View source for Astronomy:International Space Station

{{Short description|Largest modular space station in low Earth orbit}}
{{Infobox space station
 | station               = International Space Station (ISS)                                                     
 | station_image         = The station pictured from the SpaceX Crew Dragon 1.jpg
 | station_image_size    = 300px
 | station_image_alt     = A forward view of the International Space Station with limb of the Earth in the background. In view are the station's sixteen paired maroon-coloured main solar array wings, eight on either side of the station, mounted to a central integrated truss structure. Spaced along the truss are ten white radiators. Mounted to the base of the two rightmost main solar arrays pairs, there are two smaller paired light brown- coloured ISS Roll-out Solar Arrays. Attached to the centre of the truss is a cluster of pressurised modules arranged in an elongated T shape. A set of solar arrays are mounted to the module at the aft end of the cluster.
 | station_image_caption = Oblique underside view in November 2021
 | insignia              = [[File:ISS insignia.svg|frameless|upright=0.5]] [[File:ISS emblem.png|frameless|upright=0.6]]
 | insignia_caption      = [[Astronomy:International Space Station programme|International Space Station program]] insignia
 | COSPAR_ID             = 1998-067A
 | SATCAT                = 25544
 | sign                  = ''Alpha'', ''Station''
 | crew                  = {{ubl|'''Expedition'''|[[Astronomy:List of International Space Station expeditions|Expedition]]: [[Astronomy:Expedition 70|70]]<ref name=":3" />|Maximum: 7 |Currently aboard: 7<br />([[Engineering:SpaceX Crew-7|Crew-7]], [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-24|Soyuz MS-24]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />)|
Commander: Andreas Mogensen (ESA)<ref name=":3" />|'''Non-Expedition'''|Visitors: 3 ([[Astronomy:Axiom Mission 3|Ax-3]])<ref name=":3" /><!--Do not remove without justification-->}}
 | launch                = {{start date and age|1998|11|20|p=yes|df=yes}}
 | launch_pad            = {{plainlist|
* {{nowrap|Baikonur, Site 1/5, Site 200/39, <br /> Site 31/6 and Site 81/23}}
* {{nowrap|Kennedy, [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39]] and CCSFS, SLC-40}}
}}
 | reentry               = <!--{{end-date|df=yes|}}-->
 | mass                  = {{cvt|450000|kg|lb}}<ref name="esa-iss">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/ISS_International_Space_Station |title=ISS: International Space Station |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145735/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/ISS_International_Space_Station |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>
 | length                = {{cvt|358|ft|order=flip}} (overall length), {{cvt|310|ft|order=flip}} (truss length)<ref name="ISS_stats">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures |title=About the Space Station: Facts and Figures |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=5 January 2023 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=13 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206183926/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures/ |archive-date=6 February 2023 }}</ref>
 | width                 = {{cvt|239|ft|order=flip}} (solar array length)<ref name="ISS_stats" />
 | volume                = {{cvt|35491|cuft|order=flip}}<ref name="ISS_stats" />
 | pressure              = {{convert|101.3|kPa|psi atm|1|abbr=on|lk=on}}<br />79% nitrogen, 21% oxygen
 | perigee               = {{cvt|413|km|mi|1}} AMSL<ref name="heavens-above">{{cite web |last=Peat |first=Chris |date=21 May 2021 |title=ISS – Orbit |url=http://www.heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544 |access-date=21 May 2021 |website=Heavens-Above}}</ref>
 | apogee                = {{cvt|422|km|mi|1}} AMSL<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | inclination           = 51.64°<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | speed                 = {{convert|7.66|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|disp=x|<ref name="heavens-above" />{{Failed verification|date=May 2021|reason=Page does not mention orbital speed, just some of the other orbital parameters. This reference should be removed for this value?}} }}
 | period                = 92.9 minutes<ref name="satellite-tracking">{{cite web |last=Holman |first=Joseph |date=12 October 2022 |title=ISS (ZARYA) |url=https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544 |access-date=12 October 2022 |publisher=Satellite Tracking}}</ref>
 | orbits_day            = 15.5<ref name="heavens-above" />
 | in_orbit              = {{time interval|20 November 1998 06:40|show=ymd|sep=,}}<br />({{TODAY}})
 | occupied              = {{time interval|2 November 2000 09:21|show=ymd|sep=,}}<br />({{TODAY}})
 | orbits                = 141,117
 {{as of|2023|08|lc=y}}<ref name="ARISS TLE"/>
 | decay                 = 2 km/month
 | orbit_epoch           = 16 August 16:19:30<ref name="ARISS TLE">{{cite web |date=16 August 2023 |title=ARISS TLE |url=https://live.ariss.org/tle/ |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=ARISS TLE}}</ref>
 | apsis                 = gee
 | as_of                 = 22 December 2022<br />(unless noted otherwise)
 | stats_ref             = <ref name="ISS_stats" /><ref name="heavens-above" /><ref name="OnOrbit" /><ref name="sts-132-press-kit">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/451029main-sts132-press-kit2.pdf |title=STS-132 Press Kit |date=7 May 2010 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=19 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012175219/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/451029main-sts132-press-kit2.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2023 }}</ref><ref name="sts-133-fd04">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/521138main_fd04_ep.pdf |title=STS-133 FD 04 Execute Package |date=27 February 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=27 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127012806/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/521138main_fd04_ep.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2020 }}</ref>
 | configuration_image   = File:ISS configuration 2022-12 en.svg
 | configuration_alt     = The components of the ISS in an exploded diagram, with modules on-orbit highlighted in orange.
 | configuration_caption = Station elements {{As of|2022|12|lc=on}}<br />([[Engineering:Exploded-view drawing|exploded view]])
}}

The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is the largest space station to have ever been built. The station resides in [[Astronomy:Low Earth orbit|low Earth orbit]] and has a primary purpose of performing microgravity and [[Astronomy:Space environment|space environment]] experiments. As implied by its name, the International Space Station is a collaboration of five space agencies and other contractors. These agencies are: [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] ({{wipe|United States}}), [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] ({{wipe|Russia}}), [[Organization:JAXA|JAXA]] ({{wipe|Japan}}), [[Organization:European Space Agency|ESA]] ([[Earth:Europe|Europe]]), and [[Organization:Canadian Space Agency|CSA]] ({{wipe|Canada}}).

Functionally, the station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment assembled by Roscosmos and the US Orbital Segment assembled by NASA, JAXA, ESA and CSA. The most striking feature about the ISS is the [[Engineering:Integrated Truss Structure|Integrated Truss Structure]], which connects the large [[Physics:Solar panel|solar panels]] and [[Engineering:Spacecraft thermal control|radiators]] to the pressurized modules. These pressurized modules are further specialized based on their research, habitation, storage, spacecraft control and [[Engineering:Airlock|airlock]] functions. Other spacecraft can dock to the station via its eight [[Engineering:Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking and berthing ports]]. The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of {{convert|400|km}}<ref>{{cite web |date=14 February 2019 |title=NASA – Higher Altitude Improves Station's Fuel Economy |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition26/iss_altitude.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225215323/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition26/iss_altitude.html |archive-date=25 December 2021 |access-date=29 May 2019 |website=nasa.gov}}</ref> and circles the Earth in roughly 93&nbsp;minutes, completing {{Orbit|daily orbits|15.5}} orbits per day (meaning that it passes over a fixed point on earth approximately once every 90 minutes).<ref name="tracking2">{{Cite web |date=15 December 2008 |title=Current ISS Tracking data |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225022741/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html |archive-date=25 December 2015 |access-date=28 January 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

The [[Astronomy:International Space Station programme|ISS programme]] was formed from prior plans to construct a permanently crewed Earth-orbiting station: the United States's [[Astronomy:Space Station Freedom|Space Station ''Freedom'']] and Soviet Union's ''Mir-2''. The first ISS component was launched in 1998 and subsequent major modules were launched by [[Engineering:Proton (rocket family)|Proton]] rockets, [[Engineering:Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] rockets and [[Engineering:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttles]]. The first long-term residents, [[Astronomy:Expedition 1|Expedition 1]], arrived on 2 November 2000, and since then the station has been occupied for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}. This also means that the ISS sustained the longest continuous human presence in space. {{As of|2023|December}}, 273&nbsp;individuals from 21 countries have visited the space station.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Space Station Visitors by Country - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> The ISS is expected to have additional modules (e.g. [[Astronomy:Axiom Orbital Segment|Axiom Orbital Segment]]) before being deorbited by a dedicated NASA spacecraft in January 2031.

== History ==
{{Excerpt|International Space Station programme#History and conception}}

==Purpose==
The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a [[Astronomy:Low Earth orbit|low Earth orbit]] staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial [[Finance:Memorandum of understanding|memorandum of understanding]] between [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] and [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] have been realised.<ref name="RSA-MOU">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html |title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215114755/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html |archive-date=15 December 2015 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic,<ref name="payette-2012">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth |title=Research and Diplomacy 350 Kilometers above the Earth: Lessons from the International Space Station |last=Payette |first=Julie |date=10 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306143438/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth |archive-date=6 March 2013 |issue=4 |journal=Science & Diplomacy |volume=1 }}</ref> and educational purposes.<ref name="USNSP">{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf |title=National Space Policy of the United States of America |date=28 June 2010 |publisher=White House |access-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027102640/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

===Scientific research===
{{Main|Astronomy:Scientific research on the International Space Station}}
{{multiple image
| align             = left
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Iss030e015472 Edit.jpg
| caption1          = Comet Lovejoy photographed by [[Astronomy:Expedition 30|Expedition 30]] commander Dan Burbank
| image2            = ISS-08 Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox.jpg
| caption2          = [[Astronomy:Expedition 8|Expedition 8]] Commander and Science Officer Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the [[Organization:Microgravity Science Glovebox|Microgravity Science Glovebox]]
}}
{{multiple image
| align             = left
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = STS-134 EVA4 view to the Space Shuttle Endeavour.jpg
| caption1          = Fisheye view of several labs and the Space Shuttle
| image2            = NanoRacksCubeSatLaunch ISS038-E-056389.jpg
| caption2          = [[Engineering:CubeSat|CubeSat]]s are deployed by the [[Astronomy:NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer|NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer]]
}}

The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades<!--<ref name="jaxa">{{Cite web |url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html |title=What is International Space Station? |date=19 January 2004 |publisher=iss.jaxa.jp |access-date=27 May 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730041558/https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html |archive-date=30 July 2023 }}</ref>-->, combined with ready access by human researchers.<ref name="10th">{{Cite press release |url=https://www3.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html |title=Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station |last1=Trinidad |first1=Katherine |last2=Humphries |first2=Kelly |date=17 November 2008 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=08-296 |access-date=6 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521030300/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html |archive-date=21 May 2022 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="Worldbook at NASA" />

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including [[Astronomy:Astrobiology|astrobiology]], [[Astronomy:Astronomy|astronomy]], physical sciences, [[Physics:Materials science|materials science]], [[Astronomy:Space weather|space weather]], [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorology]], and human research including [[Medicine:Space medicine|space medicine]] and the [[Biology:Life science|life science]]s.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web |date=26 June 2007 |title=Fields of Research |url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123150641/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html |archive-date=23 January 2008 |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{Cite web |date=26 June 2007 |title=Getting on Board |url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208091537/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html |archive-date=8 December 2007 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI) |url=http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722111152/http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=12 March 2011 |publisher=JAXA}}</ref><ref name="esa-20110311">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum |title=SOLAR: three years observing and ready for solar maximum |date=11 March 2011 |publisher=ESA |access-date=4 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131833/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=esa.int }}</ref> Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.<ref name="Worldbook at NASA" /> Crews fly [[Astronomy:List of International Space Station expeditions|expeditions]] of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.<ref name="Science in School">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/ |title=The International Space Station: life in space |last1=Hartevelt-Velani |first1=Shamim |last2=Walker |first2=Carl |last3=Elmann-Larsen |first3=Benny |date=23 November 2009 |journal=Science in School |access-date=17 February 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203232623/https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/ |archive-date=3 February 2023 |issue=10 }}</ref>

Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the [[Astronomy:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the [[Astronomy:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.<ref name="nasa-20110318">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html |title=AMS to Focus on Invisible Universe |date=18 March 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305123234/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html |archive-date=5 March 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nasa-20090814">{{Cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/ |title=In Search of Antimatter Galaxies |date=14 August 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114162151/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/ |archive-date=14 January 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of [[Astronomy:Dark matter|dark matter]] may have been detected by the AMS.<ref name="APS-20130403">{{Cite journal |url=https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf |title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station: Precision Measurement of the Positron Fraction in Primary Cosmic Rays of 0.5–350 GeV |last=Aguilar, M. et al. (AMS Collaboration) |date=3 April 2013 |page=141102 |bibcode=2013PhRvL.110n1102A |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132812/https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 |journal=[[Physics:Physical Review Letters|Physical Review Letters]] |volume=110 |issue=14 |pmid=25166975 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="AMS-20130403">{{cite web |last=Staff |date=3 April 2013 |title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment |url=http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408185229/http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/ |archive-date=8 April 2013 |access-date=3 April 2013 |website=AMS Collaboration}}</ref><ref name="AP-20130403">{{Cite news |last1=Heilprin |first1=John |last2=Borenstein |first2=Seth |date=3 April 2013 |title=Scientists find hint of dark matter from cosmos |agency=Associated Press |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html |url-status=dead |access-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510152050/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html |archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20130403">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22016504 |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer zeroes in on dark matter |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=3 April 2013 |access-date=3 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222642/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22016504 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20130403">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/ |title=NASA TV Briefing Discusses Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Results |last1=Perrotto |first1=Trent J. |last2=Byerly |first2=Josh |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=M13-054 |access-date=3 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109114859/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/ |archive-date=9 November 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20130403">{{Cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |date=3 April 2013 |title=Tantalizing New Clues Into the Mysteries of Dark Matter |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820032900/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html |archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref> According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".

The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the [[Astronomy:Solar wind|solar wind]], in addition to [[Astronomy:Cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.<ref name="Space Microbiology">{{Cite journal|last1=Horneck |first1=Gerda |last2=Klaus |first2=David M. |last3=Mancinelli |first3=Rocco L. |title=Space Microbiology |url=http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830095643/http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2011 |access-date=4 June 2011 |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=74 |issue=1 |date=March 2010 |pages=121–156 |publisher=[[Organization:American Society for Microbiology|American Society for Microbiology]] |doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-09|pmid=20197502 |pmc=2832349 |bibcode=2010MMBR...74..121H }} (see Space Environment on page 122)</ref> Some simple forms of life called [[Earth:Extremophile|extremophile]]s,<ref name="Beer microbes">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11039206 |title=Beer microbes live 553 days outside ISS |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=23 August 2010 |access-date=4 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163449/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-11039206 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref> as well as small invertebrates called [[Biology:Tardigrade|tardigrade]]s<ref name="Waterbears">{{Cite journal |last=Ledford |first=Heidi |date=8 September 2008 |title=Spacesuits optional for 'water bears' |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news.2008.1087}}</ref> can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through [[Earth:Desiccation#Biology and ecology|desiccation]].

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including [[Medicine:Muscle atrophy|muscle atrophy]], [[Medicine:Osteoporosis|bone loss]], and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|human spaceflight]] and space colonisation are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to [[Astronomy:Human mission to Mars|travel to Mars]].<ref name="JCB">{{Cite book |first=Jay |last=Buckey |title=Space Physiology |date=23 February 2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0-19-513725-5}}</ref><ref name="newscientist-20090722">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/ |title=Ion engine could one day power 39-day trips to Mars |last=Grossman |first=List |date=22 July 2009 |access-date=8 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015103957/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/ |archive-date=15 October 2023 |magazine=New Scientist }}</ref>

Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the [[Organization:National Space Biomedical Research Institute|National Space Biomedical Research Institute]] (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the [[Medicine:Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity|Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.<ref name="nasa-adum">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html |title=Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM) |last=Boen |first=Brooke |date=1 May 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=1 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029061057/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Sishir |last2=van Holsbeeck |first2=Lodewijk |last3=Musial |first3=Joseph L. |last4=Parker |first4=Alton |last5=Bouffard |first5=J. Antonio |last6=Bridge |first6=Patrick |last7=Jackson |first7=Matt |last8=Dulchavsky |first8=Scott A. |display-authors=1 |date=May 2008 |title=A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine |journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=745–749 |doi=10.7863/jum.2008.27.5.745 |pmid=18424650 |s2cid=30566494|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fincke |first1=E. Michael |last2=Padalka |first2=Gennady |last3=Lee |first3=Doohi |last4=van Holsbeeck |first4=Marnix |last5=Sargsyan |first5=Ashot E. |last6=Hamilton |first6=Douglas R. |last7=Martin |first7=David |last8=Melton |first8=Shannon L. |last9=McFarlin |first9=Kellie |last10=Dulchavsky |first10=Scott A. |display-authors=1 |date=February 2005 |title=Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station |journal=Radiology |volume=234 |issue=2 |pages=319–322 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2342041680 |pmid=15533948}}</ref>

In August 2020, scientists reported that [[Biology:Bacteria|bacteria]] from Earth, particularly ''[[Biology:Deinococcus radiodurans|Deinococcus radiodurans]]'' bacteria, which is highly resistant to environmental hazards, were found to survive for three years in [[Astronomy:Outer space|outer space]], based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of [[Biology:Panspermia|panspermia]], the hypothesis that life exists throughout the [[Astronomy:Universe|Universe]], distributed in various ways, including space dust, [[Astronomy:Meteoroid|meteoroid]]s, [[Astronomy:Asteroid|asteroid]]s, [[Astronomy:Comet|comet]]s, [[Astronomy:Minor planet|planetoid]]s or [[Chemistry:Contamination|contaminated]] [[Engineering:Spacecraft|spacecraft]].<ref name="CNN-20200826">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html |title=Bacteria from Earth can survive in space and could endure the trip to Mars, according to new study |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=26 August 2020 |access-date=26 August 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811171442/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=CNN News }}</ref><ref name="FM-20200826">{{Cite journal |last=Kawaguchi |first=Yuko |display-authors=et al. |date=26 August 2020 |title=DNA Damage and Survival Time Course of Deinococcal Cell Pellets During 3 Years of Exposure to Outer Space |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=11 |page=2050 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.02050 |pmid=32983036 |pmc=7479814 |s2cid=221300151|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Earth:Remote sensing|Remote sensing]] of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have dramatically increased during the 2010s after the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined [[Chemistry:Aerosol|aerosol]]s, [[Chemistry:Ozone|ozone]], [[Astronomy:Lightning|lightning]], and [[Chemistry:Oxide|oxide]]s in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the [[Astronomy:Sun|Sun]], cosmic rays, [[Astronomy:Cosmic dust|cosmic dust]], [[Physics:Antimatter|antimatter]], and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the [[Engineering:Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3|Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3]], [[Engineering:ISS-RapidScat|ISS-RapidScat]], [[Biology:ECOSTRESS|ECOSTRESS]], the [[Engineering:Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation|Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation]], and the Cloud Aerosol Transport System. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include [[Astronomy:SOLAR (ISS)|SOLAR]], the [[Astronomy:Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer|Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer]], the [[Astronomy:Calorimetric Electron Telescope|Calorimetric Electron Telescope]], the [[Astronomy:MAXI (ISS experiment)|Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI)]], and the [[Astronomy:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /><ref name="eol-rss">{{Cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/ |title=Earth Science & Remote Sensing Missions on ISS |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=9 December 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131526/https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>

====Freefall====
[[File:ISS-20 Robert Thirsk at the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer.jpg|thumb|ISS crew member storing samples]]
[[File:Space Fire.jpg|thumb|A comparison between the combustion of a candle on [[Astronomy:Earth|Earth]] (left) and in a free fall environment, such as that found on the ISS (right)]]

Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of [[Physics:Free fall|freefall]], resulting in an apparent state of [[Physics:Weightlessness|weightlessness]].<ref name="nasa-whatismicrogravity">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/ |title=What Is Microgravity? |last=May |first=Sandra |date=15 February 2012 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=3 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107174300/https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/ |archive-date=7 November 2023 |series=NASA Knows! (Grades 5-8) }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:<ref name="gravity">{{cite web |date=6 December 2005 |title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402225556/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms |archive-date=2 April 2013 |access-date=22 March 2013 |publisher=European Space Agency}}</ref>
* Drag from the residual atmosphere.
* Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.
* Actuation of the on-board attitude [[Engineering:Control moment gyroscope|control moment gyroscope]]s.
* [[Engineering:Rocket engine|Thruster]] firings for attitude or orbital changes.
* [[Physics:Gravity-gradient stabilization|Gravity-gradient effects]], also known as [[Physics:Tidal force|tidal]] effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a [[Rigid body|rigid body]].

Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of [[Physics:Superconductivity|superconductivity]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

The study of [[Physics:Materials science|materials science]] is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.<ref name="nasa-materials-science-101">{{Cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm |title=Materials Science 101 |date=15 September 1999 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614033947/http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm |archive-date=14 June 2009 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

===Exploration===
[[File:Mars500.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 3D plan of the Russia-based MARS-500 complex, used for conducting ground-based experiments that complement ISS-based preparations for a human mission to Mars]]

The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.<ref name="ResProg">{{cite web |title=ISS Research Program |url=http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213140014/http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/ |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=27 February 2009 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Referring to the [[Astronomy:MARS-500|MARS-500]] experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".<ref name="esa mars500">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview |title=Mars500: study overview |date=4 June 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819135747/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview |archive-date=19 August 2023 }}</ref> Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.<!--there are better refs for this including the mention of 2014–2015 I think --><ref name="Mars thing on ISS">{{cite web |date=4 November 2011 |title=Space station may be site for next mock Mars mission |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html |website=New Scientist |access-date=1 September 2017 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711030614/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."<ref name="IAF2009">{{cite web |title=The Sustainable Utilisation of the ISS Beyond 2015 |url=http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426051318/http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2012 |access-date=15 December 2011 |publisher=International Astronautical Congress}}</ref> [[Astronomy:Human mission to Mars|A crewed mission to Mars]] may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.<ref name="ESAproposesInvite">{{Cite news |last=de Selding |first=Peter B. |date=3 February 2010 |title=ESA Chief Lauds Renewed U.S. Commitment to Space Station, Earth Science |work=Space News |url=http://spacenews.com/esa-chief-lauds-renewed-us-commitment-space-station-earth-science/}}</ref> NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort."<ref name="Mars a global effort">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html |title=Space Station Crucial for Going to Mars, NASA Chief Says |last=Chow |first=Denise |date=8 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162758/https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> Currently, [[Astronomy:Wolf Amendment|US federal legislation]] prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.<ref name="justice1">{{cite web |last=Seitz |first=Virginia A. |title=Memorandum Opinion for the General Counsel, Office of Science and Technology Policy |date=19 September 2011 |url=https://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf |website=justice.gov |publisher=US Justice Department |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713080223/http://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf |access-date=23 May 2012 |archive-date=13 July 2012 |url-status=dead |page=3}}</ref>

===Education and cultural outreach===
[[File:Crew in ATV with Jules Verne manuscript.jpg|thumb|right|Original Jules Verne manuscripts displayed by crew inside the ''Jules Verne'' ATV]]

The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email.<ref name="ISSRG">{{Cite book |last=Kitmacher |first=Gary |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |publisher=Apogee Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-894959-34-6 |series=Apogee Books Space Series |location=Canada |pages=71–80 |issn=1496-6921}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sandal |first1=Gro M. |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |date=December 2009 |title=Cross-cultural issues in space operations: A survey study among ground personnel of the European Space Agency |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222963564 |journal=Acta Astronautica |volume=65 |issue=11–12 |pages=1520–1529 |bibcode=2009AcAau..65.1520S |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.03.074 |issn=0094-5765}}</ref> ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.<ref name="esa-education-material">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material |title=Online Materials |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=3 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162359/https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> In one lesson, students can navigate a [[3D modeling|3D model]] of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.<ref name="esa-iss-3d">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I |title=ISS 3-D Teaching Tool: Spaceflight Challenge I |date=24 May 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164504/https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref>

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society".<ref name="jaxa-peaceinyounggminds">{{Cite conference |url=https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf |title=Building Peace in Young Minds through Space Education |date=June 2010 |publisher=[[Organization:JAXA|JAXA]] |location=Vienna, Austria |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162718/https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2023 |conference=Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space |volume=53 }}</ref> Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life.<ref name="jaxa-sunflower-seeds">{{Cite web |url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/ |title=JAXA Spaceflight Seeds Kids I : Spaceflight Sunflower seeds – Let's make them flower! and learn freshly the Earth environment just by contrast with the Space one |date=2006 |publisher=[[Organization:JAXA|JAXA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025859/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/ |archive-date=18 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="jaxa-asagao">{{Cite web |url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/ |title=JAXA Seeds in Space I : Let's Cultivate Spaceflight Asagao (Japanese morning glory), Miyako-gusa (Japanese bird's foot trefoil) Seeds and Identify the Mutants! |date=2006 |publisher=[[Organization:JAXA|JAXA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025023/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/ |archive-date=18 March 2012 }}</ref> In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of ''Kibō'' utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.<ref>{{cite web |first=Keiji |last=Murakami |date=14 October 2009 |title=JEM Utilization Overview |url=http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf |publisher=JAXA. Steering Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space |access-date=27 September 2011 |archive-date=29 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129141828/http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."<ref name="jaxa2">{{cite web |first=Tetsuo |last=Tanaka |title=Kibo: Japan's First Human Space Facility |url=http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html |access-date=8 October 2011 |publisher=JAXA |archive-date=29 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129145716/http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, [[Engineering:Speakerphone|speakerphone]]s connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station.<!--second mention of this ref, needs proper combining --><ref>{{cite web |date=6 June 2011 |title=Amateur Radio on the International Space Station |url=http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527071557/http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm |archive-date=27 May 2011 |access-date=10 June 2011}}</ref>
[[File:ESA-Astronaut-Paolo-Nespoli Voice-intro-ENG.flac|thumb|Spoken voice recording by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on the subject of the ISS, produced in November 2017 for Wikipedia]]
''First Orbit'' is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about [[Astronomy:Vostok 1|Vostok 1]], the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that [[Biography:Yuri Gagarin|Yuri Gagarin]] saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during [[Astronomy:Expedition 26|Expedition 26]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 27|27]].<ref name="guardian-20110411">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok |title=What Yuri Gagarin saw: First Orbit film to reveal the view from Vostok 1 |last=Riley |first=Christopher |date=11 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132648/https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work={{wipe|The Guardian}} }}</ref> The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website ''firstorbit.org''.<ref name="firstorbit-faq">{{Cite web |url=https://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs |title=Yuri Gagarin's First Orbit – FAQs |publisher=The Attic Room Ltd |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131924/http://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=firstorbit.org }}</ref>

In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station, which was released on YouTube.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Warr |first=Philippa |date=13 May 2013 |title=Commander Hadfield bids farewell to ISS with Reddit-inspired Bowie cover |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012212949/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity |archive-date=12 October 2013 |access-date=22 October 2013 |magazine=wired.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="bbc-20130513">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-22506395 |title=Astronaut bids farewell with Bowie cover version (inc. video) |date=13 May 2013 |access-date=24 September 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163327/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/science-environment-22506395 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref> It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.<ref name="gizmodo-20130512">{{Cite web |url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317 |title=Chris Hadfield sings "Space Oddity" in the first music video in space |last=Davis |first=Lauren |date=12 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163440/https://gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=Gizmodo }}</ref>

