View source for Astronomy:Moon Treaty

{{short description|International agreement attempting to regulate activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies}} 
{{Infobox Treaty
| name                = Moon Treaty
| long_name           = Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies
| image               =
| image_width         = 
| caption             =
| type                =
| date_drafted        =
| date_signed         = December 18, 1979
| location_signed     = New York, USA
| date_sealed         =
| date_effective      = July 11, 1984 
| condition_effective = 5 ratifications
| date_expiration     =
| signatories         = 11<ref name=untdb/>
| parties             = 18<ref name=unoda>{{cite web|url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/moon|title=Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies|publisher=United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs|access-date=2013-05-16}}</ref><ref name=untdb/> (as of January 2022)
| depositor           = Secretary-General of the United Nations
| language            =
| languages           = English, French, Russian, Spanish, Arabic and Chinese
| website             = 
| wikisource          = Moon Treaty
}}


The '''Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies''',<ref name='Full_Provisions'>[http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.] - Resolution 34/68 Adopted by the General Assembly. 89th plenary meeting; 5 December 1979.</ref><ref>''[http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/moon.html Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies]'', Dec. 5, 1979, 1363 U.N.T.S. 3</ref> better known as the '''Moon Treaty''' or '''Moon Agreement''', is a multilateral treaty that turns jurisdiction of all celestial bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the participant countries. Thus, all activities would conform to international law, including the United Nations Charter.

It has not been ratified by any state that engages in self-launched [[Astronomy:Human spaceflight|human spaceflight]] (e.g. the {{wipe|United States}}, {{wipe|Russia}} (or its predecessor the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]), or the People's Republic of China) since its creation on December 18, 1979, and thus it has little to no relevancy in international law.<ref name='Koch_2018'>"Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining.] Jonathan Sydney Koch. "Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining." ''Astropolitics'', 16:1, 1-27, 2008. {{doi|10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824}}</ref> {{As of|2022|1}}, 18 states are parties to the treaty.<ref name=untdb>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en|title=Agreement governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies|access-date=2014-12-05|publisher={{wipe|United Nations}}}}</ref>

==Objective==
It was noted that since the 1967 [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]] was signed, technologies and society evolved, requiring a redefinition of the rights and responsibilities of citizens and governments alike in the use and development of outer space.<ref name='Wilson 2011'>[https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=elr Regulation of the Outer Space Environment Through International Accord: The 1979 Moon Treaty.] James R. Wilson. ''Fordham Environmental Law Review'', Volume 2, Number 2, Article 1, 2011.</ref> The primary stated objective of the 1979 Moon Treaty is "to provide the necessary legal principles for governing the behavior of states, international organizations, and individuals who explore celestial bodies other than Earth, as well as administration of the resources that exploration may yield."<ref name='Wilson 2011'/> It proposed to do so by having the state parties produce an "international regime" that would establish the appropriate procedures (Article 11.5).<ref name='Wilson 2011'/><ref name='UNISPACE'/>

==Provisions==
The Moon Treaty proposes to establish an "international regime" or "framework of laws" that apply to the Moon and to other [[Astronomy:Astronomical object|celestial bodies]]  within the [[Astronomy:Solar System|Solar System]], including orbits around or other trajectories to or around them.<ref name='Full_Provisions'/><ref name='UNISPACE'/>

