View source for Astronomy:Interkosmos

{{short description|Soviet international spaceflight program}}
{{Infobox space program
| name            = Interkosmos program
| image           = Interkosmos.svg
| image_size      = 200px
| caption         = Interkosmos patch
| country         = {{plainlist|
* {{flag|Soviet Union}} (1967-1991)
* {{flag|Russia}} (1992-1994)
}}
| organization    = {{plainlist|
* [[Astronomy:Soviet space program|Soviet space program]] (1967-1991)
* [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] (1992-1994)
}}
| purpose         = [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|crewed]] and [[Engineering:Uncrewed spacecraft|uncrewed]] space mission for Soviet allies
| status          = Completed
| duration        = 1967–1994
| firstflight     = {{Unbulleted list
  | Vertikal 1
  | {{Start date|1970|11|28}}
  }}
| firstcrewed     = {{Unbulleted list
  | [[Engineering:Soyuz 28|Soyuz 28]]
  | {{Start date|1978|03|02}}
  }}
| lastflight      = {{Unbulleted list
  | Interkosmos 26
  | {{Start date|1994|03|02}}
  }}
| launchsite      = Baikonur
| successes       = 
| failures        = 
| partialfailures = 
| uncrewvehicle   = 
| crewvehicle     = 
| capacity        = 
| launcher        = 
| native_name_a   = {{lang|ru|Интеркосмос Космическая Программа}}
| native_name_r   = Interkosmos Kosmicheskaya Programma
}}
{{Soviet space program sidebar}}
'''Interkosmos''' ({{lang-ru|Интеркосмос}}) was a [[Astronomy:Soviet space program|Soviet space program]], designed to help the Soviet Union's allies with [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|crewed]] and [[Engineering:Uncrewed spacecraft|uncrewed]] space missions.

The program was formed in April 1967 in [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bergess|first1=Colin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG__CgAAQBAJ|title=Interkosmos - The Eastern Bloc's Early Space Program|last2=Vis|first2=Bert|publisher=Springer Praxis|year=2015|isbn=978-3-319-24161-6|location={{wipe|New York City}}|pages=11|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-24163-0|lccn=2015953234}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Matignon|first=Louis de Gouyon|date=2019-04-05|title=The Interkosmos space program|url=https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-law-interkosmos/|access-date=2021-06-08|website=Space Legal Issues|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622183340/https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-law-interkosmos/|url-status=dead}}</ref> All members of the program from USSR were given the Hero of the Soviet Union medal or the Order of Lenin. The program included the allied east-European states of the [[Organization:Warsaw Pact|Warsaw Pact]], Eastern Bloc, CoMEcon, and other socialist states like [[Place:Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], Cuba, Mongolia, and Vietnam. In addition, pro-Soviet non-aligned states such as {{wipe|India}} and [[Place:Syria|Syria]] participated,<ref>{{Cite news|date=1984-04-04|title=INDIAN JOINS SOVIET PAIR IN 8-DAY SPACE MISSION|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/04/us/indian-joins-soviet-pair-in-8-day-space-mission.html|access-date=2021-06-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Garthwaite|first=Rosie|date=2016-03-01|title=From astronaut to refugee: how the Syrian spaceman fell to Earth|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/01/from-astronaut-to-refugee-how-the-syrian-spaceman-fell-to-earth|access-date=2021-06-08|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> and even states such as the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, {{wipe|France}} and Austria, despite them being capitalist states.<ref name="Sheehan">{{cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Michael|title=The international politics of space|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-39917-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-Z0kfqPHy8C|location=London|pages=59–61}}</ref><ref name="Burgess">{{cite book|last1=Burgess|first1=Colin |last2=Hall|first2=Rex |title=The first Soviet cosmonaut team: their lives, legacy, and historical impact|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-84823-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrdVPtCNL9AC|location=Berlin|page=331}}</ref>