In November 2017, while participating in [[Astronomy:Expedition 52|Expedition 52]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 53|53]] on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on [[Wikipedia]] articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.<ref name="Mabbett">{{Cite web |url=https://blog.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/ |title=Close encounters of the Wikipedia kind: Astronaut is first to specifically contribute to Wikipedia from space |last=Mabbett |first=Andy |date=29 November 2017 |publisher=Wikimedia foundation |access-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604132523/https://diff.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/ |archive-date=4 June 2023 |website=Diff }}</ref><ref name="Petris">{{Cite news |url=https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/ |title=Primo contributo 'extraterrestre' su Wikipedia: è di Nespoli |trans-title=First 'Extraterrestrial' Contribution on Wikipedia: It's by Nespoli. |last=Petris |first=Antonella |date=1 December 2017 |language=it-IT |access-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173118/https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Meteo Web }}</ref>

In November 2021, a [[Virtual reality|virtual reality]] exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced.<ref name="spacecom-20211123">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston |title='The Infinite' VR space station tour to premiere spacewalk in Houston |last=Pearlman |first=Robert Z. |date=23 November 2021 |access-date=27 November 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144311/https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=Space.com }}</ref>

==Construction==
===Manufacturing===
{{main|Astronomy:Manufacture of the International Space Station}}
[[File:SSPF interior.jpg|thumb|ISS module Node 2 manufacturing and processing in the Space Station Processing Facility]]
[[File:ISS module at Cape Canaveral.jpg|right|thumb|An MPLM module in the SSPF at Cape Canaveral]]
Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the U.S. components ''Destiny'', ''Unity'', the [[Engineering:Integrated Truss Structure|Integrated Truss Structure]], and the [[Engineering:Electrical system of the International Space Station|solar arrays]] were fabricated at the [[Organization:Marshall Space Flight Center|Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[Organization:Michoud Assembly Facility|Michoud Assembly Facility]]. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the [[Organization:Space Station Processing Facility|Space Station Processing Facility]] (SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch.<ref name="nasa-20160219">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/stations/images/manufacturing-key-parts-of-ISS-unity-and-destiny |title=Manufacturing Key Parts of the International Space Station: Unity and Destiny |date=19 February 2016 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=15 February 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124184657/https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/manufacturing-key-parts-of-international-space-station-unity-destiny/ |archive-date=24 November 2023 |editor-last=Harbaugh |editor-first=Jennifer }}</ref>

The Russian modules, including ''Zarya'' and ''Zvezda'', were manufactured at the [[Company:Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center|Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center]] in [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]]. ''Zvezda'' was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for ''Mir-2'', but Mir 2 was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.<ref>{{cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |title=ISS Zvezda |url=http://www.astronautix.com/i/isszvezda.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820144918/http://www.astronautix.com/i/isszvezda.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 August 2016 |access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref>

The [[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] (ESA) [[Organization:Columbus (ISS module)|''Columbus'']] module was manufactured at the [[Company:Airbus Defence and Space|EADS]] Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe.<ref name="airbus-20180206">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/news/2018-02-europes-airbus-built-columbus-orbital-outpost-10-years-in-space |title=Europe's Airbus-built Columbus orbital outpost: 10 years in space |date=6 February 2018 |publisher=[[Company:Airbus|Airbus]] |access-date=6 May 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811173101/https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/news/2018-02-europes-airbus-built-columbus-orbital-outpost-10-years-in-space |archive-date=11 August 2022 }}</ref> The other ESA-built modules{{snd}}''Harmony'', ''Tranquility'', the ''Leonardo'' MPLM, and the [[Organization:Cupola (ISS module)|''Cupola'']]{{snd}}were initially manufactured at the [[Company:Thales Alenia Space|Thales Alenia Space]] factory in Turin, Italy.<ref name="thales-2017">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/news/ten-years-perfect-harmony |title=Ten years in perfect "Harmony"! – Thales Group |date=23 October 2017 |publisher=Thales Group |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132807/https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/news/ten-years-perfect-harmony |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Building ISS|url=https://nara.getarchive.net/collections/building-iss-timeline|access-date=28 October 2021|website=U.S. National Archives & DVIDS }}</ref>

The Japanese Experiment Module ''Kibō'', was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tsukuba Space Center, and the [[Organization:Institute of Space and Astronautical Science|Institute of Space and Astronautical Science]]. The ''Kibo'' module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the SSPF.<ref name="nasa-img-ksc-08pd0991">{{Cite web |url=https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-08pd0991 |title=KSC-08pd0991 |last=Shiflett |first=Kim |date=22 April 2008 |location=Cape Canaveral, Fla. |access-date=5 July 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124185310/https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-08pd0991 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |quote=In the Space Station Processing Facility at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, an overhead crane moves the Kibo Japanese Experiment Module – Pressurized Module toward the payload canister (lower right). The canister will deliver the module, part of the payload for space shuttle Discovery's STS-124 mission, to Launch Pad 39A. On the mission, the STS-124 crew will transport the Kibo module as well as the Japanese Remote Manipulator System to the International Space Station to complete the Kibo laboratory. The launch of Discovery is targeted for May 31. |website=NASA Image and Video Library }}</ref><!--verifies SSPF only, not anything before-->

The [[Engineering:Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Servicing System]], consisting of the Canadarm2 and the ''[[Engineering:Dextre|Dextre]]'' grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the [[Organization:David Florida Laboratory|David Florida Laboratory]]) and the United States, under contract by the [[Organization:Canadian Space Agency|Canadian Space Agency]]. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by [[Company:Northrop Grumman|Northrop Grumman]].

===Assembly===
[[File:ISS-assembly-animation.gif|right|thumb|upright=1.8|Animation of the [[Astronomy:Assembly of the International Space Station|assembly of the International Space Station]]]]
[[File:STS-115 ISS after undocking.jpg|thumb|The ISS was slowly assembled over more than a decade of spaceflights and crews]]
[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|A view of the completed station as seen from Shuttle Atlantis during STS-132, 23 May 2010]]
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in [[Engineering:Space architecture|space architecture]], began in November 1998.<ref name="OnOrbit">{{cite web |last=NASA |date=18 February 2010 |title=On-Orbit Elements |url=http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/on_orbit.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013438/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/on_orbit.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2009 |access-date=19 June 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of ''Rassvet''. All other modules were delivered by the [[Engineering:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]], which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and [[Astronomy:Extravehicular activity|extra-vehicular activities]] (EVAs); by 5&nbsp;June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles.<ref name="ISStD">{{cite web |date=9 March 2011 |title=The ISS to Date |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/isstodate.html |access-date=21 March 2011 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=11 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611163133/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/isstodate.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Astronomy:Beta angle|beta angle]] of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.<ref name="mcc">{{cite web |last=Dismukes |first=Kim <!--curator--> |date=1 December 2002 |title=Mission Control Answers Your Questions: STS-113 Q17 |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-113/11_23_20_01_179.html |access-date=14 June 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=24 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724020141/https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-113/11_23_20_01_179.html |url-status=dead |website=spaceflight.nasa.gov}}</ref>

The first module of the ISS, ''Zarya'', was launched on 20&nbsp;November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, [[Astronomy:Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]], communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. A passive NASA module, ''Unity'', was launched two weeks later aboard Space Shuttle flight [[Engineering:STS-88|STS-88]] and attached to ''Zarya'' by astronauts during EVAs. The ''Unity'' module has two Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs): one connects permanently to ''Zarya'' and the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian (Soviet) station ''Mir'' was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12&nbsp;July 2000, the ''Zvezda'' module was launched into orbit. Onboard preprogrammed commands deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. ''Zvezda'' then became the passive target for a rendezvous with ''Zarya'' and ''Unity'', maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the ''Zarya''–''Unity'' vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. ''Zarya''{{'s}} computer transferred control of the station to ''Zvezda''{{'s}} computer soon after docking. ''Zvezda'' added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO<sub>2</sub> scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, and exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control, enabling permanent habitation of the station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/servmod.pdf |title=NASA Facts. The Service Module: A Cornerstone of Russian International Space Station Modules |website=spaceflight.nasa.gov |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823230702/https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/servmod.pdf |archive-date=23 August 2020 |publisher=NASA |date=January 1999 |id=IS-1999-09-ISS019JSC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=STS-88 |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-88/mission-sts-88.html |access-date=19 April 2011 |publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov |archive-date=6 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606073849/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-88/mission-sts-88.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first resident crew, [[Astronomy:Expedition 1|Expedition 1]], arrived in November 2000 on [[Engineering:Soyuz TM-31|Soyuz TM-31]]. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign "''Alpha''", which he and cosmonaut [[Biography:Sergei Krikalev|Sergei Krikalev]] preferred to the more cumbersome "''International Space Station''".<ref name="TIME-Nov2">{{Cite magazine |last=Liston |first=Brad |date=2 November 2000 |title=Upward Bound: Tales of Space Station Alpha |magazine=Time |url=http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,59500,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402005352/http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,59500,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 April 2008 |access-date=5 August 2010}}</ref> The name "''Alpha''" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s,<ref name="GAO">{{Cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat3/151975.pdf |title=Space Station – Impact on the expanded Russian role of funding and research |date=21 June 1994 |publisher=[[Engineering:Government Accountability Office|Government Accountability Office]] |access-date=9 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012090030/http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat3/151975.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2023 }}</ref> and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.<ref name="SPACE-Nov3">{{cite web |last=Ladwig |first=Alan |date=3 November 2000 |title=Call Bill Shepherd the Alpha Male of the International Space Station |url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/alpha_male_001103.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523002236/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/alpha_male_001103.html |archive-date=23 May 2009 |access-date=9 August 2010 |website=Space.com}}</ref> Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage."<ref name="SPACE-Nov2">{{cite web |last=Halvorson |first=Todd |date=2 November 2000 |title=Expedition One Crew Wins Bid To Name Space Station Alpha |url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/exp1_alpha_001102.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523002234/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/exp1_alpha_001102.html |archive-date=23 May 2009 |access-date=9 August 2010 |website=Space.com}}</ref> {{ill|Yuriy Semenov|ru|Семёнов, Юрий Павлович}}, the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "''Alpha''" as he felt that ''Mir'' was the first modular space station, so the names "''Beta''" or "''Mir''&nbsp;2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.<ref name=SPACE-Nov3 /><ref>{{cite web |date=3 September 2001 |title=Interview with RSC Energia's Yuri Semenov |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=5913 |access-date=22 August 2010 |website=Space.com |archive-date=5 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305161905/https://cse.google.com/cse.js?cx=009217316079420695036:u6mkq7brjyy |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=21 March 2001 |title=Interview with Yuri Semenov, general designer of Space Rocket corporation Energy |url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2001/03/29/100146.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121311/http://english.ruvr.ru/2001/03/29/100146.html |archive-date=18 March 2012 |access-date=5 October 2010 |publisher=Voice of Russia}}</ref>

Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions [[Engineering:STS-92|STS-92]] and [[Engineering:STS-97|STS-97]]. These two flights each added segments of the station's [[Engineering:Integrated Truss Structure|Integrated Truss Structure]], which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays to supplement the station's four existing arrays.<ref>{{cite web |title=STS-92 |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-92/mission-sts-92.html |access-date=19 April 2011 |publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov |archive-date=5 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305072211/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-92/mission-sts-92.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A [[Engineering:Soyuz-U|Soyuz-U]] rocket delivered the ''Pirs'' docking compartment. The Space Shuttles ''[[Engineering:Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', ''[[Engineering:Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'', and ''[[Engineering:Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' delivered the ''Destiny'' laboratory and ''Quest'' airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.

The expansion schedule was interrupted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle ''[[Engineering:Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'' [[Engineering:Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|disaster]] and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with [[Engineering:STS-114|STS-114]] flown by ''Discovery''.<ref name="nsf-20050726">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2005/07/discovery-launches-the-shuttle-is-back/ |title=Discovery launches – The Shuttle is back |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=26 July 2005 |access-date=6 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164254/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2005/07/discovery-launches-the-shuttle-is-back/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of [[Engineering:STS-115|STS-115]] with ''Atlantis'', which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on [[Engineering:STS-116|STS-116]], [[Engineering:STS-117|STS-117]], and [[Engineering:STS-118|STS-118]]. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the ''Harmony'' node and ''Columbus'' European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of ''Kibō''. In March 2009, [[Engineering:STS-119|STS-119]] completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of ''Kibō'' was delivered in July 2009 on [[Engineering:STS-127|STS-127]], followed by the Russian ''Poisk'' module. The third node, ''Tranquility'', was delivered in February 2010 during [[Engineering:STS-130|STS-130]] by the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', alongside the ''Cupola'', followed by the penultimate Russian module, ''Rassvet'', in May 2010. ''Rassvet'' was delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on [[Engineering:STS-132|STS-132]] in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded ''Zarya'' module in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mini-Research Module 1 (MIM1) Rassvet (MRM-1) |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_mim1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825094354/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_mim1.html |archive-date=25 August 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> The last pressurised module of the USOS, ''Leonardo'', was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of ''Discovery'', [[Engineering:STS-133|STS-133]].<ref name="nasa-sts-133">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-133/ |title=STS-133 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=1 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120173518/https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-133/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> The [[Astronomy:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] was delivered by ''Endeavour'' on [[Engineering:STS-134|STS-134]] the same year.<ref name="nasa-sts-134">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-134/ |title=STS-134 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=1 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120173522/https://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-134/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 }}</ref>

By June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Two power modules called [[Engineering:Science-Power Module-1|NEM-1]] and NEM-2.<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia works on a new-generation space module |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/nem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408182926/http://russianspaceweb.com/nem.html |archive-date=8 April 2016 |access-date=29 November 2015 |website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> are still to be launched. Russia's new primary research module ''Nauka'' docked in July 2021,<ref name="tass-20210928">{{Cite news |url=https://tass.com/science/1343409 |title=Crewed spacecraft docked to ISS's module Nauka first time |date=28 September 2011 |publisher=TASS |access-date=11 October 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145340/https://tass.com/science/1343409 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.<ref name="tass-20190325">{{Cite news |url=https://tass.ru/kosmos/6253886 |title=Рогозин подтвердил, что на модуль "Наука" поставят баки от разгонного блока "Фрегат" |trans-title=Rogozin confirmed that the module 'Science' placed the tanks from the upper stage 'Frigate' |date=25 March 2019 |publisher=TASS |language=ru |access-date=31 March 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144639/https://tass.ru/kosmos/6253886 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> Russia's latest addition, the nodal module [[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']], docked in November 2021.<ref name="roscomos-20211126">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/33473/ |title=Новый модуль вошел в состав российского сегмента МКС |trans-title=A new module has entered the composition of the Russian segment of the ISS |date=26 November 2021 |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |language=ru |access-date=6 May 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127013431/https://www.roscosmos.ru/33473/ |archive-date=27 November 2021 }}</ref>

The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about {{convert|417289|kg|lbs|abbr=on}} ({{as of|2011|September|3|lc=y}}).<ref name="ISStD" /> The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators.

==Structure==

The ISS functions as a modular space station, enabling the addition or removal of modules from its structure for increased adaptability.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:ISS blueprint.png|Overview blueprint of components
File:View of the ISS taken during Crew-2 flyaround (ISS066-E-081311).jpg|The ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing [[Engineering:SpaceX Crew-2|SpaceX Crew-2]] capsule
File:Iss after installation of all roll out solar arrays.jpg|Diagram structure of International Space Station after installation of iROSA solar arrays (as of 2023)
</gallery>

Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The ''Unity'' node joins directly to the ''Destiny'' laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure.

<div style="max-width: 100%; overflow-y: auto">
{{chart/start|align=center|style=width:auto !important; font-size:78%; line-height:100%; line-width:100%; padding:15px; border:2px dotted #AAA;
}} <!--background:#eee; padding:0.5em;--><!--not made Axiom orbital segment or space station modules separate because the modules has not been constructed yet-->

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |PORT1| |
| PORT1         = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_PORT1 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | |AMS|~|ZVEZDA|~|AMS
| AMS            = {{nobr|Solar array}}
|ZVEZDA          = {{nobr|''Zvezda'' DOS-8}}<br />{{nobr|(service module)}}
|boxstyle_ZVEZDA = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
|boxstyle_AMS    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!|!| }}

{{chart| | | | |PORT1|SGM2|-|'|!|)|-|PIRS|PORT2| |MOAOLP
| PIRS           = ''Pirs''<br />airlock
|SGM2            = {{nobr|''Poisk'' (MRM-2)}}<br />airlock
|PORT1           = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|PORT2           = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|MOAOLP          = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|Means of attachment<br />{{nobr|of large payloads}}]]
|boxstyle_SGM2   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_PORT1  = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
|boxstyle_PORT2  = border: 1px solid #696969; background:#808080; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
|boxstyle_PIRS   = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#808080;
|boxstyle_MOAOLP = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| | | | | | | | | |:|}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| |AMS| |RAD| |D|~|~|~|~|ERAWORK
|RAD              = Heat radiator
|AMS              = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|{{nobr|Solar array}}]]
|ERAWORK          = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|ERA<br />{{nobr|portable workpost}}]]
|boxstyle_RAD     = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#D2691E;
|boxstyle_AMS     = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_ERAWORK = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| |:|F|~|~|~|J | | |D|ERA| |
|ERA          = [[Engineering:European Robotic Arm|European (ERA)]]<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|boxstyle_ERA = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| |:|:|F|~|~|~|~|~|J| | | | | |PORT1
|PORT1          = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_PORT1 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|`|-|NAUKA|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|.|!
| NAUKA         = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|{{nobr|''Nauka'' MLM-U}}<br />{{nobr|(lab)}}]]
|boxstyle_NAUKA = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |:|`|-|.| | |!|PORT1|-|UM|-|PORT1
|UM             = [[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']]
|PORT1          = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_UM    = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_PORT1 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#D2691E;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |AMS| |EXPERIMENT|!| | | | |!|`|-|-|.
|AMS                 = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|{{nobr|Solar array}}]]
|EXPERIMENT          = [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)#Installation of outfitting equipment|{{nobr|''Nauka'' MLM-U<br />experiment airlock}}]]
|boxstyle_AMS        = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc; 
|boxstyle_EXPERIMENT = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;

}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |`|PORT2| |PORT1| |PORT1
|PORT1          = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|PORT2          = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian docking port]] <br />{{nobr|via [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|temporary adapter{{efn|Temporary docking adapter used until Prichal module arrival}}]]}}
|boxstyle_PORT1 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#D2691E;
|boxstyle_PORT2 = border: 1px solid #696969; background:#808080; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | |SA|~|ZARYA|~|SA| | |
| SA            = {{nobr|Solar array <br />(partially retracted)}}
|ZARYA          = ''Zarya'' FGB<br />(first module)
|boxstyle_ZARYA = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_SA    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| }}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|`|-|SGM1|PORT1
| SGM1          = ''Rassvet''<br />(MRM-1)
|PORT1          = [[Astronomy:SSVP docking system|Russian<br />{{nobr|docking port}}]]
|boxstyle_PORT1 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
|boxstyle_SGM1  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |PMA| |
 PMA = PMA 1
|boxstyle_PMA  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | }}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | |BERTH|!|LEO|.|,|BEAM
| BERTH         = [[Engineering:Common Berthing Mechanism|Cargo spacecraft<br />{{nobr|berthing port}}]]
|BEAM           = BEAM<br />habitat
|LEO            = [[Engineering:Leonardo (ISS module)|''Leonardo''<br />cargo bay]]
|boxstyle_BERTH = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
|boxstyle_BEAM  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_LEO   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!| | | |!|!| }}

{{chart| | | | | | | |QUEST|-|UNITY|-|NOD3|-|BISHOP
| UNITY          = ''Unity''<br />Node 1
|QUEST           = ''Quest''<br />airlock
|NOD3            = ''Tranquility''<br />Node 3
|BISHOP          = ''Bishop''<br />airlock
|boxstyle_UNITY  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_QUEST  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_NOD3   = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_BISHOP = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | |ESP2| | |!| | |CUPOLA
| ESP2           = ESP-2
|CUPOLA          = ''[[Organization:Cupola (ISS module)|Cupola]]''
|boxstyle_CUPOLA = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_ESP2   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |}}

{{chart|F|iROSA|F|iROSA| | | | |!| | | | |iROSAD|7|iROSA|7|
|iROSA           = [[Astronomy:Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|iROSAD           = [[Astronomy:Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|boxstyle_iROSAD  = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff;
|boxstyle_iROSA  = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|:| | | |:| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | |:}}

{{chart|D|FE|D|FE| |RAD|!|RAD|7|FE|C|FE|C| | 
| RAD           = Heat radiator
|FE             = {{nobr|Solar array}}
|boxstyle_RAD   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_FE    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|:| | | |:| | | | | |:| |!| |:| | | | | |:| | | |:| }}

{{chart|:| | | |:|ELC| | |:|FZ1|:| | |ELC3|:| | | |:|
 | ELC          = ELC 2, [[Astronomy:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|AMS]]
|FZ1           = Z1 truss
|ELC3          = ELC 3
|boxstyle_ELC3 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_FZ1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_ELC  = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|D|~|FS56|FS34|FS1|FS0|FP1|FP34|FP56|~|C|
 | FS56         = S5/6 Truss
|FS34          = S3/S4 Truss
|FS1           = S1 Truss
|FS0           = S0 Truss
|FP1           = P1 Truss
|FP34          = P3/P4 Truss
|FP56          = P5/6 Truss
|boxstyle_FS56 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS34 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FS0  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP1  = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP34 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
|boxstyle_FP56 = border: 2px solid #ff6666; background:#ffcccc;
}}

{{chart|:| | | |:|ELC4| | | |:|!|:| | | |ELC1|:| | | |:|
| ELC4 = ELC 4, ESP 3
|ELC1 = ELC 1
|boxstyle_ELC1 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_ELC4 = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|:| | | |:| | | | |DEXTR|!|CANADARM| | | | |:| | | |:|
 | CANADARM         = Canadarm2<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|DEXTR             = [[Engineering:Dextre|Dextre]]<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|boxstyle_CANADARM = border: 2px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_DEXTR    = border: 2px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|D|FE|D|FE| | | | |!| | | | |FE|C|FE|C| | |
| FE            = {{nobr|Solar array}}
|boxstyle_FE    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart|:| | | |:| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | |:}}

{{chart|L|iROSAD|L|iROSA| | | | |!| | | | |iROSA|J|iROSA|J|
|iROSA = [[Astronomy:Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|iROSAD = [[Astronomy:Roll Out Solar Array|iROSA]]
|boxstyle_iROSA  = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_iROSAD   = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}

{{chart| | | | | | | | |ESP1|DESTINY| | |
| DESTINY         = ''Destiny''<br />laboratory
|ESP1             = ESP-1
|boxstyle_DESTINY = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_ESP1    = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | |KIBOPS| |
| KIBOPS         = ''Kibō'' logistics<br />cargo bay
|boxstyle_KIBOPS = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!|IDA3| |!
| IDA3          = [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|IDA 3<br />{{nobr|docking adapter}}]]
|boxstyle_IDA3  = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | |BERTH|!|PORT2| |!
|BERTH          = [[Engineering:Common Berthing Mechanism|Cargo spacecraft<br />{{nobr|berthing port}}]]
|PORT2          = PMA 3<br />{{nobr|docking port}}
|boxstyle_PORT2 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_BERTH = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff; padding-left:10px; padding-right:10px;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!|!|!| | | |!|KiboRobo
|KiboRobo   = ''Kibō''<br />{{nobr|robotic arm}}
|boxstyle_KiboRobo = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | |COLEXT|COLUMBUS|-|HARMONY|-|KIBO|KiboPlat
| HARMONY          = ''Harmony''<br />Node 2
|KiboPlat          = ''Kibō''<br />{{nobr|external platform}}
|COLUMBUS          = [[Organization:Columbus (ISS module)|''Columbus''<br />laboratory]]
|KIBO              = ''Kibō''<br />laboratory
|COLEXT            = External payloads
|boxstyle_HARMONY  = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_COLUMBUS = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_COLEXT   = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
|boxstyle_KIBO     = border: 2px solid #6699ff; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_KiboPlat = border: 1px solid #fee067; background:#fff4cc;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | |,|-|-|'|!| | }}

{{chart| | | | | | | |AXIOM| |PORT2|
| PORT2         = PMA 2<br />{{nobr|docking port}}
|AXIOM          = [[Astronomy:Axiom Orbital Segment|Axiom modules]]
|boxstyle_PORT2 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff;
|boxstyle_AXIOM = border: 2px solid #000000; background:#ffffff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |IDA2|
| IDA2         = [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|IDA 2<br />{{nobr|docking adapter}}]]
|boxstyle_IDA2 = border: 1px solid #a3ff66; background:#ccddff;
}}

{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{chart/end|nocat=1}}
</div><!-- End of wrapping div which handles overflow -->

===Pressurised modules===
 [[File:Zarya from STS-88.jpg|thumb|''Zarya'' as seen by {{OV|105}} during STS-88]]

====''Zarya''====
''Zarya'' ({{lang-ru|Заря||Dawn}}{{efn|"Zarya" can have a lot of meanings: "daybreak", "dawn" (in the morning) or "afterglow", "evening glow", "sunset" (in the evening). But usually it means "dawn".}}), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the {{lang-ru|"Функционально-грузовой блок"||''Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok''|links=no}} or ''ФГБ''), is the first module of the ISS to have been launched.<ref name="NASA2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/zarya-module/ |title=Zarya Module |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134120/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/zarya-module/ |archive-date=18 November 2023 }}</ref> The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, ''Zarya,'' as of August 2021'','' is primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The ''Zarya'' is a descendant of the [[Engineering:TKS (spacecraft)|TKS spacecraft]] designed for the Russian [[Engineering:Salyut programme|''Salyut'' program]]. The name ''Zarya'' ("Dawn") was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.<ref name="russianspaceweb-enterprise">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html |title=Russian Segment: Enterprise |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=15 October 2008 |access-date=4 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163146/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> [[File:ISS Unity module.jpg|thumb|''Unity'' as seen by {{OV|105}} during STS-88]]

====''Unity''====
The ''Unity'' connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and U.S. segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.<ref name="nssdca-1998-069f">{{Cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1998-069F |title=NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=1998-069F |access-date=6 May 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423215409/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1998-069F |archive-date=23 April 2023 |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Loff |first=Sarah |date=15 November 2018 |title=Unity |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/unity |access-date=6 May 2022 |website=NASA |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605221424/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/unity/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The module is cylindrical in shape, with six [[Engineering:Common Berthing Mechanism|berthing]] locations (forward, [[Engineering:Aft|aft]], port, [[Engineering:Starboard|starboard]], [[Zenith|zenith]], and [[Nadir|nadir]]) facilitating connections to other modules. ''Unity'' measures {{convert|4.57|m}} in diameter, is {{convert|5.47|m}} long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by [[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] in a manufacturing facility at the [[Organization:Marshall Space Flight Center|Marshall Space Flight Center]] in Huntsville, Alabama. ''Unity'' is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility''.<ref name="nasa-roy-20091020">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/sailing_with_nasa/2009/10/20/post_1256076937193/ |title=ET-134's Mission,STS-130: Launching Tranquility |last=Roy |first=Steve |date=20 October 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=23 November 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322123432/https://blogs.nasa.gov/sailing_with_nasa/2009/10/20/post_1256076937193/ |archive-date=22 March 2023 }}</ref> [[File:View_of_the_bottom_of_Zvezda.jpg|thumb|''Zvezda'' as seen by {{OV|105}} during STS-97]]

