View source for Biography:Augustine of Hippo

{{short description|Early Christian theologian, philosopher and Church Father}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| honorific_prefix= [[Religion:Saint|Saint]]
| name= Augustine of Hippo
| honorific_suffix= Bishop of Hippo Regius and<br> [[Religion:Doctor of the Church|Doctor of the Church]]
| birth_date=13 November 354 AD
| death_date=28 August 430 AD (age 75)
| death_cause       = Natural Causes
| image= Saint Augustine - Tomas Giner.JPG
| imagesize= 
| caption= Painting of Saint Augustine by Tomás Giner, year 1458, tempera on panel Diocesan Museum of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain.
| birth_place=Thagaste, [[History:Numidia|Numidia]] (modern-day Souk Ahras, Algeria)
| death_place=Hippo Regius, Numidia (modern-day Annaba, Algeria)
|region           = [[Philosophy:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]]
|era              = [[Philosophy:Ancient philosophy|Ancient philosophy]]<br />[[Philosophy:Medieval philosophy|Medieval philosophy]]
|school_tradition = 
{{flatlist|
*[[Philosophy:Augustinianism|Augustinianism]]
*[[Philosophy:Neoplatonism and Christianity|Neoplatonism]]
}}
| notable_students  = Paul Orosius<ref>{{cite book| last1=Nguyen| first1=vanThanh| last2=M. Prior| first2= John| title=God’s People on the Move: Biblical and Global Perspectives on Migration and Mission| date=2014| publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers| url=https://books.google.com.br/books?id=rdF2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66| page=66|quote= Paul Orosius was a fifth century CE historian and theologian and a student of St. Augustine of Hippo|isbn=9781630877514}}</ref>
|main_interests   = 
{{plainlist|
* [[Social:Anthropology|Anthropology]]
* [[Religion:Biblical criticism|Biblical criticism]]
* [[Philosophy:Epistemology|Epistemology]]
* [[Philosophy:Ethics|Ethics]]
* [[Philosophy:Metaphysics|Metaphysics]]
* [[Social:Pedagogy|Pedagogy]]
* [[Religion:Philosophy of religion|Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Philosophy:Theodicy|Theodicy]]
* [[Religion:Theology|Theology]]
}}
| influences= {{hlist|Saint Ambrose of Milan|[[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]]|[[Biography:Cicero|Cicero]]|Cyprian|Saint Monica of Hippo|[[Biography:Homer|Homer]]|[[Biography:Origen|Origen]]|Saint Paul the Apostle|[[Biography:Plato|Plato]]|[[Biography:Plotinus|Plotinus]]|Virgil<ref>[https://www.123helpme.com/love-and-duty-in-virgils-aeneid-and-augustines-confessions-preview.asp?id=208353 Love and Duty in Virgil’s Aeneid and Augustine’s Confessions Essay]</ref>|[[Biography:Mani (prophet)|Mani]]|[[Biography:Socrates|Socrates]]<ref>"But, among the disciples of Socrates, Plato was the one who shone with a glory which far excelled that of the others, and who not unjustly eclipsed them all. (…) And, as he had a peculiar love for his master Socrates, he made him the speaker in all his dialogues, putting into his mouth whatever he had learned, either from others, or from the efforts of his own powerful intellect, tempering even his moral disputations with the grace and politeness of the Socratic style." — Augustine in ''[[Philosophy:The City of God|The City of God]]'' ([https://biblehub.com/library/augustine/city_of_god/chapter_4_concerning_plato_the_chief.htm "Concerning Plato").</ref>|Tertullian|[[Biography:Zoroaster|Zoroaster]]<ref>[https://www.learnreligions.com/biography-of-st-augustine-700002 Biography of St. Augustine]</ref>|[[Biography:Seneca the Younger|Seneca the Younger]]<ref name="lars54a">{{Harvnb|Laarmann|2013|p=54}} citing Quintilian, ''Institutio Oratoria'', x.1.126f; Aulus Gellius, ''Noctes Atticae'', xii. 2.</ref>}}
| influenced= Virtually all of subsequent [[Philosophy:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]] and [[Religion:Catholic theology|Catholic theology]], as well as a significant amount of Protestant theology.
| nationality       = Roman African
| notable_works =''Confessions of St. Augustine''<br />''City of God''<br />''On Christian Doctrine''
|notable_ideas    = 
{{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
*''[[Religion:Filioque|Filioque]]''<ref>Siecienski, Anthony Edward (2010). ''[https://books.google.rs/books?id=auT8VbgOe48C The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy]''. Oxford University Press.</ref>
*[[Religion:Original sin|Original sin]]
*[[Philosophy:Free will in theology#Roman Catholic|Free will]]
*Augustinian predestination
*[[Philosophy:Just war theory|Just war theory]]
*[[Religion:Absence of good|Absence of good]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Augustine|title=Enchridion|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf103.iv.ii.xiii.html|chapter=What Is Called Evil in the Universe Is But the Absence of Good|accessdate=2012-11-17}}</ref>