Following the [[Engineering:Apollo–Soyuz|Apollo–Soyuz]], there were talks between [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] and Interkosmos in the 1970s about a "Shuttle-Salyut" program to fly [[Engineering:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]] missions to a Salyut space station, with later talks in the 1980s even considering flights of the future ''Buran''-class orbiter to a future US space station.<ref name=MIRheritage>Wikisource:Mir Hardware Heritage/Part 2 - Almaz, Salyut, and Mir#2.1.6 Shuttle-Salyut .281973-1978.3B 1980s.29</ref>
Whilst the Shuttle-Salyut program never materialized during the existence of the Soviet Interkosmos program, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union the [[Astronomy:Shuttle–Mir Program|Shuttle–Mir Program]] would follow in these footsteps in the mid-1990s and eventually pave the way to the [[Astronomy:International Space Station|International Space Station]].

Beginning in April 1967 with unpiloted research [[Astronomy:Satellite|satellite]] missions, the first crewed Interkosmos mission occurred in February 1978.<ref name=Burgess /> So called joint crewed spaceflights enabled 14 non-Soviet [[Biography:Cosmonaut|cosmonaut]]s to participate in [[Engineering:Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|space flights]] between 1978 and 1988. The program was responsible for sending into space the first citizen of a country other than the {{wipe|United States of America}} or USSR: Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia.<ref name=Sheehan /> Interkosmos also resulted in the first black and Hispanic person in space, Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez of Cuba, and the first [[Earth:Asia|Asia]]n person in space, Phạm Tuân of Vietnam. Of the countries involved, only Bulgaria sent two cosmonauts in space, although the second one did not fly under the Interkosmos program, and the French spationaut Jean-Loup Chrétien flew on two separate flights.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pinkham|first=Sophie|date=2019-07-16|title=How the Soviets Won the Space Race for Equality|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/us/how-the-soviets-won-the-space-race-for-equality.html|access-date=2021-06-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The Soviet Union also made offers of joint human spaceflight on a commercial basis to the {{wipe|United Kingdom}} and {{wipe|Japan}} resulting in the first British and Japanese cosmonauts. In the early 1980s, an offer was made to {{wipe|Finland}} as well, with test pilot Jyrki Laukkanen mentioned as one of the potential Finnish cosmonauts. The pilots of the Test Flight (''Koelentue'') refused on the grounds that participation would not benefit the Flight or test pilot activity in any way. No further offers were made to Finland regarding the matter.<ref>{{cite web|language = fi | url = https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-10869586 | title = Jyrki Laukkasesta piti tulla Suomen ensimmäinen kosmonautti – kieltäytyi kutsusta, kun siitä ei olisi ollut mitään hyötyä | date = 10 July 2019 | publisher = Yle.fi | access-date = July 26, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|language = fi | url = https://www.suomentietokirjailijat.fi/kirjailijalle/tutustu-tietokirjailijaan/jyrki-laukkanen.html | publisher = Suomen Tietokirjailijat ry | title = Jyrki Laukkanen | access-date = July 26, 2020 }}</ref>