====''Zvezda''====
''Zvezda'' ({{lang-ru|Звезда|links=no}}, meaning "star"), ''Salyut'' DOS-8, is also known as the ''Zvezda'' Service Module. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's [[Engineering:Life support system|life support system]]s, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k |title=Departing Space Station Commander Provides Tour of Orbital Laboratory |date=3 July 2015 |last=Williams |first=Suni (presenter) |publisher=NASA |time=17.46-18.26 |access-date=1 September 2019 |medium=video}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Roylance |first=Frank D. |date=11 November 2000 |title=Space station astronauts take shelter from solar radiation |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2000-11-11-0011110386-story.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=The Baltimore Sun |publisher=Tribune Publishing |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901060300/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2000-11-11-0011110386-story.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Stofer |first=Kathryn |date=29 October 2013 |title=Tuesday/Wednesday Solar Punch |url=https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/10.28Flare.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=NASA |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202225119/https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/10.28Flare.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The module was manufactured by RKK Energia, with major sub-contracting work by GKNPTs Khrunichev.<ref name="ruspace">{{cite web |title=Service Module {{!}} RuSpace |url=http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/sm.html |access-date=10 November 2020 |website=suzymchale.com |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921234759/http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/sm.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Zvezda'' was launched on a Proton rocket on 12&nbsp;July 2000, and docked with the ''Zarya'' module on 26&nbsp;July 2000.[[File:ISS Destiny Lab.jpg|thumb|The ''Destiny'' module being installed on the ISS]]

====''Destiny''====

The ''Destiny'' module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS.<ref name="boeing">{{Cite web |url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/us_laboratory.html |title=Destiny Laboratory Module |last=Boeing |year=2008 |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |access-date=7 October 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011150013/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/us_laboratory.html |archive-date=11 October 2008 }}</ref><ref name="lab">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html |title=U.S. Destiny Laboratory |last=NASA |year=2003 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=7 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709153924/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html |archive-date=9 July 2007 }}</ref> It was berthed to the ''Unity'' module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001.<ref name="sts-98">{{cite web |last=NASA |year=2001 |title=STS-98 |url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-98/mission-sts-98.html |access-date=7 October 2008 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=30 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830041616/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-98/mission-sts-98.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Destiny'' is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since [[Engineering:Skylab|Skylab]] was vacated in February 1974. The Boeing Company began construction of the {{Convert|14.5|t|lb|adj=on}} research laboratory in 1995 at the [[Organization:Michoud Assembly Facility|Michoud Assembly Facility]] and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.<ref name="boeing" /> ''Destiny'' was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7&nbsp;February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on [[Engineering:STS-98|STS-98]].<ref name="sts-98" /> Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science.<ref name="lab" /> [[File:Quest airlock exterior - STS-127.jpg|thumb|''Quest'' Joint Airlock Module]]

====''Quest''====

The Joint Airlock (also known as "Quest") is provided by the U.S. and provides the capability for ISS-based Extravehicular Activity (EVA) using either a U.S. Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) or Russian Orlan EVA suits.<ref name="nasa-questairlock">{{cite web |title=Quest Airlock |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/quest-airlock/ |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024152123/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/quest-airlock/ |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Before the launch of this airlock, EVAs were performed from either the U.S. Space Shuttle (while docked) or from the Transfer Chamber on the Service Module. Due to a variety of system and design differences, only U.S. space suits could be used from the Shuttle and only Russian suits could be used from the Service Module. The Joint Airlock alleviates this short-term problem by allowing either (or both) spacesuit systems to be used.<ref name="usaf-2010">{{cite tech report |last1=Stockman |first1=Bill |last2=Boyle |first2=Joe |last3=Bacon |first3=John |title=International Space Station Systems Engineering Case Study |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA538763.pdf |publisher={{wipe|United States Air Force}} |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124095002/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA538763.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2023 |pages=36-38 |date=2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Joint Airlock was launched on ISS-7A / STS-104 in July 2001 and was attached to the right hand docking port of Node 1.<ref name="nasa-20210714">{{cite web|last1=Uri |first1=John |title=Space Station 20th: STS-104 Brings Quest Joint Airlock to the Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-sts-104-brings-quest-joint-airlock-to-the-space-station/ |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124093812/https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-sts-104-brings-quest-joint-airlock-to-the-space-station/ |archive-date=24 November 2023 |date=14 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Joint Airlock is 20&nbsp;ft. long, 13&nbsp;ft. in diameter, and weighs 6.5 tons. The Joint Airlock was built by Boeing at Marshall Space Flight Center. The Joint Airlock was launched with the High Pressure Gas Assembly. The High Pressure Gas Assembly was mounted on the external surface of the Joint Airlock and will support EVAs operations with breathing gases and augments the Service Module's gas resupply system.
The Joint Airlock has two main components: a crew airlock from which astronauts and cosmonauts exit the ISS and an equipment airlock designed for storing EVA gear and for so-called overnight "campouts" wherein Nitrogen is purged from astronaut's bodies overnight as pressure is dropped in preparation for spacewalks the following day. This alleviates the bends as the astronauts are repressurized after their EVA.<ref name="usaf-2010" />

The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock. It is equipped with lighting, external handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA). The UIA is located on one wall of the crew airlock and provides a water supply line, a wastewater return line, and an oxygen supply line. The UIA also provides communication gear and spacesuit power interfaces and can support two spacesuits simultaneously. This can be either two American EMU spacesuits, two Russian ORLAN spacesuits, or one of each design.

====''Poisk''====
''Poisk'' ({{lang-ru|По́иск||Search|links=no}}) was launched on 10&nbsp;November 2009<ref name="energia0828">{{Cite news|date=28 August 2009|title=August 28, 2009. S.P.Korolev RSC Energia, Korolev, Moscow region|publisher=RSC Energia|url=http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/mim1/photo_08-28.html|access-date=3 September 2009|archive-date=21 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921031747/https://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/mim1/photo_08-28.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20091110">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp21/091110mrmlaunch/ |title=Poisk launches to add new room for space station |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=11 November 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132113/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp21/091110mrmlaunch/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called [[Engineering:Progress M-MIM2|Progress M-MIM2]], on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. ''Poisk'' is used as the Russian airlock module, containing two identical EVA hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the ''Mir'' space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.<ref name="russianspaceweb-mir-close-calls">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/mir_close_calls.html |title=Mir close calls |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162132/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/mir_close_calls.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Poisk is used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provides contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 May 2006 |title=Pirs Docking Compartment |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/pirs.html |access-date=28 March 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=25 October 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025154605/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/pirs.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on 26 July 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS.[[Image:Node 2 - STS-134.jpg|thumb|''Harmony'' shown connected to ''Columbus'', ''Kibo'', and ''Destiny''. PMA-2 faces. The nadir and zenith locations are open.]]

====''Harmony''====
''Harmony'', also known as ''Node 2'', is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukws3oLMDc8 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ukws3oLMDc8| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|title=Station Tour: Harmony, Tranquility, Unity |date=19 May 2013 |last=Williams |first=Suni (presenter) |publisher=NASA |time=0.06-0.35 |access-date=31 August 2019 |quote=So this is Node 2 ... this is where four out of six of us sleep. |medium=video}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

''Harmony'' was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight [[Engineering:STS-120|STS-120]] on 23&nbsp;October 2007.<ref name="launch">{{cite web |last=NASA |date=23 October 2007 |title=STS-120 MCC Status Report #01 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts120/news/STS-120-01.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=22 September 2019 |archive-date=28 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028131000/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts120/news/STS-120-01.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="lat">{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-24-sci-shuttle24-story.html |title= Shuttle embarks on busy mission |last=Johnson, Jr. |first=John |date=24 October 2007 |access-date=23 October 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222654/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-24-sci-shuttle24-story.html |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work={{wipe|Los Angeles Times}} }}</ref> After temporarily being attached to the port side of the ''Unity'' node,<ref name="harmmate">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/120/STS-120_Archive.html |title=Harmony module pulled from cargo bay |last=Harwood |first=William |date=26 October 2007 |access-date=26 October 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917130622/http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/120/STS-120_Archive.html |archive-date=17 September 2021 |work=CBS News }}</ref><ref name="room">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/science/26cnd-shuttle.html |url-access=subscription |title=New Room Added to Space Station |last=Schwartz |first=John |date=26 October 2007 |access-date=26 October 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162928/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/science/26cnd-shuttle.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} }}</ref> it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the ''Destiny'' laboratory on 14&nbsp;November 2007.<ref name="pma3">{{cite web |last=NASA |year=2007 |title=PMA-3 Relocation |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition15/pma3move.html |access-date=28 September 2007 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |archive-date=12 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012235655/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition15/pma3move.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Harmony'' added {{convert|2666|cuft|m3|abbr=on|order=flip}} to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 per cent, from {{convert|15000|to|17666|cuft|m3|abbr=on|order=flip}}. Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be "U.S. Core Complete".[[File:Node 3 - Isolated view.jpg|thumb|''Tranquility'' in 2011]]

====''Tranquility''====
''Tranquility'', also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, [[Engineering:Life support system|life support system]]s, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation [[Organization:Cupola (ISS module)|cupola]].

The European Space Agency and the [[Organization:Italian Space Agency|Italian Space Agency]] had ''Tranquility'' manufactured by [[Company:Thales Alenia Space|Thales Alenia Space]]. A ceremony on 20&nbsp;November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 October 2010 |title=NASA – NASA Receives Tranquility |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/tranquility_transfer.html |access-date=12 August 2013 |publisher=Nasa.gov |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811174634/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/tranquility_transfer.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 8&nbsp;February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's [[Engineering:STS-130|STS-130]] mission.[[File:Columbus module - cropped.jpg|thumb|The ''Columbus'' module on the ISS]]

====''Columbus''====
{{Main|Organization:Columbus (ISS module)}}
''Columbus'' is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency.

Like the ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility'' modules, the ''Columbus'' laboratory was constructed in [[Place:Turin|Turin]], Italy by [[Company:Thales Alenia Space|Thales Alenia Space]]. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in [[Place:Bremen|Bremen]], Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an [[Engineering:Airbus Beluga|Airbus Beluga]]. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on 7&nbsp;February 2008, on flight [[Engineering:STS-122|STS-122]]. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the [[Organization:Columbus Control Centre|Columbus Control Centre]], located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the [[Organization:German Aerospace Center|German Aerospace Center]] in Oberpfaffenhofen near [[Place:Munich|Munich]], Germany.

The European Space Agency has spent [[Finance:Euro|€]]1.4 billion (about {{wipe|United States dollar}}2 billion) on building ''Columbus'', including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.<ref name="sfn-20080211">{{Cite news |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts122/080211fd5/index3.html |title=Station arm pulls Columbus module from cargo bay |last=Harwood |first=William |date=11 February 2008 |access-date=7 August 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507224754/http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts122/080211fd5/index3.html |archive-date=7 May 2016 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> [[File:Japanese Experiment Module exterior - cropped.jpg|thumb|''Kibō'' Exposed Facility on the right]]

====''Kibō''====
The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed {{nihongo|''Kibō''|きぼう|Kibō|Hope}}, is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the ''Harmony'' module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions [[Engineering:STS-123|STS-123]] and [[Engineering:STS-124|STS-124]]. The third and final components were launched on [[Engineering:STS-127|STS-127]].<ref name="japantimes-20090630">{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/06/30/reference/japan-a-low-key-player-in-space-race/ |url-access=subscription |title=Japan a low-key player in space race |last=Kamiya |first=Setsuko |date=30 June 2009 |publisher=Japan Times |page=3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813092804/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/06/30/reference/japan-a-low-key-player-in-space-race/#.Ugn8K-t_pqY |archive-date=13 August 2013 }}</ref> [[File:STS130 cupola view1.jpg|thumb|The ''Cupola''{{'s}} windows with shutters open]]

====''Cupola''====
{{Main|Organization:Cupola (ISS module)}}

The ''Cupola'' is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word ''{{lang|it|cupola}}'', which means "[[Engineering:Dome|dome]]". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the ''Tranquility'' (Node 3) module. With the ''Cupola'' attached, ISS assembly reached 85 per cent completion. The ''Cupola''{{'s}} central window has a diameter of {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Cupola: a window over the Earth">{{Cite web |url=http://www.thalesaleniaspace-issmodules.com/cupola |title=Thales Alenia Space and ISS modules – Cupola: a window over the Earth |date=26 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726075315/http://www.thalesaleniaspace-issmodules.com/cupola |archive-date=26 July 2010 }}</ref> [[File:STS132 Mini-Research Module-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|''Rassvet'' module with MLM-outfitting equipment (consisting of experiment airlock, RTOd radiators, and ERA workpost) at KSC]]

====''Rassvet''====
''Rassvet'' ({{lang-ru|Рассвет}}; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) ({{lang-ru|Малый исследовательский модуль}}, {{lang|ru|МИМ 1}}) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS). The module's design is similar to the [[Astronomy:Mir Docking Module|''Mir'' Docking Module]] launched on [[Engineering:STS-74|STS-74]] in 1995. ''Rassvet'' is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on the [[Engineering:STS-132|STS-132]] mission on 14 May 2010,<ref name="nsf-20090409">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/sts-132-prcb-baselines-mission-to-deliver-russias-mrm-1/ |title=STS-132: PRCB baselines Atlantis' mission to deliver Russia's MRM-1 |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=9 April 2009 |access-date=12 November 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412103414/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/sts-132-prcb-baselines-mission-to-deliver-russias-mrm-1/ |archive-date=12 April 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> and was connected to the ISS on 18 May 2010.<ref name="connect">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-09.html |title=STS-132 MCC Status Report #09 |date=18 May 2010 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=7 July 2010  |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408013431/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-09.html |archive-date=8 April 2013 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The hatch connecting ''Rassvet'' with the ISS was first opened on 20 May 2010.<ref name="nasa-sts132-mcc-13">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-13.html |title=STS-132 MCC Status Report #13 |date=20 May 2010 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=7 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707032301/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts132/news/STS-132-13.html |archive-date=7 July 2010 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> On 28 June 2010, the [[Engineering:Soyuz TMA-19|Soyuz TMA-19]] spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.<ref name="sfn-20100628">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100628relocate/ |title=Station crew takes Soyuz for 'spin around the block' |last=Ray |first=Justin |date=28 June 2010 |access-date=7 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163556/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100628relocate/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref>
====''Science (or Experiment) Airlock''====
[[File:Iss070e024781.jpg|thumb|Experiment airlock berthed to ''Nauka'']]
The airlock, ShK, is designed for a payload with dimensions up to {{cvt|1200x500x500|mm}}, has a volume of 2.1 m<sup>3</sup>, weight of 1050 kg and consumes 1.5 kW of power at the peak. Prior to berthing the MLM to the ISS, the airlock is stowed as part of MRM1.<ref name="mrm1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/508318main_iss_ref_guide_nov2010.pdf |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |date=November 2010 |page=62 |isbn=978-0-16-086517-6 |access-date=18 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126161345/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/508318main_iss_ref_guide_nov2010.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2023 |lccn=2010040473 |chapter=Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM1) Rassvet (Dawn) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration }}</ref> On 4 May 2023, 01:00 UTC, the chamber was moved by the ERA manipulator and berthed to the forward active docking port of the pressurized docking hub of the Nauka module during VKD-57 spacewalk. It is intended to be used:
*for extracting payloads and from the MLM docking adapter and placing them on the outer surface of the station;
*enable science investigations to be removed, exposed to the external microgravity environment, then returned inside while being maneuvered with the European robotic arm.
*for receiving payloads from the ERA manipulator and moving them into the internal volume of the airlock and further into the MLM pressurized adapter;
*for conducting scientific experiments in the internal volume of the airlock;
*for conducting scientific experiments outside the airlock chamber on an extended table and in a special organized place.<ref name="mrm1"/><ref name="ria-20220517">{{Cite news |url=https://ria.ru/20220517/kosmos-1788938133.html |title=Выход российских космонавтов в открытый космос перенесли на лето |trans-title=The spacewalk of Russian cosmonauts has been rescheduled for the summer |date=17 May 2022 |publisher=RIA Novosti |language=ru |access-date=25 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131748/https://ria.ru/20220517/kosmos-1788938133.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>
*for launching cubesats into space, with the aid of ERA{{snd}}very similar to the Japanese airlock and [[Engineering:Nanoracks Bishop Airlock|Nanoracks Bishop Airlock]] on the U.S. segment of the station.<ref name="Roscosmos1"/>
[[File:STS-133 ISS-26 Permanent Multipurpose Module.jpg|right|thumb|''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module]]

====''Leonardo''====
{{Main|Engineering:Leonardo (ISS module)}}
The ''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the International Space Station. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on [[Engineering:STS-133|STS-133]] on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. ''Leonardo'' is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the US Orbital Segment. The ''Leonardo'' PMM was a [[Engineering:Multi-Purpose Logistics Module|Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath [[Biography:Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo da Vinci]].

====Bigelow Expandable Activity Module====
[[File:BEAM module expansion series.jpg|thumb|Progression of the expansion of BEAM]]
The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by [[Company:Bigelow Aerospace|Bigelow Aerospace]], under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10&nbsp;April 2016,<ref name="space20160410">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/32528-spacex-dragon-delivers-inflatable-room-space-station.html |title=SpaceX Dragon Arrives at Space Station, Delivers Inflatable Room Prototype |last=Pearlman |first=Robert |date=10 April 2016 |access-date=11 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611082951/https://www.space.com/32528-spacex-dragon-delivers-inflatable-room-space-station.html |archive-date=11 June 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> was berthed to the station on 16&nbsp;April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28&nbsp;May 2016.[[File:IDA-1 pre-launch.png|thumb|IDA-1 upright]]

====International Docking Adapters====
The [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|International Docking Adapter]] (IDA) is a [[Engineering:Docking and berthing of spacecraft#Adapters|spacecraft docking system adapter]] developed to convert APAS-95 to the [[Engineering:NASA Docking System|NASA Docking System]] (NDS).<!-- Do not replace this with International Docking System Standard, which is a standard of docking systems, while NASA Docking System is a docking system compatible with the IDSS. --> An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the ''Harmony'' module.

Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally, [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|IDA-1]] was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at ''Harmony''<nowiki/>'s forward port, and [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter#IDA-2|IDA-2]] would be installed on PMA-3 at ''Harmony''<nowiki/>'s zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-7|a launch incident]], [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter#IDA-2|IDA-2]] was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016,<ref name="sfn-20160819">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/19/spacewalkers-attach-new-port-to-space-station-for-commercial-spacecraft/ |title=Spacewalkers attach docking adapter to space station for commercial vehicles |last=Harwood |first=William |date=19 August 2016 |access-date=24 January 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145126/https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/19/spacewalkers-attach-new-port-to-space-station-for-commercial-spacecraft/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> while [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter#IDA-3|IDA-3]] was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Garcia|first=Mark|date=21 August 2019|title=Spacewalkers Complete Installation of Second Commercial Docking Port|work=NASA Space Station|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/08/21/spacewalkers-complete-installation-of-second-commercial-docking-port/|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=2 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602183325/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/08/21/spacewalkers-complete-installation-of-second-commercial-docking-port/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:ISS-64 NanoRacks Bishop airlock after installation.jpg|thumb|NanoRacks Bishop airlock module installed on the ISS]]

====Bishop Airlock Module====
{{main|Engineering:Nanoracks Bishop Airlock}}
The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a [[Astronomy:Commercial use of space|commercially]] funded [[Engineering:Airlock|airlock]] module launched to the ISS on [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-21|SpaceX CRS-21]] on 6 December 2020.<ref name="thales-milestone">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-reaches-key-milestone-nanoracks-airlock-module |title=Thales Alenia Space reaches key milestone for NanoRacks' airlock module |date=20 March 2019 |publisher=[[Company:Thales Alenia Space|Thales Alenia Space]] |location=Turin |access-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130710/https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/press-release/thales-alenia-space-reaches-key-milestone-nanoracks-airlock-module |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="sfn-20190802">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/08/02/spacex-to-begin-flights-under-new-cargo-resupply-contract-next-year/ |title=SpaceX to begin flights under new cargo resupply contract next year |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=2 August 2019 |access-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602175020/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/08/02/spacex-to-begin-flights-under-new-cargo-resupply-contract-next-year/ |archive-date=2 June 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> The module was built by [[Company:NanoRacks|NanoRacks]], [[Company:Thales Alenia Space|Thales Alenia Space]], and Boeing.<ref name="NanoRacks">{{Cite press release |url=https://nanoracks.com/nanoracks-boeing-first-commercial-airlock-module-on-iss/ |title=NanoRacks, Boeing to Build First Commercial ISS Airlock Module |date=6 February 2017 |publisher=[[Company:NanoRacks|NanoRacks]] |access-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163145/https://nanoracks.com/nanoracks-boeing-first-commercial-airlock-module-on-iss/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> It will be used to deploy [[Engineering:CubeSat|CubeSat]]s, [[Engineering:Small satellite|small satellite]]s, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers.<ref name="NASA Announcement">{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=6 February 2017 |title=Progress Underway for First Commercial Airlock on Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/progress-underway-for-first-commercial-airlock-on-space-station |access-date=22 August 2019 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112004837/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/progress-underway-for-first-commercial-airlock-on-space-station/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====''Nauka''====
{{main|Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)}}
''Nauka'' ({{lang-ru|Наука|links=no|3=Science}}), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: ''Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль'', усоверше́нствованный, or ''МЛМ-У)'', is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21&nbsp;July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, ''Nauka'' was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the ''Rassvet'' module and moved to ''Zarya''{{'}}s nadir port. ''Nauka'' was successfully docked to ''Zvezda''{{'}}s nadir port on 29&nbsp;July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the ''Pirs'' module.
[[File:1637984492234 Progress MS 17 undocking and Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter Removal 02.jpg|thumb|[[Engineering:Progress MS-17|Progress MS-17]] undocking and taking the Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter with it{{efn|The temporary docking adapter is the grey ring surrounding the docking probe of Progress MS 17.}}{{efn|The port had the temporary docking adapter before the SSVP-M or "Hybrid" standard, consisting of the traditional SSVP-G probe‑and‑drogue soft-dock mechanism and an APAS-95 hard-dock collar before ''Prichal'' arrival.}}]]
It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft.<ref name="russianspaceweb-ms17">{{Cite web |url=http://russianspaceweb.com/progress-ms-17.html#redocking |title=Progress MS-17 lifts off to prepare Prichal module arrival |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=9 February 2021 |access-date=21 October 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811171304/https://russianspaceweb.com/progress-ms-17.html#redocking |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref>
[[File:Russian Spacewalkers dwarfed by the Nauka and Prichal modules 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Nauka'' and ''Prichal'' docked to ISS]]

====''Prichal''====
{{main|Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)}}
''Prichal'', also known as ''Uzlovoy'' Module or UM ({{lang-ru|Узловой Модуль Причал|links=no|3=Nodal Module Berth}}),<ref>{{cite web |title=В РКК "Энергия" утвердили эскиз нового узлового модуля МКС |url=http://www.federalspace.ru/main.php?id=2&nid=14689 |access-date=30 December 2012 |publisher=Roskosmos |archive-date=19 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619004953/http://www.federalspace.ru/main.php?id=2&nid=14689 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a {{convert|4|t|lb|adj=on}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/07/25/new-docking-port-spacesuit-and-supplies-en-route-to-space-station/ |title=New docking port, spacesuit and supplies en route to space station |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=25 July 2019 |access-date=17 August 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130845/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/07/25/new-docking-port-spacesuit-and-supplies-en-route-to-space-station/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM was launched in November 2021.<ref name="rsw-um">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_node.html#2020 |title=Prichal Node Module, UM |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=22 June 2020 |access-date=23 June 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175425/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_node.html#2020 |archive-date=20 November 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> It was integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo spacecraft and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the ''Nauka'' module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled [[Astronomy:Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex|Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex]] (OPSEK).<ref name="rsw-um" /><ref name="energia-20110113">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.energia.ru/en/news/news-2011/news_01-13.html |title=News January 13, 2011 |date=13 January 2011 |publisher=[[Company:Energia (corporation)|Energia]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702225123/http://www.energia.ru/en/news/news-2011/news_01-13.html |archive-date=2 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="NSF20200819">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/nauka-arrives-baikonur-final-preps/ |title=Russia's Nauka ISS module arrives at Baikonur for final launch preparations |last=Atkinson |first=Ian |date=19 August 2020 |access-date=20 August 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132018/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/nauka-arrives-baikonur-final-preps/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>

===Unpressurised elements===
[[File:Truss breakdown.png|thumb|right|220px|ISS Truss Components breakdown showing Trusses and all ORUs in situ]]
The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the [[Engineering:Integrated Truss Structure|Integrated Truss Structure]] (ITS), to which the station's main [[Physics:Photovoltaic system|solar arrays]] and thermal radiators are mounted.<ref name="Arrays">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/truss_segment.html |title=Spread Your Wings, It's Time to Fly |date=26 July 2006 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=21 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111135544/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/truss_segment.html |archive-date=11 January 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure {{convert|108.5|m}} long.<ref name="OnOrbit" />

The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs).<ref name="Manifest">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html |title=Consolidated Launch Manifest |year=2008 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=8 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307191348/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html |archive-date=7 March 2009 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nasa-factsheet-expressracks">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/expressrack.html |title=EXPRESS Racks 1 and 2 fact sheet |date=1 February 2001 |id=FS-2001-02-34-MSFC |access-date=4 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829173441/http://www.nasa.gov:80/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/expressrack.html |archive-date=29 August 2008 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the [[Astronomy:Robotic Refueling Mission|Robotic Refueling Mission]]) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare [[Engineering:Orbital replacement unit|Orbital Replacement Unit]]s (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms.<ref name="nsf-20111223">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/12/soyuz-tma-03m-docks-iss-returns-station-six-crewmembers-future-ops/ |title=Soyuz TMA-03M docks to ISS, returns station to six crewmembers for future ops |date=23 December 2011 |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811170248/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/12/soyuz-tma-03m-docks-iss-returns-station-six-crewmembers-future-ops/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including [[Engineering:STS-129|STS-129]],<ref name="EVA129">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/404493main_EVA_129_F_E1.pdf |title=EVA Checklist: STS-129 Flight Supplement |last=Welsch |first=L. D. |date=30 October 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129141620/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/404493main_EVA_129_F_E1.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2011 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> STS-133<ref name="sts-133-press-kit">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/491387main-sts-133-press-kit.pdf |title=Space Shuttle Mission: STS-133 Press Kit |date=February 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012174024/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/491387main-sts-133-press-kit.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> and STS-134.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/538352main_sts134_presskit_508.pdf |title=Space Shuttle Mission: STS-134 |date=April 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226120713/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/538352main_sts134_presskit_508.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2018 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> {{asof|2011|01}}, only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilised{{snd}}the Japanese cargo vessel [[Engineering:H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-2]]{{snd}}which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).<ref name="HTV2">{{Cite web |url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/htv/mission/htv-2/library/presskit/htv2_presskit_en.pdf |title=HTV2: Mission Press Kit |date=20 January 2011 |publisher=Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163142/https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/htv/mission/htv-2/library/presskit/htv2_presskit_en.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref>{{update after|2013|1 |28}}

[[File:STS-116 spacewalk 1.jpg|right|220px|thumb|Construction of the Integrated Truss Structure over New Zealand]]