*[[Religion:Concupiscence|Concupiscence]]<ref name="NewYorker">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/06/19/how-st-augustine-invented-sex |title=How St. Augustine Invented Sex |first=Stephen |last=Greenblatt |magazine=The New Yorker |date=June 19, 2017}}</ref>
*[[Religion:Sacramental character|Sacramental character]]<ref>Ryan, M.J. (1908). Character (in Catholic Theology). In The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved September 1, 2019 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03586a.htm</ref>
*[[Unsolved:Augustinian hypothesis|Augustinian hypothesis]]<ref>St. Augustine, ''The Harmony of the Gospels'', Book 1 chapter 2 paragraph 4. from [http://www.hypotyposeis.org/synoptic-problem/2004/10/external-evidence-augustine.html hypothesis.com]</ref>
*[[Philosophy:Augustinian theodicy|Augustinian theodicy]]
*[[Philosophy:Augustinian values|Augustinian values]]<ref name="www.merrimack.edu">{{cite news |publisher=www.merrimack.edu |title=Augustinian Values |author=Alberto Esmeralda |url=http://www.merrimack.edu/uploads/Dean_of_the_College/files/esmeralda.pdf |accessdate=2006-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901144844/http://www.merrimack.edu/uploads/Dean_of_the_College/files/esmeralda.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-01}}</ref>
*[[Philosophy:Divine command theory|Divine command theory]]<ref name=IEP-2>{{cite web | url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/divine-c/#H2 | title=Divine Command Theory | publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=21 August 2006 | accessdate=15 August 2012 | author=Austin, Michael W.}}</ref>
*[[Religion:Amillennialism|Amillennialism]]
*''You are Christ''<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/clife/prayers/prayer.php?s=5 Catholic online prayers]</ref>
*[[Religion:Deity|Deity]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=deity |title=Online Etymology Dictionary – Deity |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=6 June 2017}}</ref>
*''[[Philosophy:Solvitur ambulando|Solvitur ambulando]]''<ref>http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2013-09-03/news/bal-solution-to-many-a-problem-take-a-walk-20130830_1_benefits-thoughts-zeno</ref>
*[[Philosophy:Heroic virtue|Heroic virtue]]<ref>Wilhelm, J. (1910). [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07292c.htm Heroic Virtue]. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved November 14, 2019 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07292c.htm</ref>
*''[[Religion:Incurvatus in se|Incurvatus in se]]''<ref name="google2006">{{cite book|author=Matt Jenson|title=Gravity of Sin: Augustine, Luther and Barth on ''homo incurvatus in se''|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwsRAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=T & T Clark|isbn=978-0-567-03138-9|accessdate=2012-11-17}}</ref>
*[[Religion:Allegorical interpretations of Genesis|Genesis as an allegory]]<ref>''Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 1:19–20, Chapt. 19</ref><ref>''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 2:9</ref>
*[[Philosophy:Divine illumination|Divine illumination]]
*[[Philosophy:Theocentricism|Theocentricism]]<ref>''Orthodox readings of Augustine'' by George E. Demacopoulos, Aristotle Papanikolaou 2008 {{ISBN|0-88141-327-5}} page 271</ref> 
*Limbo<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15011.htm On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants]</ref>
}}{{Augustinianism}}
{{Augustine}}
'''Saint Augustine of Hippo''' ({{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|s|t|ᵻ|n}}; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430 AD)<ref name="Wells 2000">{{cite book |last=Wells |first=J. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-582-36467-7 |edition=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia00jcwe }}</ref> was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and [[Philosophy:Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] [[Biography:Philosopher|philosopher]] from Numidia whose writings influenced the development of the Western Church and [[Philosophy:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]], and indirectly all of [[Religion:Western Christianity|Western Christianity]]. He was the [[Religion:Bishop|bishop]] of Hippo Regius in [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]] and is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church for his writings in the [[Religion:Patristics|Patristic Period]]. Among his most important works are ''[[Philosophy:The City of God|The City of God]]'', ''De doctrina Christiana'', and ''Confessions''.