==Crewed missions==
[[File:Interkosmos.png|thumb|right|350px|{{legend|#FF0000|[[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|Human spaceflight]] provider}} {{legend|#00FF00|participants}} {{legend|#FFFF00|refused offer}}]]
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#cccccc
! Date !! Image !! Prime !! Backup !! Country !! Mission !! Pin !! Space station
|-
|align="center"|2 March 1978
|| [[File:VladimirRemek.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Vladimír Remek<ref>{{Cite book | last = Roberts | first = Andrew Lawrence | title = From Good King Wenceslas to the Good Soldier Švejk: a dictionary of Czech popular culture  | publisher = Central European University Press  | location = Budapest  | year = 2005  | page = 141  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BWg8CdosOpMC | isbn = 963-7326-26-X }}</ref>
|align="center"|Oldřich Pelčák
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Czechoslovakia.svg|size=50px}}
Czechoslovakia
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 28|Soyuz 28]]<br>[[File:Soyuz 28 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-28 Pin.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Salyut 6|Salyut 6]]
|-
|align="center"|27 June 1978
|| [[File:Miroslaw H.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Mirosław Hermaszewski
|align="center"|Zenon Jankowski
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Poland_(1928-1980).svg|size=50px}}
Poland
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 30|Soyuz 30]]<br>[[File:Soyuz 30 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-30 Intercosmos pin.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|26 August 1978
|| [[File:Sigmund Jahn cropped.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Sigmund Jähn
|align="center"|Eberhard Köllner
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of German Democratic Republic.svg|size=50px}}
GDR
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 31|Soyuz 31]]<br>[[File:Soyuz 31 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-31 Intercosmos.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|10 April 1979
||[[File:Georgi ivanov-676x1024.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Georgi Ivanov
|align="center"|Aleksandr Aleksandrov
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Bulgaria (1971-1990).svg|size=50px}}
Bulgaria
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 33|Soyuz 33]]<br>[[File:Soyuz-33 patch.png|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-33 Intercosmos.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6<br/>(Docking failed)
|-
|align="center"|26 May 1980
||[[File:Bertalan Farkas first Hungarian astronaut.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Bertalan Farkas
|align="center"|Béla Magyari
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Hungary.svg|size=50px}}
Hungary
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 36|Soyuz 36]]<br>[[File:Soyuz36 patch.png|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-36 Intercosmos pin depicting the flown crew.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|23 July 1980
|| [[File:Phạm Tuân .JPG|75px]]
|align="center"|Phạm Tuân
|align="center"|Bùi Thanh Liêm
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Vietnam.svg|size=50px}}
Vietnam
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 37|Soyuz 37]]<br>[[File:Soyuz37 patch.png|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-37 Intercosmos pin.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|18 September 1980
||[[File:Arnaldo Tamayo Berlin 2018 - 2.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez
|align="center"|José López Falcón
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Cuba.svg|size=50px}}
Cuba
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 38|Soyuz 38]]<br>[[File:Soyuz38 patch.png|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-38 Intercoms pin.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|23 March 1981
||[[File:Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa.jpeg|75px]]
|align="center"|Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa
|align="center"|Maidarjavyn Ganzorig
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1949-1992).svg|size=50px}}
Mongolia
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 39|Soyuz 39]]<br>[[File:Soyuz39 patch.png|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-39 Intercosmos pin.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|14 May 1981
||[[File:Stamp of Moldova md389.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Dumitru Prunariu
|align="center"|Dumitru Dediu
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Romania (1965-1989).svg|size=50px}}
[[Place:Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz 40|Soyuz 40]]<br>[[File:Soyuz 40 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-40 Intercosmos pin depicting the flown crew.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 6
|-
|align="center"|24 June 1982
||[[File:Chretien.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Jean-Loup Chrétien
|align="center"|Patrick Baudry
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of France.svg|size=50px}}
{{wipe|France}}
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz T-6|Soyuz T-6]]<br>[[File:Soyuz T-6 mission patch.png|50px]]
|
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Salyut 7|Salyut 7]]
|-
|align="center"|2 April 1984
||[[File:Rakesh sharma.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|[[Biography:Rakesh Sharma|Rakesh Sharma]]
|align="center"|Ravish Malhotra
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg|size=50px}}
{{wipe|India}}
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz T-11|Soyuz T-11]]<br>[[File:Soyuz-T-11-Mission-Patch.svg|50px]]
|align="center"|[[File:Soyuz-T11 Intercosmos pin depicting the flown crew.jpg|50px]]
|align="center"|Salyut 7
|-
|align="center"|22 July 1987
|| [[File:Muhammed Ahmed Faris.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Muhammed Ahmed Faris
|align="center"|Munir Habib Habib
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Syria.svg|size=50px}}
[[Place:Syria|Syria]]
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-3|Soyuz TM-3]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-3 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|
|align="center"|[[Astronomy:Mir|Mir]]
|-
|align="center"|7 June 1988
||[[File:Александр Александров Панайотов.JPG|75px]]
|align="center"|Aleksandr Aleksandrov
|align="center"|Krasimir Stoyanov
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Bulgaria (1971-1990).svg|size=50px}}
Bulgaria
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-5|Soyuz TM-5]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-5 mission patch.svg|50px]]
|
|align="center"|Mir
|-
|align="center"|29 August 1988
|| 
|align="center"|Abdul Ahad Mohmand<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Bunch | first1 = Bryan | last2 = Hellemans | first2 = Alexander |title = The history of science and technology: a browser's guide to the great discoveries, inventions, and the people who made them, from the dawn of time to today | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt  | location = New York  | year = 2004  | page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/679 679]  | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233 | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-618-22123-9 }}</ref>
|align="center"|Mohammad Dauran Ghulam Masum
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1987–1992).svg|size=50px}}
[[Place:Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-6|Soyuz TM-6]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-6 patch.svg|50px]]
|
|align="center"|Mir
|-
|align="center"|26 November 1988
||[[File:Chretien.jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Jean-Loup Chrétien
|align="center"|Michel Tognini
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of France.svg|size=50px}}
{{wipe|France}}
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-7|Soyuz TM-7]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-7 patch.png|50px]]
|
|align="center"|Mir
|-
|align="center"|2  December 1990
||[[File:Toyohiro-Akiyama-First-Japanese-Person-in-Space-1990.png|75px]]
|align="center"|Toyohiro Akiyama 
|align="center"|Ryoko Kikuchi
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Japan.svg|size=50px}}
{{wipe|Japan}}
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-11|Soyuz TM-11]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-11 patch.png|50px]]
|
|align="center"|Mir
|-
|align="center"|18 May 1991
||[[File:Dr. Helen Sharman (cropped).jpg|75px]]
|align="center"|Helen Sharman 
|align="center"|Timothy Mace
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of United Kingdom.svg|size=50px}}
{{wipe|United Kingdom}}
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-12|Soyuz TM-12]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-12 patch.png|50px]]
|
|align="center"|Mir
|-
|align="center"|2 October 1991
|| 
|align="center"|Franz Viehböck
|align="center"|Clemens Lothaller
|align="center"|{{flagicon image|Flag of Austria.svg|size=50px}}
Austria
|align="center"|[[Engineering:Soyuz TM-13|Soyuz TM-13]]<br>[[File:Soyuz TM-13 patch.png|50px]]
|
|align=" center"|Mir
|}