There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility serves as an external "[[Engineering:Porch|porch]]" for the ''Kibō'' complex,<ref>{{cite web |date=29 August 2008 |title=Exposed Facility:About Kibo |url=http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/jef/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803102352/http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/jef/ |archive-date=3 August 2009 |access-date=9 October 2009 |publisher=JAXA}}</ref> and a facility on the European ''Columbus'' laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility<ref name="NASA">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/EuTEF.html |title=NASA–European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) |date=6 October 2008 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019013911/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/EuTEF.html |archive-date=19 October 2008 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="ESA">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/European_Technology_Exposure_Facility_EuTEF |title=European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) |date=13 January 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812214202/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/European_Technology_Exposure_Facility_EuTEF |archive-date=12 August 2023 }}</ref> and the [[Physics:Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space|Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES) |url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/HSF_Research/SEMJSK0YDUF_0.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609110757/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/HSF_Research/SEMJSK0YDUF_0.html |archive-date=9 June 2009 |access-date=9 October 2009 |publisher=ESA}}</ref> A [[Earth:Remote sensing|remote sensing]] instrument, [[Astronomy:SAGE III on ISS|SAGE III-ISS]], was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-10|CRS-10]],<ref name="nsf20170310">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-dragon-experiments-busy-science-period/ |title=SpaceX science – Dragon delivers experiments for busy science period |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=10 March 2017 |access-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132955/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-dragon-experiments-busy-science-period/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> and the [[Astronomy:Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer|NICER]] experiment was delivered aboard [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-11|CRS-11]] in June 2017.<ref name="nsf20170603">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacex-falcon-9-crs-11-dragon-iss-100th-39a/ |title=Falcon 9 launches with CRS-11 Dragon on 100th 39A launch |last=Graham |first=William |date=3 June 2017 |access-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145605/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacex-falcon-9-crs-11-dragon-iss-100th-39a/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the [[Astronomy:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.<ref name="ams-cern">{{Cite web |url=http://ams.cern.ch/ |title=The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment |date=21 January 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:CERN|CERN]] |access-date=6 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162236/https://ams.cern.ch/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="nsf20130404">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/endeavours-legacy-ams-02-proving-value/ |title=Endeavour's ongoing legacy: AMS-02 proving its value |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=4 April 2013 |access-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130623/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/04/endeavours-legacy-ams-02-proving-value/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>

The commercial ''[[Organization:Columbus – External Payload Facility#Bartolomeo|Bartolomeo]]'' External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-20|CRS-20]] and attached to the European ''Columbus'' module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on ''Kibō'', and four on ''Columbus''. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.<ref name="spacedaily-20180209">{{Cite news |url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/ESA_and_Airbus_sign_partnership_agreement_for_new_ISS_commercial_payload_platform_Bartolomeo_999.html |title=ESA and Airbus sign partnership agreement for new ISS commercial payload platform Bartolomeo |date=9 February 2018 |access-date=10 February 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811172013/https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/ESA_and_Airbus_sign_partnership_agreement_for_new_ISS_commercial_payload_platform_Bartolomeo_999.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=SpaceDaily }}</ref><ref name="aerospacetech-20180208">{{Cite news |url=https://www.aerospace-technology.com/news/airbus-esa-partner-bartolomeo-platform/ |title=Airbus and ESA to partner on Bartolomeo platform |date=8 February 2018 |access-date=10 February 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145538/https://www.aerospace-technology.com/news/airbus-esa-partner-bartolomeo-platform/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Aerospace Technology }}</ref><ref name="eoportal-iss-bartolomeo">{{Cite web |url=https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/iss-bartolomeo |title=ISS: Bartolomeo |date=26 October 2016 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=10 February 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812204548/https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/iss-bartolomeo |archive-date=12 August 2023 |website=eoPortal }}</ref>
====MLM outfittings====
[[File:MRM1 Rassvet.png|thumb|MLM outfittings on Rassvet]]
[[File:ISS-65 Nauka and Soyuz MS-18 docked to the International Space Station (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|A wide-angle view of the new module (behind ''Rassvet'') attached to the ROS as seen from the cupola]]
In May 2010, equipment for ''Nauka'' was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of ''Rassvet'' (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the [[Engineering:European Robotic Arm|European Robotic Arm]] (ERA) (which was launched with ''Nauka'') and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator and internal hardware alongside the pressurized experiment airlock.<ref name="Roscosmos1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/31395/ |title=Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль "Наука" |trans-title=Multipurpose Laboratory Module 'Nauka' |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |language=ru |access-date=14 July 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714161136/https://www.roscosmos.ru/31395/ |archive-date=14 July 2021 }}</ref>

The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to ''Nauka'', which enables the module to host more scientific experiments.<ref name="Roscosmos1"/>

The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator from ''Rassvet'' and transferred over to ''Nauka'' during VKD-56 spacewalk. Later it was activated and fully deployed on VKD-58 spacewalk.<ref name="garcia-20230512">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/05/12/cosmonauts-deploy-radiator-and-complete-spacewalk/ |title=Cosmonauts Deploy Radiator and Complete Spacewalk |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=12 May 2023 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=12 May 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731062433/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/05/12/cosmonauts-deploy-radiator-and-complete-spacewalk/ |archive-date=31 July 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref> This process took several months. A portable work platform was also transferred over in August 2023 during VKD-60 spacewalk, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks.<ref name="esa-arm-brochure">{{Cite web |url=https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/science/ERA_brochure_EN.pdf |title=European Robotic Arm Brochure |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |page=9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130647/https://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/science/ERA_brochure_EN.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="sfn-20230809">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/08/09/live-coverage-russian-cosmonauts-make-spacewalk-at-international-space-station/ |title=Russian cosmonauts make spacewalk at International Space Station |last=Harwood |first=William |date=9 August 2023 |access-date=10 August 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812094606/https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/08/09/live-coverage-russian-cosmonauts-make-spacewalk-at-international-space-station/ |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref> However, even after several months of outfitting EVAs and RTOd heat radiator installation, six months later, the RTOd radiator malfunctioned before active use of Nauka (the purpose of RTOd installation is to radiate heat from Nauka experiments). The malfunction, a leak, rendered the RTOd radiator unusable for Nauka. This is the third ISS radiator leak after [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-22|Soyuz MS-22]] and [[Engineering:Progress MS-21|Progress MS-21]] radiator leaks. If a spare RTOd is not available, Nauka experiments will have to rely on Nauka's main launch radiator and the module could never be utilized to its full capacity.<ref name="sfn-20231009">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/10/09/leak-detected-onboard-russian-segment-of-international-space-station/ |title=Russian space station laboratory module appears to spring coolant leak – Spaceflight Now |date=9 October 2023 |access-date=10 October 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014232548/https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/10/09/leak-detected-onboard-russian-segment-of-international-space-station/ |archive-date=14 October 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Госкорпорация «Роскосмос» |url=https://t.me/roscosmos_gk/11130 |access-date=2023-10-10 |website=Telegram}}</ref>

Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=pm;f=inbox;l=-1;done=sent|title=Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Delivered in two parts to Nauka by [[Engineering:Progress MS-18|Progress MS-18]] (LCCS part) and [[Engineering:Progress MS-21|Progress MS-21]] (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Russian Nauka/Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) General Thread |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2419522#msg2419522 |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Schedule of ISS flight events (part 2) |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=32006.msg2391098#msg2391098 |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Russian Nauka/Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) General Thread |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=23444.msg2334840#msg2334840 |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=forum.nasaspaceflight.com}}</ref><ref name="russianspaceweb-fgb2-mlm">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss-fgb2-mlm-integration.html |title=Russia to bump its ISS crew back to three |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |access-date=25 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164158/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss-fgb2-mlm-integration.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk.<ref name="garcia-20221116">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/16/cosmonauts-prep-for-thursday-spacewalk-dragon-targets-monday-launch/ |title=Cosmonauts Prep for Thursday Spacewalk, Dragon Targets Monday Launch |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=16 November 2022 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=16 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132145/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/16/cosmonauts-prep-for-thursday-spacewalk-dragon-targets-monday-launch/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref><ref name="lavelle-20221117">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-begin-first-in-a-series-of-spacewalks-for-station-maintenance/ |title=Cosmonauts Begin First in a Series of Spacewalks for Station Maintenance |last=Lavelle |first=Heidi |date=17 November 2022 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=17 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130808/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-begin-first-in-a-series-of-spacewalks-for-station-maintenance/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref><ref name="garcia-20221117">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-finish-spacewalk-for-work-on-science-module/ |title=Cosmonauts Finish Spacewalk for Work on Science Module |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=17 November 2022 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=17 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329110535/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/11/17/cosmonauts-finish-spacewalk-for-work-on-science-module/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref><ref name="spacecom-20221117">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/iss-spacewalk-russian-radiator-move-prep |title=Russian cosmonauts complete station spacewalk to ready radiator for move |last=Pearlman |first=Robert Z. |date=17 November 2022 |access-date=23 November 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124215252/https://www.space.com/iss-spacewalk-russian-radiator-move-prep |archive-date=24 November 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref>

====Robotic arms and cargo cranes====
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Iss017e011097.jpg
| caption1          = Commander Volkov stands on ''Pirs'' with his back to the Soyuz whilst operating the manual<br />[[Astronomy:Strela (crane)|Strela crane]] (which is holding photographer Oleg Kononenko)
| image2            = Dextrereallyhasnohead.jpg
| caption2          = [[Engineering:Dextre|Dextre]], like many of the station's experiments and robotic arms, can be operated from Earth, allowing tasks to be performed while the crew sleeps
}}

The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the [[Engineering:Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Servicing System]] (MSS), which is composed of three main components:
* Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of {{convert|1800|kg|lb}} and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre around to perform tasks.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 January 2013 |title=Canadarm2 and the Mobile Servicing System |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/mss.html |access-date=22 June 2015 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=23 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323030711/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/mss.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Engineering:Dextre|Dextre]] is a {{convert|1560|kg|lb|abbr=on}} robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing [[Engineering:Orbital replacement unit|orbital replacement unit]]s (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.<ref name="csa-dextre">{{Cite web |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/dextre/ |title=Dextre, the International Space Station's Robotic Handyman |date=18 April 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:Canadian Space Agency|Canadian Space Agency]] |access-date=22 June 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405001741/https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/dextre/ |archive-date=5 April 2023 }}</ref>
* The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.<ref name="csa-mbs">{{Cite web |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/mobile-base/ |title=Mobile Base System |publisher=[[Organization:Canadian Space Agency|Canadian Space Agency]] |access-date=22 June 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327123655/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/mobile-base/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 }}</ref>

A grapple fixture was added to ''Zarya'' on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the Russian Orbital Segment.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit" /> Also installed during STS-134 was the {{convert|50|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} [[Engineering:Orbiter Boom Sensor System|Orbiter Boom Sensor System]] (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS.<ref name="sts-134-press-kit" /> Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks.

Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility,<ref>{{cite web |date=29 August 2008 |title=Remote Manipulator System: About Kibo |url=http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/rms/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320035809/http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/kibo/rms/ |archive-date=20 March 2008 |access-date=4 October 2009 |publisher=JAXA}}</ref> was launched on [[Engineering:STS-124|STS-124]] and is attached to the ''Kibō'' Pressurised Module.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 January 2002 |title=International Space Station Status Report #02-03 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/station/2002/iss02-03.txt |access-date=4 October 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=11 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311105930/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/station/2002/iss02-03.txt |url-status=dead }}</ref> The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.

The [[Engineering:European Robotic Arm|European Robotic Arm]], which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, was launched alongside the [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']] module.<ref name="tass-20200402">{{Cite news |url=https://tass.com/science/1139385 |title=Russia postpones launch of Nauka research module to orbital outpost to 2021 |date=2 April 2020 |publisher=TASS |access-date=1 March 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810143935/https://tass.com/science/1139385 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two ''[[Astronomy:Strela (crane)|Strela]]'' ({{lang-ru|Стрела́||Arrow}}) cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of {{cvt|45|kg}}.

=== Former module ===

==== ''Pirs'' ====

Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14&nbsp;September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, [[Engineering:Progress M-SO1|Progress M-SO1]], as an upper stage.  Pirs was undocked by [[Engineering:Progress MS-16|Progress MS-16]] on 26&nbsp;July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for [[Engineering:Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']] module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits.

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = Sts110-363-001.jpg
| caption1          = The ''Pirs'' module attached to the ISS
| image2            = ISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the Space Station.jpg
| caption2          = ISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the International Space Station
}}

===Planned components===
==== Axiom segment ====
{{main|Astronomy:Axiom Orbital Segment}}

In January 2020, NASA awarded [[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS. The contract is under the [[Astronomy:Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships|NextSTEP2]] program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm [[Finance:Fixed-price contract|fixed-price contract]] basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's ''Harmony (Node 2)'' module. Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom plans to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS.<ref name="sfn-20200128">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/28/axiom-wins-nasa-approval-to-attach-commercial-habitat-to-space-station/ |title=Axiom wins NASA approval to attach commercial habitat to space station |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=28 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121185755/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/28/axiom-wins-nasa-approval-to-attach-commercial-habitat-to-space-station/ |archive-date=21 November 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref><ref name="techcrunch-20200127">{{Cite news |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/01/27/nasa-taps-startup-axiom-space-for-the-first-habitable-commercial-module-for-the-space-station/ |title=NASA taps startup Axiom Space for the first habitable commercial module for the Space Station |last=Etherington |first=Darrell |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128010232/https://techcrunch.com/2020/01/27/nasa-taps-startup-axiom-space-for-the-first-habitable-commercial-module-for-the-space-station/ |archive-date=28 January 2020 |work=TechCrunch }}</ref><ref name="geekwire-20200127">{{Cite news |url=https://www.geekwire.com/2020/nasa-clears-axiom-space-put-commercial-habitat-space-station-boeings-help/ |title=NASA clears Axiom Space to put commercial habitat on space station, with Boeing on the team |last=Boyle |first=Alan |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406054511/https://www.geekwire.com/2020/nasa-clears-axiom-space-put-commercial-habitat-space-station-boeings-help/ |archive-date=6 April 2023 |work=GeekWire }}</ref> Canadarm 2 will also help to berth the [[Astronomy:Axiom Orbital Segment|Axiom Space Station]] modules to the ISS and will continue its operations on the Axiom Space Station after the retirement of ISS in late 2020s.<ref name="axiom-assembly">{{Cite web |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station/assembly-sequence |title=Axiom Station Assembly Sequence – Axiom Space Axiom Space |publisher=[[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] |access-date=9 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145840/https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station/assembly-sequence |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>

As of December 2023, Axiom Space expects to launch the first module, Hab One, at the end of 2026.<ref name="sn-20231213">{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-yet-to-select-launch-pad-for-next-axiom-space-private-astronaut-mission/ |title=SpaceX yet to select launch pad for next Axiom Space private astronaut mission |work=SpaceNews |date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |quote=Ondler said in the briefing that the first of those modules is now scheduled to launch to the ISS at the end of 2026, about a year later than the company previously announced.}}</ref>

===Proposed components===

====Xbase====

Made by [[Company:Bigelow Aerospace|Bigelow Aerospace]]. In August 2016, Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-size ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. The module is called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hopes to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station.

====Independence-1====
[[Company:Nanoracks|Nanoracks]], after finalizing its contract with NASA, and after winning NextSTEPs Phase II award, is now developing its concept Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would turn spent rocket tanks into a habitable living area to be tested in space. In Spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as the Independence-1, the first 'outpost' in Nanoracks' Space Outpost Program.

====Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration====
If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects. It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew.

===Cancelled components===
[[File:ISS Habitation module.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The cancelled Habitation module under construction at Michoud in 1997]]
Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 [[Engineering:Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|''Columbia'' disaster]]. The US [[Engineering:Centrifuge Accommodations Module|Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of [[Physics:Artificial gravity|artificial gravity]].<ref>{{cite web |title=CAM – location? |url=http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=12560.msg265342 |access-date=12 October 2009 |website=NASA Spaceflight Forums}}</ref> The US [[Engineering:Habitation Module|Habitation Module]] would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station.<ref name="spacecom-20060214">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/2050-nasa-recycles-iss-module-life-support-research.html |title=NASA Recycles Former ISS Module for Life Support Research |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=14 February 2006 |access-date=11 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812225629/https://www.space.com/2050-nasa-recycles-iss-module-life-support-research.html |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> The US Interim Control Module and [[Engineering:ISS Propulsion Module|ISS Propulsion Module]] would have replaced the functions of ''Zvezda'' in case of a launch failure.<ref name="navy-code8200-icm">{{Cite web |url=http://code8200.nrl.navy.mil/icm.html |title=ICM Interim Control Module |publisher=U.S. Naval Center for Space Technology |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208164211/http://code8200.nrl.navy.mil/icm.html |archive-date=8 February 2007 }}</ref> Two [[Engineering:Russian Research Module|Russian Research Module]]s were planned for scientific research.<ref name="boeing-russian-modules">{{Cite web |url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/russian_laboratory.html |title=Russian Research Modules |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100208034625/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/russian_laboratory.html |archive-date=8 February 2010 }}</ref> They would have docked to a Russian [[Engineering:Universal Docking Module|Universal Docking Module]].<ref name="russianspaceweb-iss-segment">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_russia.html |title=Russian segment of the ISS |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |access-date=3 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406134221/https://russianspaceweb.com/iss_russia.html |archive-date=6 April 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> The Russian [[Engineering:Science Power Platform|Science Power Platform]] would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.

====Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components)====
'''Science Power Module 1''' ('''SPM-1''', also known as '''NEM-1''') and '''Science Power Module 2''' ('''SPM-2''', also known as '''NEM-2''') are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the ''Prichal'' module, which is currently docked to the ''Nauka'' module.<ref name="NSF20200819" /><ref name="rsw-2024">{{Cite web |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2024.html#nem |title=Russian space program in 2024 |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=22 June 2020 |access-date=23 June 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102064550/https://russianspaceweb.com/2024.html#nem |archive-date=2 November 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2027<ref name="tass-20230124">{{Cite news |url=https://tass.com/science/1566383 |title=Russia to set up national orbital outpost in 2027 — Roscosmos |date=24 January 2023 |publisher=TASS |access-date=31 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609221841/https://tass.com/science/1566383 |archive-date=9 June 2023 }}</ref> and docking to the free-flying ''Nauka'' module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited.<ref name="tass-20210719">{{Cite web |url=https://tass.ru/kosmos/11934057 |title=Роскосмос примет решение о пути развития российской орбитальной станции до конца июля |trans-title=Roscosmos to decide development path of Russian orbital station by end of July |date=19 July 2021 |publisher=TASS |language=ru |access-date=20 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131618/https://tass.ru/kosmos/11934057 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="russianspaceweb-ros">{{Cite web |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html |title=Russian Orbital Service Station, ROSS |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=16 April 2021 |access-date=26 April 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814171139/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html |archive-date=14 August 2023 |website=RussianSpaceWeb }}</ref> NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028.<ref name="roscosmos-20210424">{{Cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/30863/ |title=Научно-энергетический модуль запустят на "Ангаре" с Восточного |trans-title=The Science Power Module will be launched on an Angara from Vostochny |date=24 April 2021 |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |language=ru |access-date=26 April 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822035249/https://www.roscosmos.ru/30863/ |archive-date=22 August 2022 }}</ref>

==Onboard systems==
===Life support===
{{Main|Engineering:ISS ECLSS|Chemistry:Chemical oxygen generator}}
The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the ''Zvezda'' service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The ''Nauka'' laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.

====Atmospheric control systems====
[[File:SpaceStationCycle.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The interactions between the components of the ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)|alt=A flowchart diagram showing the components of the ISS life support system.]]
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to [[Earth:Atmosphere of Earth|that of Earth]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Freudenrich |first=Craig |date=20 November 2000 |title=How Space Stations Work |url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-station2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212014934/http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-station2.htm |archive-date=12 December 2008 |access-date=23 November 2008 |publisher=Howstuffworks}}</ref> Normal air pressure on the ISS is {{cvt|101.3|kPa}};<ref>{{cite web |title=5–8: The Air Up There |url=http://nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=04-032&gl=58 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20041218024247/http://nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=04-032&gl=58 |archive-date=18 December 2004 |access-date=31 October 2008 |website=NASAexplores |publisher=NASA}}</ref> the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the [[Engineering:Apollo 1|Apollo 1]] crew.<ref name="apollo-204-report">{{Cite report |url=https://history.nasa.gov/as204_senate_956.pdf |title=Apollo 204 Accident: Report of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate |last1=Anderson |first1=Clinton P. |date=30 January 1968 |publisher=US Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |page=8 |id=Report No. 956 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130754/https://history.nasa.gov/as204_senate_956.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 |display-authors=0 }}</ref>{{better source needed|Source is 54 years old and does NOT conclude that 100% oxygen atmospheres should be completely avoided – the problem of Apollo 1 was the testing with pure oxygen at 16.7 psi (1.2 atm) overpressure, i.e. six times the natural partial pressure of oxygen. It explicitly states on p. 11 that "NASA has recommended by detailed review that the inflight cabin atmosphere, outside the Earth's atmosphere, should continue to be 100 percent oxygen at 5 p.s.i.A." (c. 0.3 atm). FWIW, Andy Weir's 2021 SF novel Project Hail Mary claims that an Earth-like atmosphere is maintained in near-Earth space stations to simplify evacuation in case of emergency.|date=January 2022}}
Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.<ref name="spacemed">{{Cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Jeffrey R. |title=Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine |volume=XII |pages=261–264 |year=2008 |place=Philadelphia PA, USA |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |name-list-style=amp |last2=Johnson |first2=Robert |last3=Stepanek |first3=Jan}}</ref>

The ''Elektron'' system aboard ''Zvezda'' and a similar system in ''Destiny'' generate oxygen aboard the station.<ref name="OGS">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/2052-air-apparent-oxygen-systems-iss.html |title=Air Apparent: New Oxygen Systems for the ISS |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=15 February 2006 |access-date=21 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814171139/https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html |archive-date=14 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and [[Astronomy:Vika oxygen generator|Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation]] (SFOG) canisters, a [[Chemistry:Chemical oxygen generator|chemical oxygen generator]] system.<ref name="breath easy">{{cite web |first=Patrick L. |last=Barry |date=13 November 2000 |title=Breathing Easy on the Space Station |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921141609/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm |archive-date=21 September 2008 |access-date=21 November 2008 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the [[Engineering:ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh|Vozdukh]] system in ''Zvezda''. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by [[Physics:Activated carbon|activated charcoal]] filters.<ref name="breath easy" />

Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces {{chem2|O2}} and {{chem2|H2}} by [[Chemistry:Electrolysis|electrolysis]] of water and vents {{chem2|H2}} overboard. The {{cvt|1|kW}} system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. ''Mir'' was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing [[Astronomy:Vika oxygen generator|Vika]] cartridges (see also [[Engineering:ISS ECLSS|ISS ECLSS]]). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at {{convert|450|-|500|C}}, producing {{convert|600|L}} of {{chem2|O2}}. This unit is manually operated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/issrslss.html |title= RuSpace {{!}} ISS Russian Segment Life Support System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809155257/http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/issrslss.html |archive-date=9 August 2011 |url-status=dead |website=Suzymchale.com |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>

The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the ''Quest'' airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the ''Tranquility'' module (Node 3), which produces {{chem2|O2}} by electrolysis.<ref name="nasa-20001113">{{Cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast13nov_1 |title=Breathing Easy on the Space Station |date=13 November 2000 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311204439/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast13nov_1 |archive-date=11 March 2019 }}</ref> Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.

===Power and thermal control===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = ROSSA.jpg
| caption1          = Russian solar arrays, backlit by sunset
| image2            = P4 deployed.jpg
| caption2          = One of the eight truss mounted pairs of USOS solar arrays
| image3            = ISS new iROSA deployed.jpg
| caption3          = ISS new roll out solar array as seen from a zoom camera on the P6 Truss
}}

Double-sided [[Physics:Solar panel|solar arrays]] provide [[Physics:Electric power|electrical power]] to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light [[Earth:Albedo|reflected off]] from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth.<ref name="andreas-2005">{{Cite conference |url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/a815121ffc4ffe473368ab7a.html |title=The early history of bifacial solar cell |last=Cuevas |first=Andrés |date=January 2005 |publisher=WIP Renewable Energies |access-date=14 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131511/https://wenku.baidu.com/view/a815121ffc4ffe473368ab7a.html |archive-date=5 April 2023 |conference=European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference |hdl=1885/84487 |volume=20 }}</ref> <!-- don't worry about the 'lower absobance' thingy, that's about heat not electricity--><!--http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/search.cgi?startrow=1391&maxrows=10&page=1&pages=1878&count=18775&navpage=139&images=images&searchwhat=all shows a sequence of photographs taken on 11 September 2000, from the sequence and orientation of the station, it's a sunset in the background of ROSSA.jpg-->

The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28&nbsp;[[Volt|V]]&nbsp;[[Physics:Extra-low voltage|low voltage]] [[Physics:Direct current|DC]] from two rotating solar arrays mounted on ''Zvezda''. The USOS uses 130–180&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC from the USOS&nbsp;PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC and converted to the user-required 124&nbsp;V&nbsp;DC. The [[Physics:High voltage|higher distribution voltage]] allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters.

The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts.<ref name="ISS_stats" /> These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about {{convert|375|m2|sqft|0|abbr=on}} in area and {{convert|58|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the ''alpha [[Engineering:Gimbal|gimbal]]'' once per orbit; the ''beta gimbal'' follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The [[Astronomy:Night Glider mode|Night Glider mode]] aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=G. Landis |author2=C-Y. Lu |year=1991 |title=Solar Array Orientation Options for a Space Station in Low Earth Orbit |journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=123–125 |doi=10.2514/3.23302}}</ref>

The station originally used rechargeable [[Physics:Nickel–hydrogen battery|nickel–hydrogen batteries]] ({{chem2|NiH2}}) for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas B. |last=Miller |date=24 April 2000 |title=Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Cell Life Test Program Update for the International Space Station |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5420miller.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825125740/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5420miller.html |archive-date=25 August 2009 |access-date=27 November 2009 |series=Research & Technology |publisher=NASA{{\}}Glenn Research Center |website=grc.nasa.gov}}</ref> Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.<ref name="sfn-20161213">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/12/13/japanese-htv-makes-battery-delivery-to-international-space-station/ |title=Japanese HTV makes battery delivery to International Space Station |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=13 December 2016 |access-date=29 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132031/https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/12/13/japanese-htv-makes-battery-delivery-to-international-space-station/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now }}</ref>

The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, [[Physics:Plasma contactor|plasma contactor]] units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma.<ref>{{cite web |last=Patterson |first=Michael J. |date=18 June 1999 |title=Cathodes Delivered for Space Station Plasma Contactor System |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1998/5000/5430patterson.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705135954/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1998/5000/5430patterson.html |archive-date=5 July 2011 |series=Research & Technology |publisher=NASA{{\}}Lewis Research Center |website=grc.nasa.gov}}</ref>

[[File:EATCS.png|thumb|ISS External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) diagram]]
The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]] loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station.<ref name="nasa-stayingcool">{{Cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast21mar_1/ |title=Staying Cool on the ISS |last1=Price |first1=Steve |last2=Phillips |first2=Tony |last3=Knier |first3=Gil |date=21 March 2001 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=22 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203012526/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast21mar_1/ |archive-date=3 February 2023 }}</ref> The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including ''Kibō'' and ''Columbus'', as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70&nbsp;kW. This is much more than the 14&nbsp;kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on [[Engineering:STS-105|STS-105]] and installed onto the P6 Truss.<ref name="acts-overview">{{Cite tech report |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/473486main_iss_atcs_overview.pdf |title=Active Thermal Control System (ATCS) Overview |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016111319/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/473486main_iss_atcs_overview.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2023 }}</ref>

===Communications and computers===
[[File:ISS Communication Systems.png|thumb|The communications systems used by the ISS.<br />* [[Engineering:Luch (satellite)|''Luch'']] and the Space Shuttle are not in use as of 2020.|alt=Diagram showing communications links between the ISS and other elements.]]