The Moon Treaty lays several provisions outlined in 21 articles.<ref name='Full_Provisions'/> In Article 1, the treaty makes a declaration that the Moon should be used for the benefit of all states and all peoples of the international community.<ref name='Schingler 2019'>{{cite journal |url=https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarisru2019/pdf/5124.pdf |title=Common Pool Lunar Resources. |first1=J. K. |last1=Schingler |first2=A. |last2=Kapoglou |journal=Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. |date=July 15–17, 2019 |volume=2152 |page=5124 |location=Columbia, Maryland|bibcode=2019LPICo2152.5124S }}</ref> It reiterates that lunar resources are "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means."<ref name='Schingler 2019'/> It also expresses a desire to prevent the Moon from becoming a source of international conflict, so that the resources should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes. To those ends, the treaty lays several provisions, and some of these are paraphrased below:<ref name='Full_Provisions'/>
[[File:Moon Crescent - False Color Mosaic.jpg|thumb|left|An artificially colored mosaic constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral filters by ''Galileo's'' imaging system as the spacecraft flew over the northern regions of the Moon on 7 December 1992. The colors indicate different materials.]]
*Bans any military use of celestial bodies, including weapon testing, nuclear weapons in orbit, or military bases. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. (Article 3.4)
*Provides a framework of laws to establish an international cooperation regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the responsible exploitation of [[Astronomy:Lunar resources|natural resources of the Moon]]. (Article 11.5)<ref>Moon Agreement, Article 11.5  quote: "5. States Parties to this Agreement hereby undertake to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation is about to become feasible. This provision shall be implemented in accordance with article 18 of this Agreement."</ref>
*Bans altering the environmental balance of celestial bodies and requires that states take measures to prevent [[Astronomy:Planetary protection|accidental contamination]] of the environments of celestial bodies, including Earth. (Article 7.1)
*The orderly and safe use of the natural lunar resources with an  equitable sharing by all state parties in the benefits derived from those resources. (Article 11.7)
*The placement of personnel or equipment on or below the surface shall not create a right of ownership. (Article 11)
*There shall be freedom of scientific research and exploration and use on the Moon by any party without discrimination of any kind. (Article 6) Samples obtained during research activities, are hoped to be made available to all countries and scientific communities for research. (Article 6.2)
*Any areas or regions reported to have a special scientific interest, shall be designated as international scientific preserves. (Article 7.3)
*Shall promptly inform the United Nations and the public of any phenomena which could endanger human life or health, as well as of any indication of [[Astronomy:Extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial life]]. (Article 5.3)
*State parties shall ensure that non-governmental entities under their jurisdiction shall engage in activities on the Moon only under the authority and continuing supervision of the appropriate state party. (Article 14)
*All parties shall inform the United Nations as well as the public, of their activities concerned with the exploration and use of the Moon. (Article 5)
*Any state party to this agreement may propose amendments to the agreement. (Article 17)
*Any state party to this agreement may give notice of its withdrawal by written notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. It will take effect one year from the date of this notification. (Article 20)<ref name='Full_Provisions'></ref>

When compared with the [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]], it reiterates most provisions, and adds two new concepts in order to address the exploitation of natural resources in outer space: to apply the concept of '[[Social:Common heritage of mankind|common heritage of mankind]]' to outer space activities, and to have the participating countries produce a regime that lays the appropriate procedures for orderly mining.<ref name='Wilson 2011'/> Multiple conferences produced no consensus on these two items.

==History==
{{Also|Moon#Legal status}}
After the 1967 non-armament [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]] was signed, it was followed in 1968 with the United Nations convened UNISPACE, the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. It was the first of a series of UN-sponsored conferences intended to create an international framework of laws to guide humanity's use of outer space resources.<ref name='Wilson 2011'/> 

After ten more years of negotiations, the Moon Treaty was created in 1979 as a framework of laws to develop a regime of detailed procedures, and as such, it remained imprecise: its Article 11.5 states that the exploitation of the natural shall be governed by an international regime that would establish the appropriate procedures. In order to define this regime or laws, a series of UN-sponsored conferences took place, but brought no consensus. The continuing disagreement is based mainly over the meaning of "Common Heritage of Mankind" and on the rights of each country to the [[Astronomy:Lunar resources|natural resources of the Moon]].<ref name='Wilson 2011'/>

===Ratification===
The treaty was finalized in 1979 and, after satisfying the condition requiring 5 ratifying states, it entered into force for the ratifying parties in 1984. {{As of|2019|1}}, 18 states are parties to the treaty,<ref name=untdb/> seven of which ratified the agreement and the rest acceded.<ref name=untdb/><ref name='UNOOSA'>[http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/ST_SPACE_11_Rev2_Add1E.pdf Status of international agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2008] United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008</ref> Four additional states have signed but not ratified the treaty.<ref name=untdb/><ref name="UNOOSA"/> The [[Organization:L5 Society|L5 Society]] and others successfully opposed signing of the treaty by the United States.<ref name=oneilchilds>[http://www.nss.org/resources/library/spacemovement/chapter05.htm Chapter 5: O'Neills Children] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210141912/http://nss.org/resources/library/spacemovement/chapter05.htm |date=2016-12-10 }}, Reaching for the High Frontier, The American Pro-Space Movement 1972-84, by Michael A. G. Michaud, National Space Society.</ref><ref name='Failed'>{{cite web
 | url =http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1954/1
 | title =The Moon Treaty: failed international law or waiting in the shadows?
 | last =Listner
 | first =Michael
 | date =24 October 2011
 | website =The Space Review
 | publisher =9 October 2015
 }}</ref>

