Satellite imagery}}
Satellite imagery (also Earth observation imagery or spaceborne photography) are [[Image|image]]s of [[Astronomy:Earth|Earth]] or other planets collected by [[Astronomy:Earth observation satellite|imaging satellite]]s operated by governments and businesses around the world. Satellite imaging companies sell images by licensing them to governments and businesses such as [[Software:Apple Maps|Apple Maps]] and [[Software:Google Maps|Google Maps]].

== Satellite telecommunications==
Satellites can be used to transmit and receive Internet services from space to any place in the planet Earth.<ref>{{cite video|author=Lieutenant General Steve Kwast|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=PLsV6umoFZnU79FUkskItq_FF2zaQeYP2p&t=186&v=U98PdleB1VA|title=China is building a Space Fleet (Not Clickbait) – China space program | publisher=Elite One|location=[[Organization:Hillsdale College|Hillsdale College]]|website=YouTube|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715124909/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U98PdleB1VA&list=PLsV6umoFZnU79FUkskItq_FF2zaQeYP2p|archive-date=July 15, 2021|url-status=live}} (at minute 3:00)</ref>

==Satellite navigation==
{{main|Earth:Satellite navigation}}
[[File:Magellan GPS Blazer12.jpg|thumb|right|Magellan GPS receiver in a marine application.]]
A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses [[Astronomy:Satellite|satellite]]s to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small [[Engineering:Electronics|electronic]] receivers to determine their location ([[Earth:Longitude|longitude]], [[Earth:Latitude|latitude]], and [[Altitude|altitude]]/[[Elevation|elevation]]) to high precision (within a few centimeters to metres) using time signals transmitted along a [[Line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] by [[Social:Radio|radio]] from satellites. The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. These uses are collectively known as Positioning, Navigation and Timing ('''PNT'''). Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated.

==Space tourism==
[[File:VMS Eve Maiden Flight.jpg|thumb|right|Virgin Galactic ''VMS Eve'']]
{{main|Astronomy:Space tourism}}
Space tourism is [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|human space travel]] for recreational purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Von der Dunk |first1=F. G. |title=Space tourism, private spaceflight and the law: Key aspects |journal=Space Policy |year=2011 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=146–152 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2011.04.015 |issn=0265-9646 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1059&context=spacelaw |bibcode=2011SpPol..27..146V |access-date=2020-04-25 |archive-date=2020-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126045427/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1059&context=spacelaw |url-status=live }}</ref> There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism. Work also continues towards developing suborbital space tourism vehicles. This is being done by aerospace companies like [[Company:Blue Origin|Blue Origin]] and [[Company:Virgin Galactic|Virgin Galactic]]. In addition, [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]] (an aerospace manufacturer) announced in 2018 that they are [[Astronomy:DearMoon project|planning on sending space tourists]], including Yusaku Maezawa, on a free-return trajectory around the [[Astronomy:Moon|Moon]] on the [[Engineering:SpaceX Starship|Starship]].<ref name="teslarati_moonflight">{{cite news |author=Eric Ralph |title=SpaceX has signed a private passenger for the first BFR launch around the Moon |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-private-passenger-bfr-moon-mission/ |access-date=September 14, 2018 |date=September 14, 2018 |archive-date=November 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106061044/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-private-passenger-bfr-moon-mission/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="grush">{{cite web |last1=Grush |first1=Loren |title=SpaceX says it will send someone around the Moon on its future monster rocket |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/13/17857872/spacex-moon-trip-passenger-announcement-bfr |date=September 14, 2018 |website=The Verge |access-date=September 15, 2018 |archive-date=September 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914032806/https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/13/17857872/spacex-moon-trip-passenger-announcement-bfr |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Commercial recovery of space resources ==
[[File:Asteroidmining.jpg|thumb|250px|Artist's concept of asteroid mining]]
Commercial recovery of space resources is the exploitation of raw materials from [[Astronomy:Asteroid|asteroid]]s, comets and other space objects, including [[Astronomy:Near-Earth object|near-Earth object]]s.<ref name="April 2012">{{cite news | title = Plans for asteroid mining emerge | date = 24 April 2012 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17827347 | work = BBC News | access-date = 2012-04-24 | archive-date = 2019-12-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191231115826/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17827347 | url-status = live }}</ref> Minerals and volatiles could be mined then used in space for in-situ utilization (e.g. construction materials and rocket propellant) or taken back to [[Astronomy:Earth|Earth]]. These include [[Chemistry:Gold|gold]], [[Chemistry:Iridium|iridium]], [[Chemistry:Silver|silver]], [[Chemistry:Osmium|osmium]], [[Chemistry:Palladium|palladium]], [[Chemistry:Platinum|platinum]], [[Chemistry:Rhenium|rhenium]], [[Chemistry:Rhodium|rhodium]], [[Chemistry:Ruthenium|ruthenium]] and [[Chemistry:Tungsten|tungsten]] for transport back to Earth; [[Chemistry:Iron|iron]], [[Chemistry:Cobalt|cobalt]], [[Chemistry:Manganese|manganese]], [[Chemistry:Molybdenum|molybdenum]], [[Chemistry:Nickel|nickel]], [[Chemistry:Aluminium|aluminium]], and [[Chemistry:Titanium|titanium]] for construction; water and oxygen to sustain astronauts; as well as hydrogen, ammonia, and oxygen for use as rocket propellant.