Radio communications provide [[Telemetry|telemetry]] and scientific data links between the station and [[Engineering:Mission control center|mission control centre]]s. Radio links are also used during [[Astronomy:Space rendezvous|rendezvous and docking procedures]] and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.<ref name="BoeingComm" />

The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the ''Lira'' [[Engineering:Antenna (radio)|antenna]] mounted to ''Zvezda''.<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mathews |first1=Melissa |last2=James Hartsfield |date=25 March 2005 |title=International Space Station Status Report: SS05-015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/mar/HQ_ss05015_ISS_status_report.html |access-date=11 January 2010 |website=NASA News |publisher=NASA |archive-date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111144205/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/mar/HQ_ss05015_ISS_status_report.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ''Lira'' antenna also has the capability to use the ''[[Engineering:Luch (satellite)|Luch]]'' data relay satellite system.<ref name="ISSRG" /> This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS,<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref name="SSSM">{{Cite book |last=Harland |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspacestat0000harl |title=The Story of Space Station Mir |year= 2004 |publisher=Springer-Verlag New York Inc |isbn=978-0-387-23011-5 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Harvey">{{Cite book |title=The rebirth of the Russian space program: 50 years after Sputnik, new frontiers |last=Harvey |first=Brian |year=2007 |publisher=Springer Praxis Books |page=263 |isbn=978-0-387-71354-0 }}</ref> although two new ''Luch'' satellites{{snd}}''Luch''-5A and ''Luch''-5B{{snd}}were launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system.<ref>{{cite web |first=Anatoly |last=Zak |date=4 January 2010 |title=Space exploration in 2011 |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2011.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626095747/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2011.html |archive-date=26 June 2010 |access-date=12 January 2010 |website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref> Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between ''Zvezda'', ''Zarya'', ''Pirs'', ''Poisk'', and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on ''Zvezda''{{'s}} exterior.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2010 |title=ISS On-Orbit Status 05/02/10 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/reports/iss_reports/2010/05022010.html |access-date=7 July 2010 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119101404/http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/05022010.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: [[Astronomy:S band|S band]] (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and [[Astronomy:Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in [[Astronomy:Geostationary orbit|geostationary orbit]], allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.<ref name="ISSRG" /><ref name="ISSBook">{{Cite book |last=Catchpole |first=John E. |url={{Google books|VsTdriusftgC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=The International Space Station: Building for the Future |publisher=Springer-Praxis |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-387-78144-0}}</ref><ref name="BoeingComm">{{Cite web |url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/communications_tracking.html |title=Communications and Tracking |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |access-date=30 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611115319/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/communications_tracking.html |archive-date=11 June 2008 |website=Integrated Defense Systems }}</ref> Data channels for the Canadarm2, European ''Columbus'' laboratory and Japanese ''Kibō'' modules were originally also routed via the S band and K<sub>u</sub> band systems, with the [[Engineering:European Data Relay System|European Data Relay System]] and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.<ref name="ISSBook" /><ref name="JAXA-MOU">{{cite web |date=24 February 1998 |title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Government of Japan Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_japan.html |access-date=19 April 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111144216/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_japan.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Communications between modules are carried on an internal [[Engineering:Wireless network|wireless network]].<ref>{{cite web |date=February 2000 |title=Operations Local Area Network (OPS LAN) Interface Control Document |url=http://www.spaceref.com/iss/computer/iss.ops.lan.icd.pdf |access-date=30 November 2009 |publisher=NASA }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 600
| image1            = ISS-38 EVA-1 Laptops.jpg
| caption1          = An array of laptops in the US lab
| image2            = STS-128 ISS-20 Destiny Canadarm2.jpg
| caption2          = Laptop computers surround the Canadarm2 console
| image3            = ISS laptop hard drive failure error message.jpg
| caption3          = An error message displays a problem with a hard drive on a laptop aboard the ISS
}}

[[Physics:Ultra high frequency|UHF radio]] is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.<ref name="ISSRG" /> Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a [[Physics:Laser|laser]] attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to ''Zvezda'' to accurately dock with the station.<ref name="spaceref-20050228">{{Cite web |url=https://spaceref.com/press-release/issatv-communication-system-flight-on-soyuz/ |title=ISS/ATV communication system flight on Soyuz |date=28 February 2005 |publisher=EADS Astrium |access-date=30 November 2009 }}</ref><ref name="nsf-20091110">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/sts-129-support-dragon-communication-demo-iss/ |title=STS-129 ready to support Dragon communication demo with ISS |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=10 November 2009 |access-date=30 November 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811174816/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/sts-129-support-dragon-communication-demo-iss/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>

The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15 laptop computers. The laptops have run [[Software:Windows 95|Windows 95]], [[Software:Windows 2000|Windows 2000]], [[Software:Windows XP|Windows XP]], [[Software:Windows 7|Windows 7]], [[Software:Windows 10|Windows 10]] and [[Software:Linux|Linux]] operating systems.<ref name="techrepublic-20160523">{{Cite news |url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/from-windows-10-linux-ipads-iphones-to-hololens-the-tech-space-station-astronauts-use/ |title=From Windows 10, Linux, iPads, iPhones to HoloLens: The tech astronauts use on the ISS |last=Heath |first=Nick |date=23 May 2016 |access-date=29 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526014418/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/from-windows-10-linux-ipads-iphones-to-hololens-the-tech-space-station-astronauts-use/ |archive-date=26 May 2016 |work=[[TechRepublic]] }}</ref> Each computer is a [[Finance:Commercial off-the-shelf|commercial off-the-shelf]] purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Portable Computer System (PCS) laptops connect to the Primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM) as remote terminals via a USB to [[MIL-STD-1553|1553]] adapter.<ref name="nasa-20190430">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2019/04/ |title=April 2019 – ISS On-Orbit Status Report |last=Keeter |first=Bill |date=30 April 2019 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=5 November 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144500/https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2019/04/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=blogs.nasa.gov }}</ref> Station Support Computer (SSC) laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's [[Wireless LAN|wireless LAN]] via [[Wi-Fi]] and ethernet, which connects to the ground via K<sub>u</sub> band. While originally this provided speeds of 10&nbsp;Mbit/s download and 3&nbsp;Mbit/s upload from the station,<ref name="issit">{{Cite news |last=Bilton |first=Nick |date=22 January 2010 |title=First Tweet From Space |work=The New York Times |url=https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/22/first-tweet-from-space/ |url-status=live |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102072939/https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/22/first-tweet-from-space/ |archive-date=2 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="tested20121019">{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Will |date=19 October 2012 |title=How Fast is the ISS's Internet? (and Other Space Questions Answered) |work=Tested.com |url=http://www.tested.com/science/space/449539-how-fast-isss-internet-and-other-space-questions-answered/ |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429212053/http://www.tested.com/science/space/449539-how-fast-isss-internet-and-other-space-questions-answered/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> NASA upgraded the system in late August 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s.<ref name="universetoday-20190825">{{Cite news |url=https://www.universetoday.com/143221/upgraded-iss-now-has-a-600-megabit-per-second-internet-connection/ |title=Upgraded ISS Now Has a 600 Megabit per Second Internet Connection |last=Williams |first=Matt |date=25 August 2019 |access-date=23 June 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906210636/https://www.universetoday.com/143221/upgraded-iss-now-has-a-600-megabit-per-second-internet-connection/ |archive-date=6 September 2023 |work=Universe Today }}</ref> Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced.<ref name="esa-20130813">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/ESA_ISS_Science_System_-_Operations_Status_Report_150_Increment_36_13_26_July_2013 |title=ESA ISS Science & System – Operations Status Report #150 Increment 36: 13-26 July 2013 |last1=Zell |first1=Martin |last2=Suenson |first2=Rosita |date=13 August 2013 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=11 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203259/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Columbus/ESA_ISS_Science_System_-_Operations_Status_Report_150_Increment_36_13_26_July_2013 |archive-date=12 August 2023 }}</ref> Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices.<ref name="roundup20010601">{{Cite news |last=Burt |first=Julie |date=1 June 2001 |title=Computer problems overcome during STS-100 |work=Space Center Roundup |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/roundups/issues/2001-06-01.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223230857/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/roundups/issues/2001-06-01.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="space20070614">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/3946-nasa-space-station-computer-crash-extend-shuttle-mission.html |title=NASA: Space Station Computer Crash May Extend Shuttle Mission |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=14 June 2007 |access-date=11 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144639/https://www.space.com/3946-nasa-space-station-computer-crash-extend-shuttle-mission.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref><ref name="reuters20070613">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-shuttle/nasa-battles-failure-of-space-station-computer-idUSN1337907120070614/ |title=NASA battles failure of space station computer |last=Klotz |first=Irene |date=13 June 2007 |access-date=11 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131847/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-shuttle/nasa-battles-failure-of-space-station-computer-idUSN1337907120070614 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work={{wipe|Reuters}} }}</ref><ref name="huffpost20170522">{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/iss-computer-failure-spacewalk_us_5922759ce4b03b485cb27a80 |title=NASA Plans Emergency Spacewalk To Replace Key Computer On International Space Station |last=Klotz |first=Irene |date=22 May 2017 |access-date=11 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811165009/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/iss-computer-failure-spacewalk_n_5922759ce4b03b485cb27a80 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |agency={{wipe|Reuters}} |work=Huffpost }}</ref>

The operating system used for key station functions is the [[Software:Debian|Debian]] [[Software:Linux distribution|Linux distribution]].<ref name="register-20130510">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/05/10/iss_linux_debian_deployment/ |title=Penguins in spa-a-a-ce! ISS dumps Windows for Linux on laptops |last=Thomson |first=Iain |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=15 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162138/https://www.theregister.com/2013/05/10/iss_linux_debian_deployment/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=The Register }}</ref> The migration from [[Software:Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] to Linux was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gunter |first=Joel |date=10 May 2013 |title=International Space Station to boldly go with Linux over Windows |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10049444/International-Space-Station-to-boldly-go-with-Linux-over-Windows.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10049444/International-Space-Station-to-boldly-go-with-Linux-over-Windows.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission.<ref name="GTI 2019">{{Cite journal |url=https://globaltaiwan.org/2019/06/us-taiwan-space-cooperation-formosat-ams-and-the-iss-computer/ |title=US-Taiwan Space Cooperation: Formosat, AMS, and the ISS computer |last=An |first=David |date=5 June 2019 |publisher=Global Taiwan Institute |access-date=17 June 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330204610/https://globaltaiwan.org/2019/06/us-taiwan-space-cooperation-formosat-ams-and-the-iss-computer/ |archive-date=30 March 2023 |journal=Global Taiwan Brief |issue=11 |volume= }}</ref> It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA.<ref name="taipeitimes-20170612">{{Cite news |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2017/06/12/2003672395 |title=Taiwan-designed computer now part of an ISS mission |last1=Chin |first1=Jonathan |last2=Tien-pin |first2=Lo |date=12 June 2017 |access-date=17 June 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131506/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2017/06/12/2003672395 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |work=Taipei Times }}</ref>

ISS crew members have access to the [[Internet]], and thus [[World Wide Web|the web]].<ref name="Kuksov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.kaspersky.co.uk/blog/internet-in-space/16690/ |title=Internet in space: Is there Net on Mars? |last1=Kuksov |first1=Igor |date=13 September 2019 |publisher=[[Company:Kaspersky Lab|Kaspersky Lab]] |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831095806/https://www.kaspersky.co.uk/blog/internet-in-space/16690/ |archive-date=31 August 2023 |website=Kaspersky Daily }}</ref><ref name="ScienceAlert">{{Cite news |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-iss-now-has-better-internet-than-most-of-us-after-its-latest-upgrade |title=The ISS Now Has Better Internet Than Most of Us After Its Latest Upgrade |date=26 August 2019 |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102150646/https://www.sciencealert.com/the-iss-now-has-better-internet-than-most-of-us-after-its-latest-upgrade |archive-date=2 November 2023 |work=ScienceAlert }}</ref> This was first enabled in 2010,<ref name="Kuksov" /> allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first [[Company:Twitter|tweet]] from space.<ref name="first-tweet">{{Cite tweet |title=Hello Twitterverse! We r now LIVE tweeting from the International Space Station — the 1st live tweet from Space! 🙂 More soon, send your ?s |last1=Creamer |first1=T.J. |author-link1=Timothy Creamer |date=22 January 2010 |location=Earth orbit |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125190151/http://twitter.com/Astro_TJ/status/8062317551 |archive-date=25 January 2010 |user=Astro_TJ |number=8062317551 }}</ref> Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using [[Software:Remote desktop software|remote desktop mode]], thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking attempts.<ref name="Kuksov" />

==Operations==
===Expeditions===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Sts088-703-019e.jpg
| caption1          = ''Zarya'' and ''Unity'' were entered for the first time on 10 December 1998
| image2            = Soyuz tm-31 transported to launch pad.jpg
| caption2          = Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the first resident crew to the station in October 2000
}}

Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle ''Columbia''. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010.<ref name="ISSEx">{{cite web |date=10 April 2009 |title=International Space Station Expeditions |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/index.html |access-date=13 April 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=14 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814024250/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="current">{{cite web |last=NASA |year=2008 |title=International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html |access-date=22 October 2008 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> With the arrival of crew on US [[Astronomy:Development of the Commercial Crew Program|commercial vehicles]] beginning in 2020,<ref name="bbc-20200119">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-51169705 |title=SpaceX completes emergency crew escape manoeuvre |date=19 January 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163510/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51169705 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref> NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS was originally designed for.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Morring |first=Frank |date=27 July 2012 |title=ISS Research Hampered By Crew Availability |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/article.aspx?id=/article-xml/asd_07_26_2012_p01-02-480253.xml |url-status=dead |magazine=Aviation Week |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501214851/http://www.aviationweek.com/article.aspx?id=%2Farticle-xml%2Fasd_07_26_2012_p01-02-480253.xml |archive-date=1 May 2013 |access-date=30 July 2012 |quote=A commercial capability would allow the station's crew to grow from six to seven by providing a four-seat vehicle for emergency departures in addition to the three-seat Russian Soyuz capsules in use today.}}</ref><ref name="airandspace-201104">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/assembly-nearly-complete-2091210/ |title=Assembly (Nearly) Complete |last=Hoversten |first=Paul |date=April 2011 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607224549/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/assembly-nearly-complete-2091210/ |archive-date=7 June 2023 |quote=In fact, we're designed on the U.S. side to take four crew. The ISS design is actually for seven. We operate with six because first, we can get all our work done with six, and second, we don't have a vehicle that allows us to fly a seventh crew member. Our requirement for the new vehicles being designed is for four seats. So I don't expect us to go down in crew size. I would expect us to increase it. |magazine=Air & Space }}</ref>

Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions [[Astronomy:Expedition 9|9]], [[Astronomy:Expedition 19|19]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 20|20]], [[Astronomy:Expedition 31|31]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 32|32]], and [[Astronomy:Expedition 43|43]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 44|44]], and Commander of [[Astronomy:Expedition 11|Expedition 11]], has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes.<ref name="spacefacts-padalka">{{Cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/cosmonauts/english/padalka_gennadi.htm |title=Biographies of USSR/Russian Cosmonauts: Padalka |publisher=Spacefacts |access-date=28 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906183022/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/cosmonauts/english/padalka_gennadi.htm |archive-date=6 September 2017 }}</ref> Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 675 days, 3 hours and 48 minutes during her time on Expeditions [[Astronomy:Expedition 5|5]], [[Astronomy:Expedition 16|16]], and [[Astronomy:Expedition 50|50]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 51|51]]/[[Astronomy:Expedition 52|52]] and [[Astronomy:Axiom Mission 2|Axiom Mission 2]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Biographies of U.S. Astronauts: Whitson |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/whitson_peggy.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618112418/http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/whitson_peggy.htm |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023|publisher=Spacefacts}}</ref><ref name="ax2commander">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/press-release/ax2 |title=Record-holding astronaut Peggy Whitson and mission pilot John Shoffner to lead Axiom Space's Ax-2 mission to enable new research in space |date=25 May 2021 |publisher=[[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111164639/https://www.axiomspace.com/press-release/ax2 |archive-date=11 November 2023 }}</ref>

===Private flights===

Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike.{{efn|Privately funded travellers who have objected to the term include Dennis Tito, the first such traveller,<ref>''Associated Press'', 8 May 2001</ref> Mark Shuttleworth, founder of [[Software:Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]],<ref>Associated Press, ''The Spokesman Review'', 6 January 2002, p. A4</ref> Gregory Olsen and Richard Garriott.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schwartz |first=John |date=10 October 2008 |title=Russia Leads Way in Space Tourism With Paid Trips into Orbit |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/11/science/space/11space.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722130339/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/11/science/space/11space.html |archive-date=22 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="nbc-20050913">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna9323509 |title=Space passenger Olsen to pull his own weight |last=Boyle |first=Alan |date=13 September 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203905/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna9323509 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=NBC News }}</ref> Canadian astronaut Bob Thirsk said the term does not seem appropriate, referring to his crewmate, Guy Laliberté, founder of Cirque du Soleil.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flight to space ignited dreams &#124; St. Catharines Standard |url=http://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1975186&archive=true |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912062200/http://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1975186&archive=true |archive-date=12 September 2012 |access-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=Stcatharinesstandard.ca}}</ref> Anousheh Ansari denied being a tourist<ref name="esa-notatourist">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Technology_Transfer/I_am_NOT_a_tourist |title="I am NOT a tourist" |date=16 February 2007 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126165131/https://www.esa.int/Applications/Technology_Transfer/I_am_NOT_a_tourist |archive-date=26 November 2023 }}</ref> and took offence at the term.<ref name="spacecom-20060915">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/2889-interview-anousheh-ansari-female-space-tourist.html |title=Interview with Anousheh Ansari, the First Female Space Tourist |last=Goudarzi |first=Sara |date=15 September 2006 |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811174719/https://www.space.com/2889-interview-anousheh-ansari-female-space-tourist.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref>}} {{As of|2023|06}}, thirteen space tourists have visited the ISS; nine were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and four were transported on American [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon 2|SpaceX Dragon 2]] spacecraft. For one-tourist missions, when professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required.<ref name="sfn-20110112">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1101/12soyuz/ |title=Resumption of Soyuz tourist flights announced |last=Harwood |first=William |date=12 January 2011 |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131351/https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1101/12soyuz/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref> The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40&nbsp;million to members of the public who could pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.{{efn|ESA director Jörg Feustel-Büechl said in 2001 that Russia had no right to send 'amateurs' to the ISS. A 'stand-off' occurred at the Johnson Space Center between Commander Talgat Musabayev and NASA manager Robert Cabana who refused to train Dennis Tito, a member of Musabayev's crew along with Yuri Baturin. Musabayev argued that Tito had trained 700 hours in the last year and was as qualified as any NASA astronaut, and refused to allow his crew to be trained on the USOS without Tito. Cabana would not allow training to begin, and the commander returned with his crew to their hotel.}} <!--<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bridges |first=Andrew |date=1 November 2011 |title=The ISS won't be hosting paying guests anytime soon – at least not as far as NASA is concerned. |url=http://www.space.com/news/spacestation/mir_tour_iss_001101.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002185427/http://www.space.com/news/spacestation/mir_tour_iss_001101.html |archive-date=2 October 2009 |access-date=26 January 2012 |website=Space.com}}</ref>-->

[[Biography:Anousheh Ansari|Anousheh Ansari]] became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent."<ref name="rfe-20060915">{{Cite news |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1071358.html |title=U.S.: Iranian-American To Be First Female Civilian in Space |last=Maher |first=Heather |date=15 September 2006 |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906105719/https://www.rferl.org/a/1071358.html |archive-date=6 September 2023 }}</ref> She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The 2009 documentary ''[[Astronomy:Space Tourists|Space Tourists]]'' follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space."<ref name="space-tourists-film">{{Cite web |url=http://www.space-tourists-film.com/en/film_synopsis.php |title=Space Tourists - A Film By Christian Frei |publisher=Space-tourists-film.com |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130847/http://www.space-tourists-film.com/en/film_synopsis.php |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>

In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geocaching – The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site |url=http://www.geocaching.com/ |website=www.geocaching.com}}</ref> This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence.<ref name="geekwire-20110829">{{Cite news |url=https://www.geekwire.com/2011/outer-space-ocean-floor-15m-geocaches-counting/ |title=From outer space to the ocean floor, Geocaching.com now boasts more than 1.5 million hidden treasures |last=Cook |first=John |date=29 August 2011 |access-date=27 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163646/https://www.geekwire.com/2011/outer-space-ocean-floor-15m-geocaches-counting/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Geekwire.com }}</ref> At the same time, the [[Astronomy:Immortality Drive|Immortality Drive]], an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.<ref name="abc-20081012">{{Cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=6016448 |title=American game designer follows father into orbit |date=12 October 2008 |access-date=16 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130752/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=6016448 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=ABC News }}</ref>

After a 12-year hiatus, the first two wholly space tourism-dedicated private spaceflights to the ISS were undertaken. [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-20|Soyuz MS-20]] launched in December 2021, carrying visiting Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and two Japanese space tourists under the aegis of the private company [[Company:Space Adventures|Space Adventures]];<ref name="space adventures">{{Cite web |url=https://spaceadventures.com/experiences/space-station/ |title=Space Station Experience |last=Jefferson |first=Mark |date=9 January 2018 |publisher=[[Company:Space Adventures|Space Adventures]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925164032/http://www.spaceadventures.com:80/experiences/space-station |archive-date=25 September 2018 }}</ref><ref name="tass20200219">{{Cite news |url=https://tass.com/science/1045321 |title=Roscosmos signs new contract on flight of two space tourists to ISS |date=19 February 2019 |publisher=TASS |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132826/https://tass.com/science/1045321 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> in April 2022, the company [[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] chartered a [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon 2|SpaceX Dragon 2]] spacecraft and sent its own employee astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and three space tourists to the ISS for [[Astronomy:Axiom Mission 1|Axiom Mission 1]],<ref name="teslarati-1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-space-tourism-first-crew-dragon-contract/ |title=SpaceX space tourism ambitions made real with Crew Dragon's first private contract |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=9 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131652/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-space-tourism-first-crew-dragon-contract/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Teslarati }}</ref><ref name="axiom-first-private">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/post/axiom-space-plans-first-ever-fully-private-human-spaceflight-mission-to-international-space-station |title=Axiom Space plans first-ever fully private human spaceflight mission to International Space Station |date=5 March 2020 |publisher=[[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812223849/https://www.axiomspace.com/news/axiom-space-plans-first-ever-fully-private-human-spaceflight-mission-to-international-space-station |archive-date=12 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="ax1overview">{{Cite web |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax1 |title=Meet Ax-1, The Beginning of a New Era |publisher=[[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] |access-date=18 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155314/https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax1 |archive-date=24 November 2023 }}</ref> followed in May 2023 by one more tourist, John Shoffner, alongside employee astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts for [[Astronomy:Axiom Mission 2|Axiom Mission 2]].<ref name="Sheetz 2021">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/02/axiom-space-expands-spacex-deal-for-private-crew-launches-to-iss-.html |title=Axiom Space expands SpaceX private crew launch deal, with four total missions to the space station |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529151534/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/02/axiom-space-expands-spacex-deal-for-private-crew-launches-to-iss-.html |archive-date=29 May 2023 |work={{wipe|CNBC}} }}</ref><ref name="Ax-2 Overview">{{Cite web |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax2 |title=Ax-2: The second private mission to the International Space Station |publisher=[[Company:Axiom Space|Axiom Space]] |access-date=18 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155431/https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax2 |archive-date=24 November 2023 }}</ref>

=== Fleet operations ===
[[File:Dragon and Cygnus docked on ISS.jpg|thumb|Dragon and Cygnus cargo vessels were docked at the ISS together for the first time in April 2016]]
[[File:ISS-36 HTV-4 berthing 2.jpg|thumb|Japan's [[Engineering:Kounotori 4|Kounotori 4]] berthing]]
[[File:Commercial Crew Program vehicles.jpg|thumb|Commercial Crew Program vehicles Starliner and Dragon]]
A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified [[Engineering:Progress M-MIM2|M-MIM2]], [[Engineering:Progress M-SO1|M-SO1]] and [[Engineering:Progress M-UM|M-UM]] module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European [[Engineering:Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATVs]], 9 Japanese [[Engineering:H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTVs]], 1 [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner|Boeing Starliner]], 30 [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon|SpaceX Dragon]] (both crewed and uncrewed) and 18 [[Engineering:Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] missions.<ref name="spacecom-20210810">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/northrop-grumman-heaviest-cygnus-cargo-ship-launch |title=Antares rocket launches heaviest Cygnus cargo ship ever to space station for NASA |last=Thompson |first=Amy |date=10 August 2021 |access-date=11 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405033657/https://www.space.com/northrop-grumman-heaviest-cygnus-cargo-ship-launch |archive-date=5 April 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref>

There are currently eleven available docking ports for visiting spacecraft:<ref name="her">{{Cite conference |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110010964/downloads/20110010964.pdf |title=ISS Interface Mechanisms and their Heritage |last1=Cook |first1=John |last2=Aksamentov |first2=Valery |last3=Hoffman |first3=Thomas |last4=Bruner |first4=Wes |date=September 2011 |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |location=Houston, Texas |access-date=31 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810133110/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110010964/downloads/20110010964.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 |quote=Docking is when one incoming spacecraft rendezvous with another spacecraft and flies a controlled collision trajectory in such a manner so as to align and mesh the interface mechanisms. The spacecraft docking mechanisms typically enter what is called soft capture, followed by a load attenuation phase, and then the hard docked position which establishes an air-tight structural connection between spacecraft. Berthing, by contrast, is when an incoming spacecraft is grappled by a robotic arm and its interface mechanism is placed in close proximity of the stationary interface mechanism. Then typically there is a capture process, coarse alignment and fine alignment and then structural attachment. |conference=AIAA Space }}</ref>

# ''Harmony'' forward (with [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|''IDA 2'']])
# ''Harmony'' zenith (with [[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|''IDA 3'']])
# ''Harmony'' nadir
# ''Unity'' nadir
# ''[[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' nadir
# ''[[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' aft
# ''[[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' forward
# ''[[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' starboard
# ''[[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|Prichal]]'' port
# ''Poisk'' zenith
# ''Rassvet'' nadir
# ''Zvezda'' aft

==== Crewed ====
{{As of|2023|May|22|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/visitors-to-the-station-by-country/}}, 269 people from 21 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The {{wipe|United States}} sent 163 people, {{wipe|Russia}} sent 57, {{wipe|Japan}} sent 11, {{wipe|Canada}} sent nine, Italy sent five, {{wipe|France}} sent four, {{wipe|Germany}} sent four, the [[Place:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] sent two, Saudi Arabia sent two, and there were one each from Belgium, {{wipe|Brazil}}, {{wipe|Denmark}}, the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, {{wipe|South Africa}}, {{wipe|South Korea}}, {{wipe|Spain}}, [[Place:Israel|Israel]], and Sweden.<ref name="NASA Visitor Count 2023">{{cite web | last=Garcia | first=Mark | title=Visitors to the Station by Country | website=NASA | date=22 May 2023 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/visitors-to-the-station-by-country | access-date=18 June 2023 | page= | archive-date=17 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617190840/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/visitors-to-the-station-by-country/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Uncrewed ====
[[Astronomy:Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station|Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS]] are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian [[Engineering:Progress (spacecraft)|Progress]] spacecraft, former European [[Engineering:Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATVs]], Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon|Dragon]] and [[Engineering:Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] spacecraft. The primary docking system for Progress spacecraft is the automated [[Astronomy:Kurs (docking navigation system)|Kurs]] system, with the manual [[Astronomy:TORU|TORU]] system as a backup. ATVs also used Kurs, however they were not equipped with TORU. Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months.<ref name="esa-astronaut-mc">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ATV/Astronaut_s_role_in_mission_control |title=Astronaut's role in mission control |date=2 March 2011 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=23 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707202710/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ATV/Astronaut_s_role_in_mission_control |archive-date=7 July 2022 }}</ref><ref name="esa-atv">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ATV/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle |title=Automated Transfer Vehicle |date=16 January 2009 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=23 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017113713/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ATV/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle |archive-date=17 October 2023 }}</ref> The other spacecraft{{snd}}the Japanese HTV, the [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]] Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman<ref name="spacecom-20180610">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/40828-orbital-atk-aquired-by-northrop-grumman.html |title=Acquisition of Orbital ATK Approved, Company Renamed Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems |last=Erwin |first=Sandra |date=10 June 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603143323/https://www.space.com/40828-orbital-atk-aquired-by-northrop-grumman.html |archive-date=3 June 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> Cygnus{{snd}}rendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the ''Harmony'' or ''Unity'' module for one to two months. Under CRS phase 2, [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon 2|Cargo Dragon]] docks autonomously at IDA-2 or IDA-3. {{As of|2020|12}}, Progress spacecraft [[Astronomy:List of Progress missions|have flown most of the uncrewed missions]] to the ISS.