===National considerations===
In the United States on July 29 and 31, 1980, the Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space, which was a part of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation held hearings on the Moon Treaty. S. Neil Hosenball was one of the supporters of the treaty, and he attempted to compare the Moon Treaty to mining rights within the United States. Hosenball was unsuccessful in his attempt to convince the committee that the United States should ratify the Moon Treaty. The opposition, led by Leigh Ratiner of the [[Organization:L5 Society|L-5 Society]], stated that the Moon Treaty was opposed to free enterprise and private property rights. Ratiner provided a potential solution to the Moon Treaty, and suggested that there should be legal claims to the Moon and "there should be a system to register such claims. By the way, I'm not speaking of claims to territory...I don't think it's necessary for us to deal with the issue of whether one can make a claim to the land itself, as long as one has the exclusive right to use it."<ref>U.S. Congress. Senate, Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space of the Committee of Commerce, Science, and Transportation. ''Hearings before Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space of the Committee of Commerce, Science, and Transportation'', 96th Congress, 2nd sess., 1980.</ref>

The last effort culminated in June 2018 after eight years of negotiations,<ref name='UNISPACE'>[http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3642/1 Beyond UNISPACE: It's time for the Moon Treaty.] Dennis C. O'Brien. ''Pace Review''. 21 January 2019. Quote 1: "The Moon Treaty acknowledges a role for private enterprise as 'non-governmental' entities. Although it requires all private activities in space to be under the 'supervision and control' of their country of origin, it does not specify any further regulations. Rather, it leaves it up to the 'Member States'—those nations who have adopted the treaty—to create a framework of laws to facilitate the 'safe and orderly' commercial use of space resources, at such time when such regulations become necessary";  "Quote 2: "It is worth repeating that the Moon Treaty does not mandate any specific regulation for space commerce, but does require countries to create such regulations as the need arises."</ref> when the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) held a high-level meeting that tried to produce a consensus on a framework of laws for the sustainable development of outer space, but it also failed to do so<ref name='UNISPACE'/> when S. Neil Hosenball, who is the NASA General Counsel and chief US negotiator for the Moon Treaty, decided that negotiation of the rules of the international regime should be delayed until the feasibility of exploitation of lunar resources has been established.<ref name='Hosenball 2018'>{{cite journal |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3408/1 |title=Simply fix the Moon Treaty. |first=Vidvuds |last=Beldavs |journal=The Space Review |date=15 January 2018}}</ref>

However since rights to economic benefits are claimed to be necessary to ensure investment in private missions to the Moon,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3444/1 |title=Why it's a bad idea to weaken the Moon Treaty.  |first=Dennis |last=O'Brien |journal=Space Review |date=5 March 2018 |quote="[…] the Moon Treaty, must be revised so that investors in a future space economy can achieve a sustainable return on their investments."}}</ref> private companies in the US have been seeking clearer national regulatory conditions and guidelines<ref name='OBrian 2018'>[http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3444/1 Why it's a bad idea to weaken the Moon Treaty.] Dennis O'Brien, ''The Space Review''. 5 March 2018. Quote: "Its not really so much what the regulation is but that there is regulatory clarity. Right now, because there are no clear regulations on these activities, companies are afraid, […]"</ref> prompting the US government to do so, which subsequently legalized space mining in 2015 by introducing the US [[Engineering:Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015|Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015]].<ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262 H.R.2262 - U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act. 114th Congress (2015-2016)]. Sponsor: Rep. McCarthy, Kevin.  5 December 2015.</ref>