==Uncrewed missions==
[[File:Gerstamp-ddr-interkosmos.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Place:East Germany|East German]] postage stamp]]
* 1970 November 28 -  Vertikal-1 Aeronomy/Ionosphere/Solar mission.
* 1971 August 20 - Vertikal-2 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission.
* 1972 April 7 - Interkosmos 6 - Investigation of primary cosmic radiation and meteoritic particles in near-earth outer space.
* 1973 April 4 - Interkosmos 9 "''[[Biography:Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]]-500''" - satellite of cooperation of the Polish People's Republic and [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] to study the [[Astronomy:Sun|Sun]] and [[Astronomy:Ionosphere|ionosphere]]. Orbit around 200–1550&nbsp;km.
* 1975 June 3 - Interkosmos 14
* 1975 September 2 - Vertikal-3 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission.
* 1976 - Re-entry Vehicle Test mission.
* 1976 June 19 - Interkosmos 15. Testing of new systems and components of satellite under space flight conditions.
* 1977 March 29 -  Investigation of the upper atmosphere and outer space.
* 1977 June 17 - Signe 3 - Twenty French specialists worked on the satellite.
* 1977 August 30 - Vertikal-5 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission.
* 1977 September 24 - Interkosmos 17 - Investigation of energetic charged and neutral particles and micrometeorite fluxes in circumterrestrial space.
* 1977 October 25 - Vertikal-6 Ionosphere/Solar mission?.
* 1978 October 24 - Interkosmos 18 - Conduct of complex investigations on the interaction between the magnetosphere and ionosphere of the earth. Cooperation with the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the [[Place:East Germany|German Democratic Republic]], the Hungarian People's Republic, the Polish People's Republic, and the [[Place:Socialist Republic of Romania|Socialist Republic of Romania]].
* 1978 October 24 - Magion 1 - The Czechoslovak satellite MAGION was launched into orbit by the Soviet spacecraft Interkosmos 18
* 1978 November 3 - Vertikal-7 Ionosphere/Solar mission
* 1979 February 27 - Interkosmos 19 - Cooperation with the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Hungarian People's Republic, and the Polish People's Republic.
* 1979 September 26 - Vertikal-8 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission.
* 1979 November 1 - Interkosmos 20. (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the German Democratic Republic, the Hungarian People's Republic, and the Socialist Republic of Romania).
* 1981 - Re-entry Vehicle Test mission.
 