[[Engineering:Soyuz MS-22|Soyuz MS-22]] was launched in 2022. A micro-meteorite impact in December 2022 caused a coolant leak in its external radiator and it was considered risky for human landing. Thus MS-22 reentered uncrewed on 28 March 2023 and [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-23|Soyuz MS-23]] was launched uncrewed on 24 February 2023, and it returned the MS-22 crew.<ref name="garcia-20221215">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/12/15/nasa-provides-update-on-international-space-station-operations/ |title=NASA Provides Update on International Space Station Operations |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=15 December 2022 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107144329/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2022/12/15/nasa-provides-update-on-international-space-station-operations/ |archive-date=7 November 2023 |website=NASA Blogs |accessdate=15 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Investigation into Soyuz leak continues|first=Jeff |last=Foust |date=22 December 2022|url=https://spacenews.com/investigation-into-soyuz-leak-continues/|publisher=Space News|access-date=1 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="wjxt-2023011">{{Cite news |url=https://www.news4jax.com/news/world/2023/01/11/russia-to-launch-new-capsule-to-return-space-station-crew/ |title=Russia to launch new capsule to return space station crew |date=11 January 2023 |access-date=11 January 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401165722/https://www.news4jax.com/news/world/2023/01/11/russia-to-launch-new-capsule-to-return-space-station-crew/ |archive-date=1 April 2023 |work=WJXT |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/09/27/crewed-soyuz-spacecraft-undocking-live-on-nasa-tv/ |title=Crewed Soyuz Spacecraft Undocking Live on NASA TV |last=Graf |first=Abby |date=27 September 2023 |access-date=27 September 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015104636/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2023/09/27/crewed-soyuz-spacecraft-undocking-live-on-nasa-tv/ |archive-date=15 October 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref>

==== Currently docked/berthed ====
[[File:Iss-01-20-24.jpg|thumb|258x258px|Rendering of the ISS and visiting vehicles. [https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visiting-vehicles/ Live link at nasa.gov.]]]
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Spacecraft
! scope="col" | Type
! scope="col" | Mission
! scope="col" | Location
! scope="col" | Arrival ([[UTC]])
! scope="col" | Departure (planned)
|-
! scope="row" | Progress MS No. 454
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Progress MS-24|Progress MS-24]]
| Zvezda aft
| 25 Aug 2023<ref name="nsf-schedule" /><ref name="glenn-schedule" /><ref name="laprensa-20230822">{{Cite news |url=https://www.laprensalatina.com/russia-sends-progress-ms-24-freighter-to-intl-space-station/ |title=Russia sends Progress MS-24 freighter to intl. space station |date=22 August 2023 |access-date=23 August 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826060656/https://www.laprensalatina.com/russia-sends-progress-ms-24-freighter-to-intl-space-station/ |archive-date=26 August 2023 |work=La Prensa Latina Media }}</ref>
|2024
|-
! scope="row" | ''{{ComV|Dragon 2|Endurance}}''
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:SpaceX Crew-7|Crew-7]]
| ''Harmony'' zenith 
| 27 August 2023<ref name="nasa-20230826">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-spacex-crew-7-launches-to-international-space-station/ |title=NASA's SpaceX Crew-7 Launches to International Space Station |last=O'Shea |first=Claire |date=26 August 2023 |id=23-094 |access-date=26 August 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118133900/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-spacex-crew-7-launches-to-international-space-station/ |archive-date=18 November 2023 |website=NASA }}</ref>
| March 2024
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Soyuz MS|Soyuz MS]] No. 755 ''Antares''
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-24|Soyuz MS-24]]
| ''Rassvet'' nadir
| 15 September 2023<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-091523a-soyuz-ms-24-launch-space-station.html |title=Russia's Soyuz MS-24 launches crew for up to yearlong stay on space station |access-date=15 September 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006173029/http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-091523a-soyuz-ms-24-launch-space-station.html |archive-date=6 October 2023 |website=collectSPACE.com }}</ref>
| March 2024
|-
! scope="row" | Progress MS No. 455
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|RUS}}
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Progress MS-25|Progress MS-25]]
| Poisk zenith 
| 3 Dec 2023<ref name="nsf-schedule" /><ref name="glenn-schedule" />
|2024
|-
! scope="row" | ''{{ComV|Dragon 2|Freedom}}''
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Astronomy:Axiom Mission 3|AX-3]]
| ''Harmony'' forward 
| 20 January 2024
| Q1 2024
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Cygnus (spacecraft)|S.S. Patricia “Patty” Hilliard Robertson]]
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|USA}}
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Cygnus NG-20|NG-20]]
| ''Unity'' nadir
| 1 February 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule" /><ref name="glenn-schedule" />
| Q1 2024
|}

====Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation====
<!--crew dragon relocations occurs due to iss visiting missions, so will be listed here-->
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Modules and spacecraft
! scope="col" | Type
! scope="col" | Current location
! scope="col" | Relocated location
! scope="col" | Relocation date (planned)
! scope="col" | EVA Assisted
|}

==== Scheduled missions ====
* All dates are [[UTC]]. Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change.
* Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. [[Nadir]] is closest the Earth, [[Zenith|zenith]] is on top. [[Port and starboard|Port]] is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel; [[Port and starboard|starboard]] to the right.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
! scope="col" | Mission
! scope="col" | Launch date ({{abbr|NET|not earlier than}})
! scope="col" | Spacecraft
! scope="col" | Type
! scope="col" | Launch vehicle
! scope="col" | Launch site
! scope="col" | Launch provider
! scope="col" | Docking/berthing port

|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:SpaceX Crew-8|SpaceX Crew-8]]
| February 2024
| {{ComV|Dragon 2}}
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Harmony'' forward or zenith 
|-
! scope="row" | Progress MS-26
| February 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule" />
| [[Engineering:Progress (spacecraft)|Progress MS]] No. 456
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1a|Soyuz-2.1a]]
| {{flagicon|KAZ}} Baikonur Site 31/6
| {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]]
| ''Zvezda'' aft
|-
! scope="row" | SpaceX CRS-30
| 4 March 2024
| [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon 2|Cargo Dragon]]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Harmony'' forward or zenith 
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Soyuz MS-25|Soyuz MS-25]]
| 13 March 2024
| [[Engineering:Soyuz MS|Soyuz MS]]
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1a|Soyuz-2.1a]]
| {{flagicon|KAZ}} Baikonur Site 31/6
| {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]]
| [[Engineering:Prichal (ISS module)|''Prichal'']] nadir
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Cygnus NG-21|NG-21]]
| March 2024
| [[Engineering:Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Unity'' nadir
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Boeing Crewed Flight Test|Starliner CFT]]
| 14 April 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule"/><ref name="glenn-schedule"/>
| [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner|Boeing Starliner]] [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner Calypso|SC-3 Calypso]]
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Atlas V|Atlas V N22]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} {{wipe|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station}} SLC-41
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:United Launch Alliance|United Launch Alliance]]
| ''Harmony'' forward
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:SNC Demo-1|SNC-1]]
| April 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule" /><ref name="glenn-schedule" /><ref name="nsf-20190814">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/08/cargo-dream-chaser-solidifies-ula-deal-vulcan/ |title=Cargo Dream Chaser solidifies ULA deal by securing six Vulcan Centaur flights |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=14 August 2019 |access-date=23 June 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132050/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/08/cargo-dream-chaser-solidifies-ula-deal-vulcan/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>
| [[Engineering:Dream Chaser|Dream Chaser]] [[Engineering:Dream Chaser Tenacity|''Tenacity'']]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| Vulcan Centaur VC4L
| {{flagicon|USA}} {{wipe|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station}} SLC-41
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:United Launch Alliance|United Launch Alliance]]
| ''Harmony'' nadir
|-
! scope="row" | Progress MS-27
| June 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule" />
| [[Engineering:Progress (spacecraft)|Progress MS]] No. 457
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1a|Soyuz-2.1a]]
| {{flagicon|KAZ}} Baikonur Site 31/6
| {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]]
| ''Poisk'' zenith
|-
! scope="row" | SpaceX CRS-31
| June 2024
| [[Engineering:SpaceX Dragon 2|Cargo Dragon]]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Harmony'' forward or zenith 
|-
! scope="row" | NG-22
| July 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule" /><ref name="glenn-schedule" />
| [[Engineering:Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Unity'' nadir
|-
! scope="row" | AX-4
| August 2024
| Crew Dragon
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9 Block 5]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} Kennedy [[Astronomy:Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:SpaceX|SpaceX]]
| ''Harmony'' forward
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner-1|Starliner-1]]
| Q3 2024<ref name="nsf-schedule">{{cite web |date=15 April 2023 |title=Complete ISS flight events |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=32006.3300 |access-date=10 November 2020 |website=NasaSpaceFlight.com Forum}}</ref><ref name="glenn-schedule">{{Cite web |url=https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/iss-research/microgravity-research-flights/ |title=Microgravity Research Flights |date=10 November 2020 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=10 November 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718143348/https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/iss-research/microgravity-research-flights/ |archive-date=18 July 2023 |website=Glenn Research Center }}</ref>
| [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner|Boeing Starliner]] [[Engineering:Boeing Starliner Spacecraft 2|SC-2]]
| style="background:#cfc;" | Crewed
| [[Engineering:Atlas V|Atlas V N22]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} {{wipe|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station}} SLC-41
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Company:United Launch Alliance|United Launch Alliance]]
| ''Harmony'' forward
|-
! scope="row" | [[Engineering:HTV-X1|HTV-X1]]
| 2025
| [[Engineering:HTV-X|HTV-X]]
| style="background:lightblue;" | Uncrewed
| [[Engineering:H3 (rocket)|H3-24L]]
| {{flagicon|Japan}} Tanegashima LA-Y2
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Organization:JAXA|JAXA]]
| ''Harmony'' nadir
|}

==== Docking ====
[[File:Progress M-14M.jpg|thumb|The [[Engineering:Progress M-14M|Progress M-14M]] resupply vehicle approaching the ISS in 2012. More than 50 unpiloted Progress spacecraft have delivered supplies during the lifetime of the station.]]
[[File:Endeavour docked to ISS.jpg|thumb|upright|{{OV|105}}, ATV-2, Soyuz TMA-21, and Progress M-10M docked to the ISS, as seen from the departing Soyuz TMA-20]]
All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. When it catches up it uses laser equipment to [[Computer vision|optically]] recognise ''Zvezda'', along with the Kurs system for redundancy. <!--At 4.5&nbsp;km the atv switches from AGPS to RGPS -p--> Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. Progress and ATV supply craft can remain at the ISS for six months,<ref name="esa-astronaut-mc" /><ref name="esa-atv" /> allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash.
 
From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woffinden |first1=David C. |last2=Geller |first2=David K. |date=July 2007 |title=Navigating the Road to Autonomous Orbital Rendezvous |journal=Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=898–909 |bibcode=2007JSpRo..44..898W |doi=10.2514/1.30734}}</ref>
 
Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the ''Columbia'' disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISS EO-6 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/isseo6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618005710/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/isseo6.htm |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=Astronautix.com}}</ref> The average expedition requires {{nowrap|2,722&nbsp;kg}} of supplies, and by 9&nbsp;March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around {{nowrap|22,000 meals}}.<ref name="ISStD" /> Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year.<ref name="Livelist">{{cite web |date=1 December 2009 |title=Live listing of spacecraft operations |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/resupply/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803015945/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/resupply/index.html |archive-date=3 August 2008 |access-date=8 December 2009 |url-status=dead |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
 
Other vehicles berth instead of docking. The Japanese [[Engineering:H-II Transfer Vehicle|H-II Transfer Vehicle]] parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer [[Astronomy:International Standard Payload Rack|International Standard Payload Rack]]s. Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months.<ref name="boeing-upgrade">{{Cite web |url=https://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2005/july/i_ids4.html |title=Space Shuttle upgrade lets astronauts at ISS stay in space longer |last=Memi |first=Ed |publisher=[[Company:Boeing|Boeing]] |access-date=17 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702012305/http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2005/july/i_ids4.html |archive-date=2 July 2016 }}</ref> The berthing Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon were contracted to fly cargo to the station under phase 1 of the [[Astronomy:Commercial Resupply Services|Commercial Resupply Services]] program.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Space Operations Mission Directorate |date=30 August 2006 |title=Human Space Flight Transition Plan |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/315546main_space_flight_transition_plan.pdf |website=NASA.gov |access-date=20 November 2010 |archive-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125094856/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/315546main_space_flight_transition_plan.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="nasa-cots-01-05">{{Cite press release |url=http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/COTS%20Final%20Announcement.doc |title=Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Demonstrations |date=18 January 2006 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=COTS-01-05 |access-date=21 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929071536/http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/COTS%20Final%20Announcement.doc |archive-date=29 September 2006 }}</ref>
 
From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this has happened to date.<ref name="cbs-20110211">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/home/spacenews/files/b0e194a8338c336e823c03601f046707-157.html |title=NASA proposes Soyuz photo op; shuttle launch readiness reviewed (UPDATED) |last=Harwood |first=William |access-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131911/http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/home/spacenews/files/b0e194a8338c336e823c03601f046707-157.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=CBS News }}</ref> On 25 May 2012, SpaceX delivered the first commercial cargo with a Dragon spacecraft.<ref name="NYT-20120525">{{Cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=25 May 2012 |title=First Private Craft Docks With Space Station |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/science/space/space-x-capsule-docks-at-space-station.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603203029/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/science/space/space-x-capsule-docks-at-space-station.html |archive-date=3 June 2015}}</ref>
 
==== Launch and docking windows ====
Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control ([[Guidance, navigation, and control|GNC]]) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Trinidad |first1=Katherine |last2=Thomas |first2=Candrea |date=22 May 2009 |title=NASA's Space Shuttle Landing Delayed by Weather |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/may/HQ_09-118_Shuttle_Landing_Delayed.html |access-date=26 June 2015 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307235001/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/may/HQ_09-118_Shuttle_Landing_Delayed.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Repairs===
{{Main|Astronomy:Maintenance of the International Space Station}}
[[File:ISS Unpressurized Platforms.png|thumb|Spare parts are called [[Engineering:Orbital replacement unit|ORUs]]; some are externally stored on pallets called ELCs and ESPs]]
[[File:STS-120 EVA Scott Parazynski.jpg|thumb|While anchored on the end of the [[Engineering:Orbiter Boom Sensor System|OBSS]] during STS-120, astronaut Scott Parazynski performs makeshift repairs to a US solar array that damaged itself when unfolding|alt=Two black and orange solar arrays, shown uneven and with a large tear visible. A crew member in a spacesuit, attached to the end of a robotic arm, holds a latticework between two solar sails.]]
[[File:Astronaut Mike Hopkins on Dec. 24 Spacewalk.jpg|thumb|Mike Hopkins during a spacewalk]]

Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.

Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004,<ref name="nbc-20040106">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3882962 |title=Crew finds 'culprit' in space station leak |last=Oberg |first=James |date=6 January 2004 |access-date=22 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812204804/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3882962 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=NBC News }}</ref> the venting of fumes from an ''Elektron'' oxygen generator in 2006,<ref name="sfn-20060918">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html |title=Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm |last=Harwood |first=William |date=18 September 2006 |access-date=24 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173756/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref> and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during [[Engineering:STS-117|STS-117]] that left the station without thruster, ''Elektron'', ''[[Engineering:ISS ECLSS#Vozdukh|Vozdukh]]'' and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.<ref name="toledo-blade-20081004">{{Cite news |url=https://www.toledoblade.com/local/education/2008/10/04/University-of-Toledo-alumnus-had-role-in-rescue-of-space-station/stories/200810040061 |url-access=subscription |title=University of Toledo alumnus had role in rescue of space station |last=Reindl |first=JC |date=4 October 2008 |access-date=31 July 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162936/https://www.toledoblade.com/local/education/2008/10/04/University-of-Toledo-alumnus-had-role-in-rescue-of-space-station/stories/200810040061 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |website=Toledo Blade }}</ref>

During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly.<ref name="Astronauts notice tear in solar panel">{{Cite news |url=https://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1123767/astronauts_notice_tear_in_solar_panel |title=Astronauts notice tear in solar panel |last=Savage |first=Sam |date=30 October 2007 |access-date=30 October 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813201109/https://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1123767/astronauts_notice_tear_in_solar_panel/ |archive-date=13 August 2023 |agency=Associated Press |work=redOrbit.com }}</ref> An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.<ref name="Space Station">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/03/AR2007110300227.html |title=Space Station's Damaged Panel Is Fixed |last=Stein |first=Rob |date=4 November 2007 |access-date=4 November 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629024200/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/03/AR2007110300227.html |archive-date=29 June 2011 |newspaper={{wipe|The Washington Post}} }}</ref> The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and [[Engineering:STS-123|STS-123]] showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.<ref name="joint-update">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts123/080325sarj/index.html |title=Station chief gives detailed update on joint problem |last=Harwood |first=William |date=25 March 2008 |access-date=5 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162701/https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts123/080325sarj/index.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref><ref name="iss-joint-investigation">{{Cite conference |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100003841/downloads/20100003841.pdf |title=The International Space Station Solar Alpha Rotary Joint Anomaly Investigation |last1=Harik |first1=Elliot P. |last2=McFatter |first2=Justin |last3=Sweeney |first3=Daniel J. |last4=Enriquez |first4=Carlos F. |last5=Taylor |first5=Deneen M. |last6=McCann |first6=David S. |year=2010 |id=JSC-CN-19606 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406025937/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100003841/downloads/20100003841.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2023 |display-authors=1 |conference=40th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. 12–14 May 2010. Cocoa Beach, Florida. }}</ref> Repairs to the joints were carried out during [[Engineering:STS-126|STS-126]] with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 October 2008 |title=Crew Expansion Prep, SARJ Repair Focus of STS-126 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts126/126_overview.html |access-date=5 November 2008 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=28 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128072943/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts126/126_overview.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="sfn-20081118">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts126/081118fd5/index.html |title=Astronauts prepare for first spacewalk of shuttle flight |last=Harwood |first=William |date=18 November 2008 |access-date=22 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131509/https://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts126/081118fd5/index.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref>

In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious.<ref name="Radiator">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/iss-concern-s1-radiator-may-require-replacement-shuttle-mission/ |title=ISS concern over S1 Radiator – may require replacement via shuttle mission |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=1 April 2009 |access-date=3 April 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811165211/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/04/iss-concern-s1-radiator-may-require-replacement-shuttle-mission/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak.<ref name="Radiator" /> It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined.

In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.<ref name="SpaceFlightNow1007_31">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1007/31station/ |title=Spacewalks needed to fix station cooling problem |last=Harwood |first=William |date=31 July 2010 |access-date=16 November 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162357/https://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1007/31station/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref><ref name="iss-report-20100801">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/08012010.html |title=ISS On-Orbit Status 08/01/10 |date=June 2023 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=16 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917233416/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/reports/iss_reports/2010/08012010.html |archive-date=17 September 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=21 November 2006 |title=International Space Station Active Thermal Control System |url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/atcs.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330004837/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/atcs.html |archive-date=30 March 2010 |access-date=16 November 2010 |website=boeing.com}}</ref> The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.

Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module.<ref name="sfn-20100810">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100810evapre/ |title=Wednesday spacewalk to remove failed coolant pump |last=Harwood |first=William |date=10 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131919/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100810evapre/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref><ref name="nsf-20100811">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/live-second-eva-with-pump-module-changeout/ |title=Large success for second EVA as failed Pump Module is removed |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=11 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132125/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/live-second-eva-with-pump-module-changeout/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.<ref name="sfn-20100811">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100811eva2/index5.html |title=Station's bad pump removed; more spacewalking ahead |last=Harwood |first=William |date=11 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810133016/https://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp24/100811eva2/index5.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Spaceflight Now for CBS News }}</ref><ref name="nsf-20100818">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/iss-cooling-returning-normal-confirming-etcs-pm-success/ |title=ISS cooling configuration returning to normal confirming ETCS PM success |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=18 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024194307/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/08/iss-cooling-returning-normal-confirming-etcs-pm-success/ |archive-date=24 October 2010 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>

The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing,<ref name="spacecom-20100802">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/8865-cooling-system-malfunction-highlights-space-station-complexity.html |title=Cooling System Malfunction Highlights Space Station's Complexity |last=Chow |first=Denise |date=2 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162718/https://www.space.com/8865-cooling-system-malfunction-highlights-space-station-complexity.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.<ref name=SpaceFlightNow1007_31 />

The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011 MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured.<ref name="nsf-20120830">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/08/astronaut-perform-first-post-shuttle-spacewalk-iss |title=Astronaut duo complete challenging first post-Shuttle US spacewalk on ISS |last=Harding |first=Pete |date=30 August 2012 |access-date=22 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162809/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/08/astronaut-perform-first-post-shuttle-spacewalk-iss/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref> The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.

On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.<ref name="spaceref-20120905">{{Cite news |url=https://spaceref.com/space-stations/critical-space-station-spacewalk-a-success/ |title=Critical Space Station Spacewalk a Success |last=Boucher |first=Marc |date=5 September 2012 |work=SpaceRef }}</ref>

On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 December 2013 |title=Astronauts Complete Rare Christmas Eve Spacewalk |work=Leaker |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.leaker.com/astronauts-complete-rare-christmas-eve-spacewalk/ |url-status=dead |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226025635/http://www.leaker.com/astronauts-complete-rare-christmas-eve-spacewalk/ |archive-date=26 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Mission control centres ===
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including [[Astronomy:RKA Mission Control Center|RKA Mission Control Center]], ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, [[Astronomy:Payload Operations and Integration Center|Payload Operations and Integration Center]], Columbus Control Center and [[Engineering:Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Servicing System]] Control.