There are several commercial enterprises working in this field, including [[Company:Planetary Resources|Planetary Resources]] and [[Company:Deep Space Industries|Deep Space Industries]].

The first in-space transaction of resources is [[Astronomy:Commercial Lunar Payload Services|contracted by NASA]] to four companies to sell NASA collected lunar regolith on the Moon.<ref name="Breaking Ground 2021 u077">{{cite web | title=Behind the Scenes - Building Sustainable Stewardship of Lunar Resources Through a Trust | website=Breaking Ground | date=25 May 2021 | url=https://breakingground.space/library/18xn9gt8y5p5rf1gzf5knzbhf99brf | access-date=12 Jul 2023}}</ref>

==Regulation ==
Beyond the many technological factors that could make space commercialization more widespread, it has been suggested that the lack of [[Finance:Private property|private property]], the difficulty or inability of individuals in establishing property rights in space, has been an impediment to the development of space for both human habitation and commercial development.<ref name=tna2012fall/>

Since the advent of [[Engineering:Space technology|space technology]] in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of [[Earth:Sovereign state|national]] [[Earth:Land claim|territorial claims]] in [[Astronomy:Outer space|outer space]] and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]], which had been, {{asof|2012|lc=y}}, ratified by all spacefaring nations.<ref name="tna2012fall">{{cite journal
 |last=Simberg 
 |first=Rand 
 |title=Property Rights in Space 
 |journal=The New Atlantis 
 |date=Fall 2012 
 |issue=37 
 |pages=20–31 
 |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/property-rights-in-space 
 |access-date=2012-12-14 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215001750/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/property-rights-in-space 
 |archive-date=2012-12-15 
}}</ref>

In November 25, 2015 President Obama signed the [[Engineering:Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015|U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (H.R. 2262)]] into law. The law recognizes the right of U.S. citizens to own space resources they obtain and encourages the commercial exploration and utilization of resources from asteroids. According to the article § 51303 of the law:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.planetaryresources.com/2015/11/president-obama-signs-bill-recognizing-asteroid-resource-property-rights-into-law/ |title=President Obama Signs Bill RecognizingÂ Asteroid Resource Property Rights into Law &#124; Planetary Resources |access-date=2015-11-26 |archive-date=2015-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126174500/http://www.planetaryresources.com/2015/11/president-obama-signs-bill-recognizing-asteroid-resource-property-rights-into-law/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Quote|text=
A United States citizen engaged in commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource under this chapter shall be entitled to any asteroid resource or space resource obtained, including to possess, own, transport, use, and sell the asteroid resource or space resource obtained in accordance with applicable law, including the international obligations of the United States}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Finance:Space launch market competition|Space launch market competition]]
* [[Biography:Commercial astronaut|Commercial astronaut]]
* [[Engineering:Private spaceflight|Private spaceflight]]
* [[Engineering:Satellite Internet access|Satellite Internet access]]
* Space industry
* Space manufacturing
* Space-based industry
* [[Astronomy:Space debris|Space pollution]]
{{div col end}}

== References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
*Futron Corporation (2001) "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060928231607/http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/space/library/reports/2001-06-trends.pdf Trends in Space Commerce]". Retrieved January 24, 2006

==External links==
* [http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/the_ethical_commercialization_of_outer_space.shtml Ethical Issues]
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mystery_monday_040202.html Lunar Land Grab]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060126020943/http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/space// Office of Space Commercialization]
* [http://www.thespacereview.com/article/141/1/ Property Rights]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051225164139/http://pdf.aiaa.org/downloads/publicpolicypositionpapers/SpaceComm-1996.pdf#search='commercialization%20of%20space' Government Policy]
* [http://www.sellingpeace.com/ Mir Space Station Privatization]

{{Spaceflight}}


[[Category:Satellite broadcasting]]

{{Sourceattribution|Commercial use of space}}