* 1981 February 6 - Interkosmos 21 - (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the German Democratic Republic, the Hungarian People's Republic, and the Socialist Republic of Romania)
* 1981 August 7 - [[Engineering:Bulgaria 1300|Interkosmos 22]] "''Bulgaria-1300''" (People's Republic of Bulgaria).
* 1981 August 28 - Vertikal-9 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission.
* 1981 September 21 - Oreol 3 - Developed by Soviet and French specialists under the joint Soviet-French project 'Arkad-3'.
* 1985 April 26 - Interkosmos 23 - Developed by scientists and specialists of the USSR and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic.
* 1986 December 18 - Kosmos 1809
* 1989 September 28 - Magion 2 -  Magion 2 forms a part of the scientific programme of Interkosmos 24 (project Aktivnyj) Execution of the scientific programme of the 'Aktivny' project in conjunction with Interkosmos-24, permitting simultaneous spatially separating investigations of plasma processes in circumterrestrial space.
* 1989 September 28 - Interkosmos 24 - US participation, in cooperation with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Romania (the international scientific project entitled 'Aktivny'). Carrying the Czechoslovak Magion-2 satellite.
* 1991 December 18 - Interkosmos 25 -  experiments from Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary. Comprehensive study of the effects of artificial impact of modulated electron flows and plasma beams on the ionosphere and magnetosphere of the Earth (forming part of the Apex international scientific project, conducted jointly with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.)
* 1991 December 28 - Magion 3 [https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1991-086E]
* 1994 March 2 - Interkosmos 26 - Conduct of comprehensive investigations of the sun under the Coronas-I international project developed by Russian and Ukrainian experiments in cooperation with specialists from Poland, the [[Place:Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], the Slovak Republic, Bulgaria, France, and the United Kingdom.

==Films==
In general, most of the films associated with programs are propaganda short TV documentaries from that era. The two exceptions include (largely fictionalised) ''Interkosmos'' from 2006, and cooperation document from 2009 (in Polish) titled ''Lotnicy Kosmonauci'' ("Aviators-Cosmonauts").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmpolski.pl/fp/index.php?film=4224264|title=FilmPolski|website=Filmpolski.pl|access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Engineering:Bion (satellite)|Bion satellites]], a series of biology research satellites from 1966 to 1996 – participation of the {{wipe|United States}} from 1975 to 1996.
* [[Engineering:Vega 1|Vega 1]] and [[Astronomy:Vega 2|Vega 2]], two Solar System probes, in the joint [[Astronomy:Vega program|Vega program]] between the Soviet Union, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, the German Democratic Republic ("East Germany"), and the Federal Republic of Germany ("West Germany") in December 1984.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Britannica|1524264}}
* [https://www.pdfdrive.com/interkosmos-the-eastern-blocs-early-space-program-e175326026.html ''Interkosmos: The Eastern Bloc's Early Space Program'']
* [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100006842?rskey=qcp2eA&result=2 A Dictionary of Space Exploration]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161227215923/http://astronautix.com/i/intercosmos.html Intercosmos]
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{European human spaceflight}}

[[Category:Space program of the Soviet Union]]

{{Sourceattribution|Interkosmos}}