According to his contemporary, [[Biography:Jerome|Jerome]], Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".<ref group=lower-alpha>[[Biography:Jerome|Jerome]] wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei''). Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]; {{cite book |title= Augustine the Theologian |last=TeSelle |first=Eugene |year=1970 |location= London |page=343 |isbn=978-0-223-97728-0}} March 2002 edition: {{ISBN|1-57910-918-7}}.</ref> In his youth he was drawn to [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaeism]] and later to [[Philosophy:Neoplatonism|neoplatonism]]. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.<ref>{{cite book |title=Augustine the Theologian |last=TeSelle |first=Eugene |year=1970 |location=London |pages=347–349 |isbn= 978-0-223-97728-0}} 2002: {{ISBN|1-57910-918-7}}.</ref> Believing that the [[Religion:Grace in Christianity|grace of Christ]] was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of [[Religion:Original sin|original sin]] and made seminal contributions to the development of [[Philosophy:Just war theory|just war theory]]. When the [[Place:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]] began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual [[Place:New Jerusalem#Christianity|City of God]], distinct from the material Earthly City.<ref name="CC">{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=Caesar and Christ: a History of Roman Civilization and of Christianity from Their Beginnings to A.D. 325 |publisher=MJF Books |location=New York |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-56731-014-6 |title-link=Ancient Rome }}</ref> His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the [[Religion:Trinity|Trinity]] as defined by the [[Religion:First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] and the [[Religion:First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert L. |title=The Spirit of Early Christian Thought |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-300-10598-8 |page=291}}</ref> closely identified with Augustine's ''[[Religion:On the Trinity|On the Trinity]]''.

Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Churches, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion and as a preeminent [[Religion:Doctor of the Church|Doctor of the Church]]. He is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses.<ref name="KnoYrSaint">[http://www.catholicapologetics.info/library/saints/index.htm Know Your Patron Saint]. catholicapologetics.info</ref> Many [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestants]], especially [[Religion:Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Religion:Lutheranism|Lutherans]], consider him to be one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on [[Religion:Salvation|salvation]] and [[Religion:Divine grace|divine grace]].<ref name="Hägglund 2007 139–140">{{cite book| last=Hägglund| first=Bengt| title=Teologins historia| language=German|trans-title=History of Theology| others=Translated by Gene J. Lund| edition= 4th rev.| year=2007| publisher=Concordia Publishing House| location=St. Louis, Missouri| origyear=1968| pages=139–140|  isbn=978-0758613486}}</ref><ref name="Gonzalez"/><ref name="St. Augustine of Hippo">{{cite book |others=Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis, and revised by Benjamin B. Warfield (revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight) |author=St. Augustine of Hippo |chapter=On Rebuke and Grace |title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 5 |editor=Philip Schaff |location=Buffalo, New York |publisher=Christian Literature Publishing Co. |edition= 1887 |chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1513.htm}}</ref> Protestant Reformers generally, and [[Biography:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]] in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early Church Fathers. Luther himself was, from 1505 to 1521, a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites.