Similar national legislations legalizing extraterrestrial appropriation of resources are now being replicated by other nations, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India and Russia.<ref name='ORF 2019'>[https://www.orfonline.org/research/if-space-is-the-province-of-mankind-who-owns-its-resources-47561/ If space is 'the province of mankind', who owns its resources?] Senjuti Mallick and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. ''The Observer Research Foundation''. 24 January 2019.</ref> While the "national" treaty explicitly allows commercial mining, other experts argue that these new national laws are inconsistent with the Moon Treaty and customary international law.<ref name='ORF 2019'/><ref name="Library Blog">{{cite web |last1=Ridderhof |first1=R. |title=Space Mining and (U.S.) Space Law |url=https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/ |website=Peace Palace Library |access-date=26 February 2019 |date=18 December 2015 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227062034/https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.regblog.org/2015/12/31/rathz-space-commerce-regulation/|title = Law Provides New Regulatory Framework for Space Commerce {{!}} RegBlog|website = www.regblog.org|date = 31 December 2015|access-date = 2016-03-28}}</ref><ref name='Davies'>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/06/asteroid-mining-space-minerals-legal-issues |title=Asteroid mining could be space's new frontier: the problem is doing it legally |newspaper=The Guardian|first=Rob |last=Davies |date=6 February 2016}}</ref>

===Implementation agreement===
The controversy on claims and on mining rights for profit have dominated the discussion around the laws governing the Moon.<ref name="Davies" /><ref name='OBrian 2018'/><ref name='UNISPACE'/>

Experts though have affirmed that the Moon Treaty does allow commercial mining, since it allows extraction after the international regulatory regime, that the Moon Treaty asks for, is put into place. Therefore it is concluded, that the Moon Treaty is incomplete and lacks an "implementation agreement" answering the unresolved issues, particularly regarding resource extraction.<ref name='UNISPACE'/>

==Legal status==
While the treaty reiterates the prohibition of sovereignty of "any part" of space, the current imprecision of the agreement, being called unfinished,<ref>[https://www.spacelegalissues.com/the-1979-moon-agreement/ The 1979 Moon Agreement.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106195831/https://www.spacelegalissues.com/the-1979-moon-agreement/ |date=2019-11-06 }} Louis de Gouyon Matignon, ''Space Legal Issues''. 17 July 2019.</ref> generated various interpretations,<ref name='Schingler 2019'/><ref name='Tronchetti_2017'>[http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2017/symp-01.pdf Current International Legal Framework Applicability to Space Resource Activities.] Fabio Tronchetti, IISL/ECSL Space Law Symposium 2017, Vienna 27 March 2017.</ref> this being cited as the main reason it was not signed by most countries.<ref name='Tronchetti_2017'/><ref>[https://www.moonestates.com/about-us/space-law/ Extraterrestrial Property and Space Law: Frequently Asked Questions.] ''Moon Estates''. Accessed on 6 November 2019.</ref> The treaty proposes that the exploitation of resources shall be governed by an international regime (Article 11.5), but there has been no consensus establishing these laws.<ref name='Tronchetti_2017'/>

The agreement has been described without fruition<ref name='Wilson 2011'/> and possibly a failure<ref name='Failed'/> if it remains ratified by few countries, particularly those active in space. Only one country (India) with independent spaceflight capabilities has signed (but not ratified) the treaty.

Echoing legal experts<ref name='Wilson 2011'/> S. Neil Hosenball, who is the NASA General Counsel and chief US negotiator for the Moon Treaty, decided in 2018 that negotiation of the rules of this international regime should be delayed until the feasibility of exploitation of lunar resources has been established.<ref name="Hosenball 2018" /> An expert in space law and economics summarized that the treaty would need to offer adequate provisions against any one company acquiring a monopoly position in the world minerals market, while avoiding "the socialization of the Moon."<ref name='Nelson_2010'>[https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1847&context=ilsajournal/ The Moon Agreement and Private Enterprise: Lessons from Investment Law.] Timothy G. Nelson. ILSA ''Journal of International & Comparative Law.'' Vol: 17, No. 2. (2010)</ref>

In 2020 the [[Astronomy:Artemis Accords|Artemis Accords]] were signed, while not mentioning the treaty, they are nevertheless challenging the treaty. At the time of the signing of the accords U.S. President Donald Trump additionally released an [[Social:Executive order|executive order]] called "Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources." The order emphasizes that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise."<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=55513 Administration Statement on Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources]</ref><ref>[https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-encouraging-international-support-recovery-use-space-resources/ Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources]</ref>