==Life aboard==
===Living quarters===
The living and working space on the International Space Station is larger than a six-bedroom house (complete with six sleeping quarters, two bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window).<ref name="ISS_stats" />

===Crew activities===
[[File:Exp18home nasa big.jpg|thumb|Engineer Gregory Chamitoff peering out of a window|left]]

A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2008 |title=ISS Crew Timeline |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/287386main_110508_tl.pdf |access-date=5 November 2008 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=30 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730044854/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/287386main_110508_tl.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:S122e007776 orig.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|STS-122 mission specialists working on robotic equipment in the US lab]]
The time zone used aboard the ISS is [[Physics:Coordinated Universal Time|Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC).<ref name="bbc-iss-timezone">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/what-time-zone-do-they-use-on-the-international-space-station/ |title=What time zone do they use on the International Space Station? |last=Mitchell |first=Gareth |access-date=26 May 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324101052/https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/what-time-zone-do-they-use-on-the-international-space-station/ |archive-date=24 March 2023 |magazine=BBC Science Focus }}</ref> The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's [[Physics:Mission Elapsed Time|Mission Elapsed Time]] (MET), which was a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA – Time in Space, A Space in Time |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/time_in_space.html |access-date=5 May 2015 |website=nasa.gov |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420050836/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/time_in_space.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=17 March 2013 |title=A Slice of Time Pie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/cm/blog/ISS%20Science%20Blog/posts/post_1340820317951.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317075600/http://blogs.nasa.gov/cm/blog/ISS%20Science%20Blog/posts/post_1340820317951.html |archive-date=17 March 2013 |access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Space Flight (HSF) – Crew Answers |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/crew/sts-113/index_2.html |access-date=5 May 2015 |website=spaceflight.nasa.gov |archive-date=21 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721054011/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/crew/sts-113/index_2.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the ''Zvezda'', one in ''Nauka'' and four more installed in ''Harmony''.<ref name="roscomos-20210811">{{Cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/32150/ |title=Новости. Космонавт рассказал, кто может первым заселиться в модуль "Наука" на МКС |trans-title=A cosmonaut explained who can be the first to settle in the 'Nauka' module on the ISS |date=11 August 2021 |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |language=ru |access-date=12 August 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822052138/https://www.roscosmos.ru/32150/ |archive-date=22 August 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=6 December 2010 |title=At Home with Commander Scott Kelly (Video) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4dG9vSyUFQ | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Q4dG9vSyUFQ| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|access-date=8 May 2011 |publisher=NASA |location=International Space Station}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="roscomos-nauka-booklet">{{Cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/media/files/nauka.pdf |title=Nauka module prelaunch booklet |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822181356/https://www.roscosmos.ru/media/files/nauka.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2022 }}</ref><ref name="sae-08ICES-0222">{{Cite conference |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013462/downloads/20080013462.pdf |title=International Space Station USOS Crew Quarters Development |last1=Broyan |first1=James Lee |last2=Borrego |first2=Melissa Ann |last3=Bahr |first3=Juergen F. |year=2008 |publisher=[[Organization:SAE International|SAE International]] |location=San Francisco, CA |id=08ICES-0222 |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118224703/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20080013462/downloads/20080013462.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2023 |conference=International Conference on Environmental Systems |volume=38 }}</ref> The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in ''Zvezda'' include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.<ref name="ESALife">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/Daily_life |title=Daily life |date=19 July 2004 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812210927/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/Daily_life |archive-date=12 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="NASACrewEquip">{{cite web |last=Mansfield |first=Cheryl L. |date=7 November 2008 |title=Station Prepares for Expanding Crew |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/126_payload.html |access-date=17 September 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=4 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204054653/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/126_payload.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CSALife">{{cite web |title=Living and Working on the International Space Station |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/pdf/educator-liv_wor_iss.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419045323/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/pdf/educator-liv_wor_iss.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2009 |access-date=28 October 2009 |publisher=CSA}}</ref> Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment.<ref name="SRLife">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/7060-sleeping-space-easy-shower.html |title=Sleeping in Space is Easy, But There's No Shower |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=27 July 2009 |access-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222844/https://www.space.com/7060-sleeping-space-easy-shower.html |archive-date=12 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref> It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.<ref name="ESALife" /> During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and [[Earth:Color temperature|colour temperatures]] adjusted.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNgMzNN23kE | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/yNgMzNN23kE| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|title=Bedtime in space |time={{time needed|date=September 2019}} |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="nasa-stem-sleepscience">{{Cite web |url=https://images.nasa.gov/details-jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4 |title=STEMonstrations: Sleep Science |date=13 December 2018 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |format=AV media |id=jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4 |access-date=13 June 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125172450/https://images.nasa.gov/details-jsc2018m000902-STEMonstrations_Sleep_Science_MP4 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |website=NASA Image and Video Library }}</ref>

===Food and personal hygiene===
[[File:Meal STS127.jpg|thumb|alt=Nine astronauts seated around a table covered in open cans of food strapped down to the table. In the background a selection of equipment is visible, as well as the salmon-coloured walls of the ''Unity'' node.|The crews of [[Astronomy:Expedition 20|Expedition 20]] and STS-127 enjoy a meal inside ''Unity'']]
[[File:ISS-43 Food table in the Unity module.jpg|thumb|Main dining desk in Node 1]]
[[File:ScienceCasts- Historic Vegetable Moment on the Space Station.webm|thumb|Fresh fruits and vegetables are grown in the ISS]]
On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity,<ref name="ESALife" /> so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking. The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them using the [[Engineering:Galley (kitchen)|galley]], which has two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides heated and unheated water.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /> Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /><ref name="CSALife" /> Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment.<ref name="CSALife" />

Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on ''Skylab'' and ''Salyut''&nbsp;3.<ref name="livingandworking">{{Cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm |title=Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab |last1=Benson |first1=Charles Dunlap |last2=Compton |first2=William David |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=SP-4208 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124155632/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm |archive-date=24 November 2023 }}</ref>{{rp|139}}<!--<ref name="belew1977" />{{rp|80}}--> By ''Salyut'' 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity.<ref name="Portree1995-86">{{Cite tech report |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirheritage.pdf |title=Mir Hardware Heritage |last=Portree |first=David S. F. |date=March 1995 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |page=86 |oclc=755272548 |id=Reference Publication 1357 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130808/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirheritage.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.<ref name="SRLife" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uIjNfZbUYu8 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/uIjNfZbUYu8| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|title=Karen Nyberg Shows How You Wash Hair in Space |date=12 July 2013 |last=Nyberg |first=Karen |publisher=NASA |access-date=6 June 2015 |work=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

There are two [[Astronomy:Space toilet|space toilet]]s on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in ''Zvezda'' and ''Tranquility''.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /> These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal.<ref name="ESALife" /> A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.<ref name="NASACrewEquip" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Lu |first=Ed |date=8 September 2003 |title=Greetings Earthling |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter9.html |access-date=1 November 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=1 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901183936/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter9.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet. [[Engineering:Urine diversion|The diverted urine]] is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water.<ref name="CSALife" /> In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJyMw5J-GsQ | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/fJyMw5J-GsQ| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|title=Thomas tours the MLM module (in French with English subtitles available) |date=18 August 2021 |last=Pesquet |first=Thomas |publisher=ESA |access-date=29 August 2021 |work=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = center
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Zvezda toilet.jpg
| caption1          = The space toilet in the ''Zvezda'' module in the Russian segment
| image2            = Node_3_toilet.jpg
| caption2          = The main toilet in the US Segment inside the ''Tranquility'' module
| caption3          = 
| footer            = * Both toilets are a Russian design.
}}

===Crew health and safety===
{{Main|Astronomy:Effect of spaceflight on the human body}}

====Overall====
On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the [[Astronomy:ISS year long mission|Astronaut Twin Study]]. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] and [[Cognition|cognition]], when one twin was compared with the other.<ref name="NYT-20190412">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/11/science/scott-mark-kelly-twins-space-nasa.html |url-access=subscription |title=Scott Kelly Spent a Year in Orbit. His Body Is Not Quite the Same |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |date=11 April 2019 |access-date=12 April 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522170617/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/11/science/scott-mark-kelly-twins-space-nasa.html |archive-date=22 May 2020 |quote=NASA scientists compared the astronaut to his earthbound twin, Mark. The results hint at what humans will have to endure on long journeys through space. |work=The New York Times }}</ref><ref name="SCI-20190412">{{Cite journal |title=The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight |last=Garrett-Bakeman |first=Francine E. |date=12 April 2019 |pages=eaau8650 |bibcode=2019Sci...364.8650G |doi=10.1126/science.aau8650 |display-authors=et al. |volume=364 |journal=Science |pmc=7580864 |issue=6436 |pmid=30975860 }}</ref>

In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious [[Physics:Hemodynamics|blood flow]] and [[Medicine:Thrombus|clot]] problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.<ref name="CNN-20191115">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/15/health/astronaut-blood-flow-clot-scn-trnd/index.html |title=Astronauts experienced reverse blood flow and blood clots on the space station, study says |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=15 November 2019 |access-date=16 November 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811175409/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/15/health/astronaut-blood-flow-clot-scn-trnd/index.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=CNN News }}</ref><ref name="JAMA-20191113">{{Cite journal |last=Marshall-Goebel |first=Karina |display-authors=et al. |date=13 November 2019 |title=Assessment of Jugular Venous Blood Flow Stasis and Thrombosis During Spaceflight |journal=JAMA Network Open |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e1915011 |doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.15011 |pmc=6902784 |pmid=31722025}}</ref>

====Radiation====
[[File:Aurora Australis.ogv|thumb|upright=1.1|Video of the [[Astronomy:Aurora Australis|Aurora Australis]], taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on an ascending pass from south of {{wipe|Madagascar}} to just north of Australia over the Indian Ocean]]

The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by [[Earth:Earth's magnetic field|Earth's magnetic field]]. From an average distance of about {{convert|70,000|km|abbr=on}} from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the [[Astronomy:Magnetosphere|magnetosphere]] begins to deflect [[Astronomy:Solar wind|solar wind]] around Earth and the space station. [[Astronomy:Solar flare|Solar flare]]s are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of [[Astronomy:Expedition 10|Expedition 10]] took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.<ref name="spacecom-20060223">{{Cite news |url=https://www.space.com/2080-solar-flare-hits-earth-mars.html |title=Solar Flare Hits Earth and Mars |last=Than |first=Ker |date=23 February 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164550/https://www.space.com/2080-solar-flare-hits-earth-mars.html |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=Space.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=10 June 2005 |title=A new kind of solar storm |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/10jun_newstorm/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=12 July 2017 |archive-date=16 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516030602/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/10jun_newstorm/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Subatomic charged particles, primarily [[Physics:Proton|proton]]s from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an [[Astronomy:Aurora|aurora]]. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and [[Biology:Chromosome|chromosome]]s of [[Biology:Lymphocyte|lymphocyte]]s; being central to the [[Biology:Immune system|immune system]], any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower [[Medicine:Immunity (medical)|immunity]] experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of [[Medicine:Cataract|cataract]]s in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.<ref name="JCB" />

Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day,<ref name="Forbes 2018">{{Cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/11/13/how-much-radiation-are-iss-astronauts-exposed-to/ |title=How Much Radiation Are ISS Astronauts Exposed To? |last=Frost |first=Robert |date=13 November 2018 |work={{wipe|Forbes}} |access-date=4 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131701/https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/11/13/how-much-radiation-are-iss-astronauts-exposed-to/?sh=704809db18a9 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is only one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station.<ref>{{cite web |title=Galactic Radiation Received in Flight |url=http://jag.cami.jccbi.gov./cariprofile.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329130826/http://jag.cami.jccbi.gov/cariprofile.asp |archive-date=29 March 2010 |access-date=20 May 2010 |publisher=FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute}}</ref>

====Stress====
[[File:Nikolai Budarin in a sleep station in Zvezda.jpg|thumb|Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin at work inside the ''Zvezda'' service module crew quarters]]
There is considerable evidence that [[Social:Psychosocial|psychosocial]] stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suedfeld |first1=Peter |last2=Wilk |first2=Kasia E. |last3=Cassel |first3=Lindi |contribution=Flying with Strangers: Postmission Reflections of Multinational Space Crews |title=Psychology of Space Exploration, Contemporary Research in Historical Perspective |editor-last=Vakoch |editor-first=Douglas A. |year=2011 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |pages=143–176 |isbn=978-1-46999770-4}}</ref> Cosmonaut [[Biography:Valery Ryumin|Valery Ryumin]] wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the [[Engineering:Salyut 6|''Salyut'' 6]] space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5&nbsp;m × 6&nbsp;m] and leave them together for two months."

NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station ''Mir''. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.

A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manzey |first1=D. |last2=Lorenz |first2=B. |last3=Poljakov |first3=V. |year=1998 |title=Mental performance in extreme environments: Results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight |journal=Ergonomics |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=537–559 |doi=10.1080/001401398186991 |pmid=9557591}}</ref> ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.

The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 August 2004 |title=Behind the Scenes: The Making of an Astronaut |url=https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/support/training/isstraining/index.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=29 June 2018 |archive-date=19 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719025001/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/support/training/isstraining/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.<ref name="bbc-20141007">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20141007-why-astronauts-get-space-stupid |title=Why astronauts get the 'space stupids' |last=Robson |first=David |date=7 October 2014 |publisher=BBC Online |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164510/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20141007-why-astronauts-get-space-stupid |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref>

====Medical====
[[File:Frank De Winne on treadmill cropped.jpg|thumb|Astronaut Frank De Winne, attached to the TVIS treadmill with bungee cords aboard the ISS|alt=A man running on a treadmill, smiling at the camera, with bungee cords stretching down from his waistband to the sides of the treadmill]]
The [[Biology:Physiology|physiological]] effects of long-term weightlessness include [[Medicine:Muscle atrophy|muscle atrophy]], deterioration of the skeleton ([[Astronomy:Spaceflight osteopenia|osteopenia]]), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face.<ref name="JCB" />

Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to [[Physics:Thermosiphon|thermosiphon]] naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.

To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two [[Engineering:Treadmill with Vibration Isolation Stabilization|TVIS]] treadmills (including the COLBERT); the [[Astronomy:ARED|ARED]] (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=S. M. |last2=Amonette |first2=W. E. |last3=Blazine |first3=K. |last4=Bentley |first4=J. |last5=c. Lee |first5=S. M. |last6=Loehr |first6=J. A. |last7=Moore |first7=A. D. |last8=Rapley |first8=M. |last9=Mulder |first9=E. R. |last10=Smith |first10=S. M. |year=2003 |title=Training with the International Space Station Interim Resistive Exercise Device |journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=1935–1945 |doi=10.1249/01.MSS.0000093611.88198.08 |pmid=14600562|doi-access=free }}</ref> and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.<ref name="ESALife" /><ref name="NASACrewEquip" /> Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 June 2009 |title=Bungee Cords Keep Astronauts Grounded While Running |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/bungee_running.html |access-date=23 August 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=15 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815015910/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/bungee_running.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kauderer |first=Amiko |date=19 August 2009 |title=Do Tread on Me |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/colbert_feature.html |access-date=23 August 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=21 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821165909/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/behindscenes/colbert_feature.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Microbiological environmental hazards====
Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the [[Engineering:LOCAD#Portable Test System|LOCAD-PTS]] which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of [[Biology:Cell culture|culturing]], which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bell |first=Trudy E. |date=11 May 2007 |title=Preventing "Sick" Spaceships |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3/ |access-date=29 March 2015 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=14 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514233537/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five ''[[Biology:Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are [[Biology:Pathogen|pathogen]]ic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-centre/science-press-releases/23-11-18 |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |last=Korn |first=Anne |date=23 November 2018 |publisher=[[Company:BioMed Central|BioMed Central]] |access-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145840/https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-centre/science-press-releases/23-11-18 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Nitin K. |last2=Bezdan |first2=Daniela |last3=Sielaff |first3=Aleksandra Checinska |last4=Wheeler |first4=Kevin |last5=Mason |first5=Christopher E. |last6=Vendateswaran |first6=Kasthuri |display-authors=1 |date=23 November 2018 |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |journal=BMC Microbiology |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmc=6251167 |pmid=30466389 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against [[Biology:Fungi|fungi]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Patrick L. |last=Barry |year=2000 |title=Microscopic Stowaways on the ISS |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast26nov_1/ |access-date=29 March 2015 |archive-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302090949/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast26nov_1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been done to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis.<ref name="eoportal-iss-matiss">{{Cite web |url=https://www.eoportal.org/other-space-activities/iss-matiss |title=ISS: MATISS |date=30 June 2023 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=11 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132645/https://www.eoportal.org/other-space-activities/iss-matiss |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=www.eoportal.org }}</ref> The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the [[Engineering:SpaceX CRS-28|SpaceX CRS-28]] cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by [[Biology:Microscopy|light microsocopy]], the present experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow [[Physics:Spectroscopy|spectrographic analysis]]. Two of the plaques will be returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months.<ref name="arstechnica-20230608">{{Cite news |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/06/testing-antibacterial-surfaces-on-the-international-space-station/ |title=Testing antibacterial surfaces on the International Space Station |last=Khadilkar |first=Dhananjay |date=8 June 2023 |access-date=11 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108032832/https://arstechnica.com/science/2023/06/testing-antibacterial-surfaces-on-the-international-space-station/ |archive-date=8 November 2023 |work=[[Ars Technica]] }}</ref>

In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to earth for analysis. In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture. The present study utilized [[Biology:Molecular diagnostics|molecular]]-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmeceutical and medical industries.<ref name="EA-20190407">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-centre/science-press-releases/08-04-19 |title=NASA researchers catalogue all microbes and fungi on the International Space Station |last=Korn |first=Anne |date=7 April 2019 |publisher=[[Company:BioMed Central|BioMed Central]] |access-date=30 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131751/https://www.biomedcentral.com/about/press-centre/science-press-releases/08-04-19 |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="MBJ-20190408">{{Cite journal |last=Sielaff |first=Aleksandra Checinska |display-authors=et al. |date=8 April 2019 |title=Characterization of the total and viable bacterial and fungal communities associated with the International Space Station surfaces |journal=Microbiome |volume=7 |issue=50 |page=50 |doi=10.1186/s40168-019-0666-x |pmc=6452512 |pmid=30955503 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Noise====
Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Limardo |first1=José G. |last2=Allen |first2=Christopher S. |last3=Danielson |first3=Richard W. |title=43rd International Conference on Environmental Systems |chapter=Assessment of Crewmember Noise Exposures on the International Space Station |date=14 July 2013 |location=Vail, Colorado |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |doi=10.2514/6.2013-3516 |isbn=978-1-62410-215-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakashima |first1=Ann |last2=Limardo |first2=José |last3=Boone |first3=Andrew |last4=Danielson |first4=Richard W. |date=31 January 2020 |title=Influence of impulse noise on noise dosimetry measurements on the International Space Station |journal=International Journal of Audiology |volume=59 |issue=sup1 |pages=S40–S47 |doi=10.1080/14992027.2019.1698067 |issn=1499-2027 |pmid=31846378 |s2cid=209407363|doi-access=free }}</ref> For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed [[Physics:Noise control|noise control]] and [[Medicine:Hearing loss|hearing loss]] prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations.<ref name="MMOP_SSP_50260">{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=International Space Station Medical Operations Requirements Documents (ISS MORD), SSP 50260 Revision B |url=http://emits.sso.esa.int/emits-doc/ESTEC/AO6216-SoW-RD9.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220193031/http://emits.sso.esa.int/emits-doc/ESTEC/AO6216-SoW-RD9.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2020 |website=emits.sso.esa.int |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="iss-acoustics">{{Cite conference |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100039608/downloads/20100039608.pdf |title=International Space Station Acoustics – A Status Report |last1=Allen |first1=Christopher S. |last2=Denham |first2=Samuel A. |date=17 July 2011 |location=Portland, OR |id=JSC-CN-24071 / JSC-CN-22173 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118185324/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100039608/downloads/20100039608.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2023 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2060/20150010438 |conference=International Conference on Environmental Systems |website=ntrs.nasa.gov }}</ref> The effort includes contributions from [[Physics:Acoustical engineering|acoustical engineers]], audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the [[Organization:Occupational Safety and Health Administration|Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm [[Physics:Hearing|audibility]].

Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch.<ref name=MMOP_SSP_50260 />{{rp|5.7.3}} During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, [[Physics:Noise barrier|noise barrier]]s, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing [[Physics:Ambient noise level|ambient noise level]]s.

NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the [[Organization:National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] and the [[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]]), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for [[Engineering:Hearing protection device|hearing protection device]]s (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies [[Engineering:Engineering controls|engineering controls]], and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.

There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020 |title=Safe in Sound Winners |url=https://www.safeinsound.us/winners.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625051514/https://www.safeinsound.us/winners.html |archive-date=25 June 2020 |website=safeinsound.us}}</ref>

====Fire and toxic gases====
An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k |title=Departing Space Station Commander Provides Tour of Orbital Laboratory |date=3 July 2015 |last=Williams |first=Suni (presenter) |publisher=NASA |time=18.00-18.17 |access-date=1 September 2019 |quote=And some of the things we have to worry about in space are fire ... or if we had some type of toxic atmosphere. We use ammonia for our radiators so there is a possibility that ammonia could come into the vehicle. |medium=video}}</ref>

==Orbit==
===Altitude and orbital inclination===
{{multiple image |align=right |total_width=400
 |image1=Altitude of International Space Station.svg|caption1=Graph showing the changing altitude of the ISS from November 1998 until November 2018
 |image2=Animation of International Space Station trajectory.gif |caption2=Animation of ISS orbit from 14 September 2018 to 14 November 2018. Earth is not shown.
}}

The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of {{convert|370|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} and a maximum of {{convert|460|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}},<ref name="nasa-iss-overview">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-overview/ |title=International Space Station Overview |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=28 April 2016 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=28 March 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175258/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-overview/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> in the centre of the [[Earth:Thermosphere|thermosphere]], at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.<ref name="MCC Answer">{{cite web |last=Cooney |first=Jim |title=Mission Control Answers Your Questions |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-112/09_04_12_54_17.html |location=Houston, TX |quote=Jim Cooney ISS Trajectory Operations Officer |access-date=12 June 2011 |archive-date=27 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627185009/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/feedback/expert/answer/mcc/sts-112/09_04_12_54_17.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pelt |first=Michel van |title=Into the Solar System on a String : Space Tethers and Space Elevators |publisher=Springer New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-387-76555-6 |edition=1st |location=New York, NY |page=133}}</ref>
It travels at an average speed of {{convert|28000|km/h|mph|-3|abbr=}}, and completes {{Orbit|daily orbits|15.5}} orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).{{Orbit|ref|<ref name="heavens-above" />}}<ref name="tracking">{{Cite web |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html |title=Current ISS Tracking data |date=15 December 2008 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=28 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225022741/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/index.html |archive-date=25 December 2015 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350&nbsp;km to about 400&nbsp;km).<ref name="nsf-20110620">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/europes-atv-2-depart-iss-make-way-russias-progress-m-11m/ |title=Europe's ATV-2 departs ISS to make way for Russia's Progress M-11M |date=20 June 2011 |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811170911/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/europes-atv-2-depart-iss-make-way-russias-progress-m-11m/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref><ref name="Popular Mechanics">{{Cite magazine |first=Rand |last=Simberg |date=29 July 2008 |title=The Uncertain Future of the International Space Station: Analysis |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/4275571.html |url-status=dead |magazine=Popular Mechanics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331140838/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/4275571.html |archive-date=31 March 2009 |access-date=6 March 2009}}</ref> Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.<ref name="Worldbook at NASA">{{cite web |last=Oberg |first=James |date=2005 |title=International Space Station |url=http://www.worldbookonline.com/pl/referencecenter/article?id=ar279523 |access-date=3 April 2016 |website=World Book Online Reference Center }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment">{{cite web |title=ISS Environment |url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/D-aboutiss/D6.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213164432/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/D-aboutiss/D6.html |archive-date=13 February 2008 |access-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Organization:Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]]}}</ref>

Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2&nbsp;km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the ''Zvezda'' service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to ''Zvezda''{{'s}} aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a [[Engineering:Automated Transfer Vehicle#ATV evolution proposals|second docking port]] to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.<ref name="nasa.gov-iss-environment" /> Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum<ref name="newscientist.com">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17918-rocket-company-tests-worlds-most-powerful-ion-engine/ |title=Rocket company tests world's most powerful ion engine |last=Shiga |first=David |date=5 October 2009 |access-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145849/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17918-rocket-company-tests-worlds-most-powerful-ion-engine/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |magazine=New Scientist }}</ref> at an annual cost of about $210&nbsp;million.<ref name="aaESummary20100124">{{cite web |date=24 January 2010 |title=Executive summary |url=http://www.adastrarocket.com/EXECUTIVE%20SUMMARY240110.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331171616/http://www.adastrarocket.com/EXECUTIVE%20SUMMARY240110.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2010 |access-date=27 February 2010 |publisher=Ad Astra Rocket Company}}</ref>

[[File:ISS orbits 04132013.jpg|thumb|Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013]]

The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.<ref name="Navigation">{{Cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/DMS-R_ESA_s_Data_Management_System |title=DMS-R: ESA's Data Management System |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163127/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/DMS-R_ESA_s_Data_Management_System |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> Initially, ''Zarya'', the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module ''Zvezda'' docked and was transferred control. ''Zvezda'' contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.<ref name="EsaComputer">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.esa.int/esapub/onstation/onstation17/os17_chapter6.pdf |title=Exercising Control 49 months of DMS-R Operations |last1=Reimers |first1=Claus |last2=Guyomard |first2=Daniel |date=August 2004 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162355/https://www.esa.int/esapub/onstation/onstation17/os17_chapter6.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2023 |magazine=on Station |volume=17 }}</ref> Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), ''Zvezda'' computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.

===Orientation===
''Zvezda'' uses gyroscopes ([[Engineering:Reaction wheel|reaction wheel]]s) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes [[Engineering:Control moment gyroscope#Saturation|'saturate']], thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14&nbsp;kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 October 2003 |title=Russian / US GNC Force Fight |url=http://pims.grc.nasa.gov/pimsdocs/public/ISS%20Handbook/hb_qs_vehicle_RussianUSGNCForceFight.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720193844/http://pims.grc.nasa.gov/pimsdocs/public/ISS%20Handbook/hb_qs_vehicle_RussianUSGNCForceFight.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=1 May 2012 |website=pims.grc.nasa.gov |publisher=[[Organization:Glenn Research Center|Glenn Research Center]]}}</ref><ref name="iss-report-05-07">{{Cite web |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html |title=International Space Station Status Report #05-7 |date=11 February 2005 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=23 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050317194246/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html |archive-date=17 March 2005 }}</ref><ref name="nasa-dynamics-report">{{Cite tech report |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20030038806/downloads/20030038806.pdf |title=Dynamics and Control of Attitude, Power, and Momentum for a Spacecraft Using Flywheels and Control Moment Gyroscopes |last1=Roithmayr |first1=Carlos M. |last2=Karlgaard |first2=Christopher D. |last3=Kumar |first3=Renjith R. |last4=Seywald |first4=Hans |last5=Bose |first5=David M. |date=April 2003 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |location=Hampton, Virginia |id=TP-2003-212178 |access-date=12 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132103/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20030038806/downloads/20030038806.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 }}</ref>

Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the [[Engineering:STS-117|installation of the S3/S4 truss]], which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.<ref name="nsf-20070614">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2007/06/atlantis-ready-to-support-iss-troubleshooting/ |title=Atlantis ready to support ISS troubleshooting |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=14 June 2007 |access-date=6 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131051544/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2007/06/atlantis-ready-to-support-iss-troubleshooting/ |archive-date=31 January 2010 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref>

===Orbital debris threats===
{{Main|Astronomy:Space debris}}

The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris,<ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Hoffman |date=3 April 2009 |title=National Space Symposium 2009: It's getting crowded up there |url=http://defensenews.com/blogs/space-symposium/2009/04/03/its-getting-crowded-up-there/#more-155 |access-date=7 October 2009 |publisher=Defense News}} {{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from [[Engineering:Anti-satellite weapon|anti-satellite weapon]] tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by [[Astronomy:US-A|US-A]] nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural [[Astronomy:Micrometeoroid|micrometeoroid]]s,<ref>{{Cite magazine |first=F. L. |last=Whipple |year=1949 |title=The Theory of Micrometeoroids |magazine=Popular Astronomy |volume=57 |page=517 |bibcode=1949PA.....57..517W}}</ref> are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris.<ref name="NSFdebris">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/sts-135-frr-july-8-atlantis-debris-misses-iss/ |title=STS-135: FRR sets 8 July Launch Date for Atlantis – Debris misses ISS |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=28 June 2011 |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811180427/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/06/sts-135-frr-july-8-atlantis-debris-misses-iss/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com }}</ref><ref name="nasa-micrometeoroid-report">{{Cite conference |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19890016664/downloads/19890016664.pdf |title=Effect of Micrometeoroid and Space Debris Impacts on the Space Station Freedom Solar Array Surfaces |last=Nahra |first=Henry |date=24–29 April 1989 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |location=San Deigo, CA |id=TM-102287 |access-date=7 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125180642/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19890016664/downloads/19890016664.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2023 |conference=Spring Meeting of the Materials Research Society }}</ref> Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1&nbsp;cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their [[Physics:Kinetic energy|kinetic energy]] and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum.<ref name="debrisdecomp">{{cite web |title=Space Suit Punctures and Decompression |url=http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/08/suit-punctures.html |access-date=20 July 2011 |publisher=The Artemis Project |archive-date=15 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615061834/http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/08/suit-punctures.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from {{cvt|1.5|–|5.0|cm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} [[Chemistry:2219 aluminium alloy|aluminium]], a {{cvt|10|cm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} intermediate layers of [[Chemistry:Kevlar|Kevlar]] and Nextel (a ceramic fabric),<ref name="nasa-20040716">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/science/spinoff9_nextel_f.html |title=Superhero Ceramics! |last=Plain |first=Charlie |date=16 July 2004 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123170947/https://www.nasa.gov/missions/science/spinoff9_nextel_f.html |archive-date=23 January 2008 }}</ref> and an outer layer of [[Chemistry:Stainless steel|stainless steel]], which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.<ref name="roscomos-iss">{{Cite web |url=http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |title=International Space Station |publisher=[[Company:Roscosmos|Roscosmos]] |access-date=14 May 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627235737/http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |archive-date=27 June 2021 }}</ref>

Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified.<ref name="nasa-debris-package">{{Cite web |url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf |title=Orbital Debris Education Package |last1=Jorgensen |first1=Kira |last2=Johnson |first2=Nicholas |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408183946/http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2008 }}</ref> If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009.<ref name="newscientist-20090316">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16777-space-station-may-move-to-dodge-debris.html |title=Space station may move to dodge debris |last=Courtland |first=Rachel |date=16 March 2009 |access-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812203203/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16777-space-station-may-move-to-dodge-debris/ |archive-date=12 August 2023 |magazine=New Scientist }}</ref><ref name="ODOct08">{{Cite journal |date=October 2008 |title=ISS Maneuvers to Avoid Russian Fragmentation Debris |url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv12i4.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=1&2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527134134/http://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv12i4.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2010 |access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 2010 |title=Avoiding satellite collisions in 2009 |url=http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv14i1.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527142755/http://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/newsletter/pdfs/ODQNv14i1.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2010 |access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1&nbsp;m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant.<ref name=ODOct08 /><ref name="esa-20080828">{{Cite press release |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ATV_carries_out_first_debris_avoidance_manoeuvre_for_the_ISS |title=ATV carries out first debris avoidance manoeuvre for the ISS |date=28 August 2008 |publisher=[[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]] |access-date=26 February 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929091613/https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ATV_carries_out_first_debris_avoidance_manoeuvre_for_the_ISS |archive-date=29 September 2022 }}</ref> If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015.<ref name="bbc-20120324">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17497766 |title=ISS crew take to escape capsules in space junk alert |date=24 March 2012 |access-date=24 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107060517/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-17497766 |archive-date=7 November 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref><ref name="garcia-20150616">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2015/07/16/station-crew-takes-precautions-for-close-pass-of-space-debris/ |title=Station Crew Takes Precautions for Close Pass of Space Debris |date=16 June 2015 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=16 June 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132826/https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2015/07/16/station-crew-takes-precautions-for-close-pass-of-space-debris/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=NASA Blogs }}</ref>

In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of [[Astronomy:Kosmos 1408|Kosmos 1408]] by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules.<ref name="verge-20211115">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/15/22782946/russia-asat-test-satellite-international-space-station-debris |title=Russia blows up a satellite, creating a dangerous debris cloud in space |last1=Grush |first1=Loren |date=15 November 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005233548/https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/15/22782946/russia-asat-test-satellite-international-space-station-debris |archive-date=5 October 2023 |work=[[The Verge]] }}</ref> A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters to avoid a collision with hazardous space debris.<ref name="reuters-20211203">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/international-space-station-swerves-dodge-space-junk-2021-12-03/ |title=International Space Station swerves to dodge space junk |last=Tétrault-Farber |first=Gabrielle |date=3 December 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131607/https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/international-space-station-swerves-dodge-space-junk-2021-12-03/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work={{wipe|Reuters}} |editor1-first=Kim |editor2-last=Jones |editor2-first=Gareth |editor1-last=Coghill }}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="160">
File:SDIO KEW Lexan projectile.jpg|A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at {{convert|7|km/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}, the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} crater in a solid block of [[Chemistry:Aluminium|aluminium]]
File:Debris-GEO1280.jpg|[[Engineering:Radar|Radar]]-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of [[Astronomy:Geostationary orbit|geostationary]] satellites
File:ISS impact risk.jpg|Example of [[Risk management|risk management]]: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station
</gallery>

===Sightings from Earth===
{{further|Engineering:Satellite watching|Engineering:Satellite flare}}

The ISS is visible to the [[Astronomy:Naked eye|naked eye]] as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark.<ref name="Price2005">{{Cite book |last=Price |first=Pat |title=The Backyard Stargazer: An Absolute Beginner's Guide to Skywatching With and Without a Telescope |publisher=Quarry Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59253-148-6 |location=Gloucester, MA |page=140}}</ref> The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the [[Earth:Earth's shadow|Earth's shadow]]. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other [[Engineering:Satellite flare|satellite flare]]s), with an approximate maximum [[Astronomy:Apparent magnitude|magnitude]] of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to [[Astronomy:Venus|Venus]]), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds.<ref name="Angular size">{{Cite web |url=https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/7Page1.pdf |title=Problem 346: The International Space Station and a Sunspot: Exploring angular scales |date=19 August 2018 |access-date=20 May 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130645/https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/7Page1.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2023 |website=Space Math @ NASA ! }}</ref> The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Artificial Satellites > (Iridium) Flares |url=http://www.calsky.com/cs.cgi/Satellites/8 |access-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=Calsky.com}}</ref><ref name="haydenplanetarium">{{Cite web |url=https://www.amnh.org/research/hayden-planetarium/blog/how-to-spot-the-international-space-station-and-other-satellites |title=How to Spot the International Space Station (and other satellites) |last=Rao |first=Joe |date=1 July 2009 |publisher=Hayden Planetarium |access-date=12 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812211551/https://www.amnh.org/research/hayden-planetarium/blog/how-to-spot-the-international-space-station-and-other-satellites |archive-date=12 August 2023 }}</ref> The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty.

Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see ''Live viewing'' below) as well as [[Engineering:Smartphone|smartphone]] applications that use [[Astronomy:Ephemeris|orbital data]] and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.<ref name="see">{{cite web |last=NASA |date=2 July 2008 |title=International Space Station Sighting Opportunities |url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html |access-date=28 January 2009 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221111201/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ISS&nbsp;– Information |url=http://www.heavens-above.com/satinfo.aspx?satid=25544&lat=0&lng=0&loc=Unspecified&alt=0&tz=CET |access-date=8 July 2010 |publisher=Heavens-Above.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |first=Harold F. |last=Weaver |year=1947 |title=The Visibility of Stars Without Optical Aid |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=59 |issue=350 |page=232 |bibcode=1947PASP...59..232W |doi=10.1086/125956|s2cid=51963530 }}</ref><ref name="daytime visibility">{{Cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=05&month=06&year=2009 |title=ISS visible during the daytime |date=5 June 2009 |publisher=Spaceweather.com |access-date=5 June 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811172429/https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=05&month=06&year=2009 |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref>

In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2012 |title=Get notified when the International Space Station is in your area |work=3 News NZ |url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Get-notified-when-the-International-Space-Station-is-in-your-area/tabid/1160/articleID/275612/Default.aspx |url-status=dead |access-date=21 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012231134/http://www.3news.co.nz/Get-notified-when-the-International-Space-Station-is-in-your-area/tabid/1160/articleID/275612/Default.aspx |archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.<ref name="MCC Answer" />

Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6&nbsp;June 2014.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="135px">
File:ISS 2008-01-10.jpg|Skytrack long duration exposure of the ISS
File:The ISS passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014.jpg|The ISS on its first pass of the night passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014
File:The ISS passing north near local midnight in June 2014.jpg|The ISS passing north on its third pass of the night near local midnight in June 2014
The ISS passing west on its 5th pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014.jpg|The ISS passing west on its fifth pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014
</gallery>

====Astrophotography====
<!-- Re: Section title: using the popular conversational usage of the term-->[[File:Isshtv120090917200858nm.jpg|thumb|The ISS and HTV photographed from Earth by Ralf Vandebergh]]
Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers,<!-- there are a million refs that can go here, pick one from google --><ref name="hobbyspace-satwatching">{{Cite web |url=https://www.hobbyspace.com/SatWatching/ |title=Satellite Watching |publisher=HobbySpace |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162457/https://www.hobbyspace.com/SatWatching/ |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew.<ref name="nasa-20030324">{{Cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/24mar_noseprints/ |title=Space StationAstrophotography – NASA Science |date=24 March 2003 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=1 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173359/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/24mar_noseprints |archive-date=11 August 2023 }}</ref> The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=[VIDEO&#93; The ISS and Atlantis shuttle as seen in broad daylight |url=http://www.zmescience.com/space/video-the-iss-and-atlantis-shuttle-as-seen-in-broad-daylight/ |access-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=Zmescience.com}}</ref>

[[File:Composite of 6 photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous Moon.jpg|thumb|Composite of six photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous Moon]]

[[Astronomy:Transit|Transits]] of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an [[Earth:Solar eclipse|eclipse]] (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2017 |title=Space Station Transiting 2017 ECLIPSE, My Brain Stopped Working – Smarter Every Day 175 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lepQoU4oek4 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/lepQoU4oek4| archive-date=11 December 2021 | url-status=live|website=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="wired-20110105">{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/01/double-eclipse/ |title=Moon and Space Station Eclipse the Sun |last=Grossman |first=Lisa |date=5 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130728/https://www.wired.com/2011/01/double-eclipse/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |magazine=WIRED }}</ref>

==International co-operation==
{{Main|Astronomy:Politics of the International Space Station|Astronomy:International Space Station programme}}
[[File:ISS Agreements.jpg|thumb|A Commemorative Plaque honouring Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on 28 January 1998]]
Involving five space programs and fifteen countries,<ref name="International Cooperation">{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/ |title=International Cooperation |date=25 March 2015 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=12 April 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120175307/https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/ |archive-date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history.<ref name="International Cooperation" /> The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.<ref name="farand-iss-framework">{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/file_download.php/785db0eec4e0cdfc43e1923624154cccFarand.pdf |title=Astronauts' behaviour onboard the International Space Station: regulatory framework |last=Farand |first=André |publisher=[[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913194014/http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/file_download.php/785db0eec4e0cdfc43e1923624154cccFarand.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2006 }}</ref>

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. 
Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?"<ref name="arstechnica-20220225">{{Cite news |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/02/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-will-have-myriad-impacts-on-spaceflight/ |title=The Russian invasion of Ukraine will have myriad impacts on spaceflight |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=25 February 2022 |access-date=4 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905025847/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/02/the-russian-invasion-of-ukraine-will-have-myriad-impacts-on-spaceflight/ |archive-date=5 September 2023 |work=[[Ars Technica]] }}</ref> (This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of Saratov.) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.<ref name="arstechnica-20220402">{{Cite news |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/no-no-no-russia-is-not-halting-cooperation-on-the-space-station/ |title=Russia asked NASA to end sanctions to save the ISS, but the West didn't blink |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |date=2 April 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810130453/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/04/no-no-no-russia-is-not-halting-cooperation-on-the-space-station/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=[[Ars Technica]] }}</ref> NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation [[Company:Northrop Grumman|Northrop Grumman]] has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.<ref name="guardian-20220301">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/mar/01/nasa-explores-how-to-keep-international-space-station-in-orbit-without-russian-help |title=Nasa explores how to keep international space station in orbit without Russian help |date=1 March 2022 |access-date=30 April 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005203717/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/mar/01/nasa-explores-how-to-keep-international-space-station-in-orbit-without-russian-help |archive-date=5 October 2023 |work={{wipe|The Guardian}} |agency=Agence France-Presse }}</ref>

On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.<ref name="26JulyBorisovQuote">{{Cite news |last=Harwood |first=William |date=26 July 2022 |title=Russia says it will withdraw from the International Space Station after 2024 |work=CBS News |publisher=ViacomCBS |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-international-space-station-exit-2024/ |url-status=live |access-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131755/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-international-space-station-exit-2024/ |archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.<ref name="Roulette 2022">{{Cite news |last= |last1=Roulette |first1=Joey |last2=Brunnstrom |first2=David |last3=Hunnicutt |first3=Trevor |last4=Gorman |first4=Steve |date=27 July 2022 |title=Russia signals space station pullout, but NASA says it's not official yet |publisher={{wipe|Reuters}} |editor1-last=Dunham |editor1-first=Will |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/russia-has-not-signaled-space-station-withdrawal-nasa-us-official-says-2022-07-26/ |url-status=live |access-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010212934/https://www.reuters.com/technology/russia-has-not-signaled-space-station-withdrawal-nasa-us-official-says-2022-07-26/ |archive-date=10 October 2023 |editor4-first=Marguerita |editor2-last=Porter |editor3-last=Oatis |editor4-last=Choy |editor3-first=Jonathan |editor2-first=Mark}}</ref>

===Participating countries===
* {{flagcountry|Brazil}} (1997–2007)
* {{flagcountry|Canada}}
* {{flagdeco|EU}} [[Organization:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]]
** {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
** {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
** {{flagcountry|France}}
** {{flagcountry|Germany}}
** {{flagcountry|Italy}}
** {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
** {{flagcountry|Norway}}
** {{flagcountry|Spain}}
** {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
** {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
** {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagcountry|Japan}}
* {{flagcountry|Russia}}
* {{flagcountry|United States}}

==End of mission==
[[File:Jules Verne Automated Transfer Vehicle re-enters Earth's atmosphere.jpg|thumb|right|Many ISS resupply spacecraft have already undergone [[Astronomy:Atmospheric entry|atmospheric re-entry]], such as ''Jules Verne'' ATV]]

According to the [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]], the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched.<ref name="outerspacetreaty">{{Cite book |url=https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf |title=United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space |year=2002 |publisher={{wipe|United Nations}} |location=New York |isbn=92-1-100900-6 |id=ST/SPACE/11 |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107063629/https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2023 }}</ref> Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area.<ref name="ISSEIS">{{Cite tech report |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960053133/downloads/19960053133.pdf |title=Final Tier 2 Environmental Impact Statement for International Space Station |date=May 1996 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |id=TM-111720 |access-date=12 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407113700/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960053133/downloads/19960053133.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2023 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS.<ref name="deo">{{Cite tech report |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/578543main_asap_eol_plan_2010_101020.pdf |title=ISS End-of-Life Disposal Plan |last=Suffredini |first=Michael |date=October 2010 |publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] |access-date=7 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405163025/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/578543main_asap_eol_plan_2010_101020.pdf |archive-date=5 April 2012 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the lowest risk to human life.<ref name=deo/>

[[Astronomy:Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex|OPSEK]] was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (''Nauka''), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to ''Nauka''. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.<ref name="RussiaSave">{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8064060.stm |title=Russia 'to save its ISS modules' |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=22 May 2009 |access-date=23 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624122107/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8064060.stm |archive-date=24 June 2023 |work=BBC News }}</ref>

At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and ''Zvezda 2'' as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.<ref>{{cite web |title=DC-1 and MIM-2 |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210130224/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html |archive-date=10 February 2009 |access-date=12 July 2011 |website=RussianSpaceWeb}}</ref>

On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.<ref name="spacedaily-20150930">{{Cite news |url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/NASA_extends_Boeing_contract_for_International_Space_Station_999.html |title=NASA extends Boeing contract for International Space Station |last=Maass |first=Ryan |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=2 October 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824213345/https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/NASA_extends_Boeing_contract_for_International_Space_Station_999.html |archive-date=24 August 2023 |work=Space Daily |agency=UPI }}</ref>

There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.<ref name="trump-budget-request">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/24/16930154/nasa-international-space-station-president-trump-budget-request-2025 |title=Trump administration wants to end NASA funding for the International Space Station by 2025 |last=Grush |first=Loren |date=24 January 2018 |access-date=24 April 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131807/https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/24/16930154/nasa-international-space-station-president-trump-budget-request-2025 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=[[The Verge]] }}</ref>

In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.<ref name="nelson-20181020">{{cite web |date=22 December 2018 |title=Commercial space bill dies in the House |url=https://spacenews.com/commercial-space-bill-dies-in-the-house/ |access-date=18 March 2019 |website=SpaceNews.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cruz |first=Ted |date=21 December 2018 |title=S.3277 – 115th Congress (2017–2018): Space Frontier Act of 2018 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/3277 |access-date=18 March 2019 |publisher=United States Congress}}</ref> In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.<ref name="auto">{{Cite tweet |number=1075840067569139712 |user=SenBillNelson |title=The Senate just passed my bill to help commercial space companies launch more than one rocket a day from Florida! This is an exciting bill that will help create jobs and keep rockets roaring from the Cape. It also extends the International Space Station to 2030! |first=Bill |last=Nelson |date=20 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606083410/https://twitter.com/SenBillNelson/status/1075840067569139712 |archive-date=6 June 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|date=27 September 2018|title=House joins Senate in push to extend ISS|url=https://spacenews.com/house-joins-senate-in-push-to-extend-iss/|access-date=9 May 2021|website=SpaceNews}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Babin |first=Brian |date=26 September 2018 |title=H.R.6910 – 115th Congress (2017-2018): Leading Human Spaceflight Act |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/6910 |access-date=18 March 2019 |publisher=United States Congress}}</ref> Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.<ref name="politico-20220809">{{Cite news |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/08/09/biden-ends-slog-on-semiconductor-bill-with-signature-00050530 |title=Biden ends slog on semiconductor bill with signature |last=Johnson |first=Lamar |date=9 August 2022 |access-date=24 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621192521/https://www.politico.com/news/2022/08/09/biden-ends-slog-on-semiconductor-bill-with-signature-00050530 |archive-date=21 June 2023 |work=Politico }}</ref><ref name="Errick 2022">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nextgov.com/emerging-tech/2022/08/nasa-authorization-act-aims-strengthen-us-space-exploration/375394/ |title=NASA Authorization Act Aims to Strengthen U.S. Space Exploration |last=Errick |first=Kirsten |date=4 August 2022 |access-date=24 August 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144458/https://www.nextgov.com/emerging-tech/2022/08/nasa-authorization-act-aims-strengthen-us-space-exploration/375394/ |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work=Nextgov.com }}</ref>

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into [[Astronomy:Spacecraft cemetery|a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean]].<ref name="sky-20220201">{{Cite news |url=https://news.sky.com/story/nasa-plans-to-take-international-space-station-out-of-orbit-in-january-2031-by-crashing-it-into-spacecraft-cemetery-12530194 |title=NASA plans to take International Space Station out of orbit in January 2031 by crashing it into 'spacecraft cemetery' |date=1 February 2022 |access-date=1 February 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010112515/https://news.sky.com/story/nasa-plans-to-take-international-space-station-out-of-orbit-in-january-2031-by-crashing-it-into-spacecraft-cemetery-12530194 |archive-date=10 October 2023 |work=Sky News }}</ref> NASA will launch the deorbiting spacecraft, a year before reentry, docking at the Harmony forward port either through a [[Engineering:Common Berthing Mechanism|CBM]] or to PMA 2/[[Engineering:International Docking Adapter|IDA 2]] after the removal of [[Astronomy:Axiom Orbital Segment|Axiom Orbital Segment]]. The spacecraft would only be functional during the final days of ISS, once the station's orbit has decayed to {{cvt|220|km}}. The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to {{cvt|160|km}}, followed by a final deorbiting burn.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=9 May 2023 |title=NASA proposes 'hybrid' contract approach for space station deorbit vehicle |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-proposals-hybrid-contract-approach-for-space-station-deorbit-vehicle/ |access-date=10 May 2023 |website=SpaceNews }}</ref>

==Cost==
The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed.<ref name="zidbits-expensive">{{Cite web |url=http://zidbits.com/?p=19 |title=What Is The Most Expensive Object Ever Built? |date=6 November 2010 |access-date=22 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805150710/https://zidbits.com/?p=19 |archive-date=5 August 2021 |website=Zidbits.com }}</ref> As of 2010, the total cost was US$150&nbsp;billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7&nbsp;billion ($89.73&nbsp;billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12&nbsp;billion, Europe's $5&nbsp;billion, Japan's $5&nbsp;billion, Canada's $2&nbsp;billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4&nbsp;billion each, or $50.4&nbsp;billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5&nbsp;million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6&nbsp;million ($5.5&nbsp;million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab.<ref name="lafleur20100308">{{Cite news |url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1 |title=Costs of US piloted programs |last=Lafleur, Claude |date=8 March 2010 |access-date=18 February 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801132840/https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |work=The Space Review }} See author correction in comments.</ref>

== In film ==
Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries ''[[Astronomy:Space Station 3D|Space Station 3D]]'' from 2002,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0290296/ |title=Space Station 3D |work=IMDb |access-date=20 March 2022}}</ref> or ''A Beautiful Planet'' from 2016,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abeautifulplanet.imax.com/ |title=A Beautiful Planet - Experience Earth Like Never Before |work=abeautifulplanet.imax.com |access-date=20 March 2022}}</ref> and films like ''[[Astronomy:Apogee of Fear|Apogee of Fear]]'' (2012)<ref name="huffpost-20120114">{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/richard-garriott-space-movie_n_1206198 |title=Richard Garriott's "Apogee Of Fear," First Sci Fi Movie Ever Shot In Space, Fails To Launch |last=Wall |first=Mike |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410150201/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/richard-garriott-space-movie_n_1206198 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |work=HuffPost }}</ref> and ''Yolki 5'' (2016)<ref name="ria-20161212">{{Cite web |url=https://ria.ru/rus_cinema/20161212/1483374933.html |title=Бекмамбетов: фильм "Елки-5" могут включить в книгу Гиннесса |trans-title=Bekmambetov: the movie 'Yolki-5' might be included in the Guinness Book of Records |date=12 December 2016 |publisher=RIA Novosti |language=ru |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427142206/https://ria.ru/20161212/1483374933.html |archive-date=27 April 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Ёлки 5 в 720HD |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdqByKDISFg |access-date=2023-10-30 |language=en}}</ref> the ISS is the subject of feature films such as ''The Day After Tomorrow'' (2004),<ref name="shaw2008">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/technoculturekey0000shaw |title=Technoculture: The Key Concepts |last=Shaw |first=Debra Benita |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |location= |page=67 |isbn=978-1-84520-298-9 }}</ref> ''Love'' (2011),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1541874/ |title=Love |work=IMDb |access-date=20 March 2022}}</ref> together with the Chinese station Tiangong 1 in ''Gravity'' (2013),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1454468/?ref_=ttpl_pl_tt |title=Gravity |work=IMDb |access-date=21 March 2022}}</ref> ''Life'' (2017),<ref name="sony-life">{{Cite web |title=Life |url=https://www.sonypictures.com/movies/life |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132103/https://www.sonypictures.com/movies/life |archive-date=10 August 2023 |access-date=20 March 2022 |work=Sony Pictures |publisher=Sony Pictures}}</ref> and ''I.S.S.'' (2023).<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Coggan |first=Devan |date=2023-12-04 |title=Ariana DeBose is an astronaut at war in trailer for space-set thriller I.S.S. |url=https://ew.com/ariana-debose-iss-trailer-8409986 |access-date=2024-01-22 |magazine=Entertainment Weekly}}</ref>

In 2022, the movie ''The Challenge'' (''Doctor's House Call'') was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space.<ref name="nyt-20210916">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/world/europe/russia-movie-space.html |url-access=subscription |title=Russia to Open New Frontier in Space, Shooting First Full-Length Movie |last1=Kramer |first1=Andrew E. |date=16 September 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810145219/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/world/europe/russia-movie-space.html |archive-date=10 August 2023 |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} }}</ref>

==See also==
* ''A Beautiful Planet'' – 2016 IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS
* Center for the Advancement of Science in Space – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS
* List of accidents and incidents involving the International Space Station
* [[Astronomy:List of International Space Station expeditions|List of International Space Station expeditions]]
* [[Astronomy:List of International Space Station spacewalks|List of International Space Station spacewalks]]
* List of commanders of the International Space Station
* List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station
* [[Engineering:List of space stations|List of space stations]]
* List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station
* [[Social:Politics of outer space|Politics of outer space]]
* Science diplomacy
* ''[[Astronomy:Space Station 3D|Space Station 3D]]'' – 2002 Canadian documentary

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

'''Attribution:'''
* {{Include-NASA}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/np-2015-05-022-jsc-iss-guide-2015-update-111015-508c.pdf |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |date=September 2015 |publisher=NASA |edition=Utilization |id=NP-2015-05-022-JSC}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/508318main_ISS_ref_guide_nov2010.pdf |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |year= 2010 |publisher=NASA |isbn=978-0-16-086517-6 |edition=Assembly Complete |id=NP-2010-09-682-HQ}}
* O'Sullivan, John. ''European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019'' (Springer Nature, 2020).
* Ruttley, Tara M., Julie A. Robinson, and William H. Gerstenmaier. "The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization." ''Social Science Quarterly'' 98.4 (2017): 1160–1174. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tara_Ruttley2/publication/322066773_The_International_Space_Station_Collaboration_Utilization_and_Commercialization_The_International_Space_Station/links/5b43c819aca2728a0d689466/The-International-Space-Station-Collaboration-Utilization-and-Commercialization-The-International-Space-Station.pdf online]

==External links==
* {{Official}}
* [https://www.karhukoti.com/Satellites/?search=ISS ISS Location]

===Agency ISS websites===
* {{flagicon|CAN}}&nbsp;[http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/default.asp Canadian Space Agency]
* [[Image:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]]&nbsp;[http://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station European Space Agency]
* {{flagicon|FRA}}&nbsp;[https://iss.cnes.fr/en/internatinal-space-station Centre national d'études spatiales (National Centre for Space Studies)]
* {{flagicon|GER}}&nbsp;[https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/missions-projects/iss/iss-international-space-station.html German Aerospace Center]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107055123/https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/missions-projects/iss/iss-international-space-station.html |date=7 November 2020 }}.
* {{flagicon|ITA}}&nbsp;[https://www.asi.it/en/life-in-space/international-space-station/ Italian Space Agency]
* {{flagicon|JPN}}&nbsp;[http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]
* {{flagicon|RUS}}&nbsp;[https://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627050937/http://www.energia.ru/eng/iss/iss.html |date=27 June 2017 }}.
* {{flagicon|RUS}}&nbsp;[http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ Russian Federal Space Agency]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627235737/http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |date=27 June 2021 }}.
* {{flagicon|USA}}&nbsp;[https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html National Aeronautics and Space Administration]

===Research===
* [https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/ NASA: Daily ISS Reports]
* [https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/index.html NASA: Station Science]
* [http://www.esa.int/Columbus ESA: ''Columbus'']
* [https://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian Segment]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111224059/https://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html |date=11 January 2018 }}.

===Live viewing===
* [http://www.ustream.tv/channel/live-iss-stream Live ISS webcam] by NASA at uStream.tv
* [http://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload Live HD ISS webcams] by NASA [[High Definition Earth Viewing cameras|HDEV]] at uStream.tv
* [https://spotthestation.nasa.gov Sighting opportunities] at NASA.gov
* [https://karhukoti.com/webtracker?s=25544 Complete Orbital Position] at KarhuKoti.com
* [http://heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544 Real-time position] at Heavens-above.com
* [https://uphere.space/satellites/25544 Real-time tracking and position] at uphere.space

===Multimedia===
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore Johnson Space Center image gallery] at [[Social:Flickr|Flickr]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k ISS tour with Sunita Williams] by NASA (on [[Company:YouTube|YouTube]])
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbyvawxScNbsoD_tGlw8kWCw3S5htiVKZ Journey to the ISS] by ESA (on YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMmcLmu3V1k ''The Future of Hope'', ''Kibō'' module documentary] by JAXA (on YouTube)
* Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=7KXGZAEWzn0 ''Orbit – Remastered''], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkEV4FljRaM ''Orbit: Uncut'']; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loOVYBSkLXQ ''The Four Seasons''], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gPzIKe92-M ''Nocturne – Earth at Night''], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9vWyEPAboM ''Earthbound''], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3djDeb-GW3g ''The Pearl''] (see [https://www.flickr.com/photos/seandoran/albums/72157665417217399 Flickr album] for more)
* [https://www.g3xwh.com/index.php/home/iss-contact-march-2002/hlc-video-of-the-iss-contact Amateur Radio ISS Contact with Harrogate Ladies College in 2002]

{{ISS expeditions}}
{{ISS modules}}
{{Navboxes|list=
{{Spaceflight}}
{{Space stations}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{US human spaceflight programs}}
{{Russian human spaceflight programs}}
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{{Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation}}
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[[Category:International Space Station| ]]
[[Category:Crewed spacecraft]]
[[Category:Space program of Russia]]
[[Category:Joint ventures]]

{{Sourceattribution|International Space Station}}