In the [[Religion:Eastern Christianity|East]], his teachings are more disputed, and were notably attacked by John Romanides.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Some Underlying Positions of This Website| url = http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.00.en.some_underlying_positions_of_this_website.htm| website = www.romanity.org| accessdate = 2015-09-30}}</ref> But other theologians and figures of the [[Religion:Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Church]] have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Limits of Church| url = http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/limits_church.htm| website = www.fatheralexander.org| accessdate = 2015-09-30}}</ref> The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the [[Religion:Filioque|filioque]],<ref name="Rev. Dr.">Papademetriou, George C. [http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8153 "Saint Augustine in the Greek Orthodox Tradition"]. goarch.org {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105045903/http://goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8153 |date=5 November 2010 }}</ref> was rejected by the Orthodox Church<ref>{{Cite book|last=Siecienski|first=Anthony Edward|year=2010|title=The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auT8VbgOe48C|isbn=978-0195372045|pages=53–67}}</ref> as Heretic Teaching.<ref>[https://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Augustine of Hippo in orthodoxwiki.org]</ref> Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and [[Philosophy:Predestination|predestination]].<ref name="Rev. Dr."/> Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and has even had influence on some Eastern [[Religion:Church Fathers|Church Fathers]], most notably Saint Gregory Palamas.<ref>{{Cite journal| title = Gregory Palamas' Use of Augustine's De Trinitate for Original Sin and its Application to the Theotokos & Scholarius' Palamitico-Augustinianism of the Immaculate Conception (Stockholm 28.VI.15)| journal = Stolcholm University Press| url = https://www.academia.edu/11941514| date = 2015-09-30| last1 = Kappes| first1 = Christiaan}}</ref> In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.<ref name="Rev. Dr."/><ref>{{cite journal | last =[[Religion:Archimandrite|Archimandrite]] | title = Book Review: ''The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church'' | journal =Orthodox Tradition | volume =II | issue =3&4 | pages =40–43 | url =http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx#rose | accessdate =28 June 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070710012506/http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx| archivedate= 10 July 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example [[Biography:Paul the Apostle|Paul of Tarsus]], has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."<ref name="MacCulloch2010">{{cite book|author=Diarmaid MacCulloch|title=A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-102189-8|page=319}}</ref>

==Life==

===Background===
Augustine of Hippo ({{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|s|t|ᵻ|n}},<ref name="Wells 2000"/> {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|s|t|ᵻ|n}},<ref>"Augustine", in ''Webster's New Biographical Dictionary'' (1988), Springfield, MA:  Merriam-Webster, {{ISBN|0-87779-543-6}} .</ref> or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɔː|ɡ|ʌ|s|t|ᵻ|n}};<ref name="OED">[http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/13120 "Augustin (e, n. (and adj.)".] ''Oxford English Dictionary''. March 2011. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 25 May 2011.</ref> {{lang-la|Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis}};<ref group=lower-alpha>The ''nomen'' Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying little more than Roman citizenship (see: {{cite journal |title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c.&nbsp;700&nbsp;B.C. to A.D.&nbsp;700 |last=Salway |first=Benet |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=84 |pages=124–145 |jstor=300873 |issn=0075-4358 |year=1994 |doi=10.2307/300873|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf }}).</ref> 13 November 354 – 28 August 430 AD), also known as ''Saint Augustine'', ''Saint Austin'',<ref>{{cite book |title=The American Heritage College Dictionary |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |location=Boston|year=1997 |isbn=978-0-395-66917-4 |page=91}}</ref> is known by various cognomens throughout the Christian world across its many denominations including ''Blessed Augustine'', and the ''Doctor of Grace''<ref>{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|id=02084a|title=St. Augustine of Hippo|last=Portalié|first=Eugène|accessdate=30 June 2016}}</ref> ({{Lang-la|Doctor gratiae}}).

Hippo Regius, where Augustine was the [[Religion:Bishop|bishop]], was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HuxXNesm9dYC&pg=PT26&dq=Annaba|title=Augustine: A Very Short Introduction|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|date=2001-02-22|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=|isbn=9780191606632|location=|page=26|pages=|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vyg7ViBs4JAC&pg=PA183&dq=Annaba|title=Algeria|last=Oakes|first=Jonathan|date=2008|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|year=|isbn=9781841622323|location=|page=183|pages=|language=en}}</ref>

===Childhood and education===
[[File:7 Nicolo di Pietro. 1413-15. The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. Pinacoteca, Vatican..jpg|thumb|''The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica.'' by Niccolò di Pietro 1413–15]]
Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in the Roman province of [[History:Numidia|Numidia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{cite web | title=Saint Augustine – Biography, Philosophy, & Major Works | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine | access-date=28 Jan 2018}}<br>{{cite book|author=Frank N. Magill|title=The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NVFUi7G6TEC&pg=PA172|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45740-2|page=172}}<br>{{cite book|author=Saint Augustine (Bishop of Hippo.)|title=On Christian Teaching|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5pv1MGv0TUC&pg=PR26|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283928-2|page=26}}<br>{{cite book|author=Barry Jones|title=Dictionary of World Biography: Fourth edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIopDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|date=2017|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-76046-126-3|page=39}}<br>{{cite book|author=N. Jayapalan|title=Comprehensive History of Political Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n77z4tabLXcC&pg=PA51|year=2001|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0073-2|page=51}}</ref> His mother, Monica or Monnica,<ref>"[T]he names Monnica and Nonnica are found on tombstones in the Libyan language—as such Monnica is the only Berber name commonly used in English."  Brett, Michael and Fentress, Elizabeth (1996), ''The Berbers'', Cambridge, Massachusetts:  Blackwell, p. 293, {{ISBN|0631168524}}.</ref> was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a Pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed.<ref>Vesey, Mark, trans. (2007) "Confessions Saint Augustine", introduction, {{ISBN|978-1-59308-259-8}}.</ref>