With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty as well as the Artemis Accords, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.<ref name="Australian Institute of International Affairs 2021">{{cite web | title=Australia Between the Moon Agreement and the Artemis Accords | website=Australian Institute of International Affairs | date=Jun 2, 2021 | url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/australia-between-the-moon-agreement-and-the-artemis-accords/ | access-date=Feb 1, 2022}}</ref> In this light an ''Implementation Agreement'' for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws, allowing it to be more widely accepted.<ref name="The Space Review 2020">{{cite web | title=The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration | website=The Space Review | date=Jun 29, 2020 | url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1 | access-date=Feb 1, 2022}}</ref><ref name="The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission">{{cite web | title=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission: To give people Hope and Inspiration by helping the nations of Earth to build a Common Future | website=The Space Treaty Institute – Dedicated to Peace and Sustainability in Outer Space. Our Mission | url=http://www.spacetreaty.org/ | access-date=Feb 1, 2022}}</ref>

==List of parties==
[[File:Moon Treaty Participation.svg|right|400px|thumb|
Participation in the Moon Treaty
{{legend|#00aa00|Parties}}
{{legend|#ffff00|Signatories}}
{{legend|#ff1111|Non-parties}}
]]

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! State<ref name=untdb/><ref name=unoda/>
! Signed
! Deposited
! Method
|-
| {{flag|Armenia}}
| 
| {{dts|format=dmy|2018|Jan|19}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|1986|Jul|7}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Austria}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|May|21}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1984|Jun|11}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Belgium}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2004|Jun|29}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Chile}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Jan|3}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|Nov|12}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2001|Jan|11}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Kuwait}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2014|Apr|28}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Lebanon}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2006|Apr|12}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Mexico}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|1991|Oct|11}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Morocco}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Jul|25}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1993|Jan|21}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|Jan|27}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1983|Feb|17}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|1986|Feb|27}}
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Peru}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|Jun|23}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|2005|Nov|23}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Apr|23}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|May|26}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2012|Jul|18}}
| Accession<br/>Notified the depository of its withdrawal from the treaty on 5 January 2023, effective 5 January 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CN/2023/CN.4.2023-Eng.pdf|title=C.N.4.2023.TREATIES-XXIV.2 (Depositary Notification)|date=2023-01-05|accessdate=2023-01-06|publisher= United Nations}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Turkey}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2012|Feb|29}}<ref>{{ cite web | title = Reference: C.N.124.2012.TREATIES-2 (Depositary Notification) | publisher = United Nations | location = New York, NY | url = http://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CN/2012/CN.124.2012-Eng.pdf | access-date = 2012-04-03 }}</ref>
| Accession
|-
| {{flag|Uruguay}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|Jun|1}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1981|Nov|9}}
| Ratification
|-
| {{flag|Venezuela}}
|
| {{dts|format=dmy|2016|Nov|3}}
| Accession
|}

==List of signatories==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! State<ref name=untdb/><ref name=unoda/>
! Signed
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Jan|29}}
|-
| {{flag|Guatemala}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Nov|20}}
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1982|Jan|18}}
|-
| {{flag|Romania}}
| {{dts|format=dmy|1980|Apr|17}}
|}


== See also ==
* [[Social:Politics of outer space|Politics of outer space]]
* [[Astronomy:Space law|Space law]]
* [[Engineering:Outer Space Treaty|Outer Space Treaty]]
* Treaty on Open Skies
* United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
* [[Astronomy:Artemis Accords|Artemis Accords]]
* Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
* Rights of nature

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.iislweb.org/ International Institute of Space Law] - promotes the expansion of the rule of law for the peaceful use of outer space. 
*[http://www.islandone.org/Treaties/BH766.html Treaty Text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622103213/http://www.islandone.org/Treaties/BH766.html |date=2009-06-22 }} — "Agreement Governing The Activities Of States On the Moon And Other Celestial Bodies" (1979)
*[http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/moon.html Official Treaty Site] — [[Organization:United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs|United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] (UNOOSA), including versions of the treaty in several languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

{{Spaceflight}}
{{The Moon}}

[[Category:Colonization of the Moon|Treaty]]
[[Category:Moon|Treaty]]

{{Sourceattribution|Moon Treaty}}