Scholars generally agree that Augustine and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa,<ref name="Hollingworth2013" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCxNjeuYpJwC|title=From Generation to Generation: The Renewal of the Church According to Its Own Theology and Practice|last=Leith|first=John H.|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0664251222|page=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAAXAQAAIAAJ|title=Catholic World, Volumes 175–176|publisher=Paulist Fathers|year=1952|isbn=|page=376|quote=The whole of North Africa was a glory of Christendom with St. Augustine, himself a Berber, its chief ornament.|via=}}</ref> but that they were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity.<ref name="Hollingworth2013">{{cite book|author=Hollingworth, Miles |title=Saint Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q3W7jYz7ZsC&pg=PA51|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-986159-0|pages=51–52}}</ref> In his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage. For example, he refers to [[Biography:Apuleius|Apuleius]] as "the most notorious of us Africans,"<ref name="Hollingworth2013" /><ref>Ep., CXXXIII, 19. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1102138.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_139_testo.htm Latin version]</ref> to Ponticianus as "a country man of ours, insofar as being African,"<ref name="Hollingworth2013" /><ref>Confess., VIII, 6, 14. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110108.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/confessioni/index2.htm Latin version]</ref> and to Faustus of Mileve as "an African Gentleman".<ref name="Hollingworth2013" /><ref>Contra Faustum, I, 1. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/140601.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/contro_fausto/index2.htm Latin version]</ref>

Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests that his father's ancestors were freedmen of the ''gens Aurelia'' given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born.<ref>Lancel, Serge (2002) ''Saint Augustine'', Hymns Ancient & Modern, p. 5, {{ISBN|0334028663}}.</ref> It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name,<ref name="KP">Power, Kim (1999) "Family, Relatives", pp. 353–354 in ''Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia''. Allan D. Fitzgerald, ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3843-8}}.</ref><ref>Brett, Michael and Fentress, Elizabeth (1996) ''The Berbers'', [[Company:Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley-Blackwell]]. pp. 71, 293. {{ISBN|0631168524}}.</ref> but as his family were ''honestiores'', an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language is likely to have been Latin.<ref name="KP"/>

At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small [[History:Numidia|Numidia]]n city about {{convert|19|mi}} south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices.<ref>Knowles, Andrew and Penkett, Pachomios (2004) ''Augustine and His World''. InterVarsity Press. Ch. 2. {{ISBN|978-0830823567}}.</ref> His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this story in his autobiography, ''The Confessions''. He remembers that he stole the fruit, not because he was hungry, but because "it was not permitted."<ref name="ReferenceB">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:4</ref> His very nature, he says, was flawed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I loved my own error—not that for which I erred, but the error itself."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> From this incident he concluded the human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the grace of Christ.

At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus,<ref name=EA>''Encyclopedia Americana'', v. 2, p. 685. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7172-0129-5}}.</ref> Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in [[Philosophy:Rhetoric|rhetoric]], though it was above the financial means of his family.<ref name="ReferenceA">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:3.5</ref> In spite of the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a [[Philosophy:Hedonism|hedonistic]] lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences.<ref name="FLNZ1">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:3.7</ref>

It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read [[Biography:Cicero|Cicero]]'s [[Philosophy:Dialogue|dialogue]] ''Hortensius'' (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression, enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth. It started his interest in philosophy.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 3:4</ref> Although raised to follow Christianity, Augustine decided to become a [[Unsolved:Manichaeism|Manichaean]], much to his mother's despair.<ref>{{cite web| last= Pope | first = Hugh | work =Catholic Encyclopedia | title = Saint Monica| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10482a.htm | accessdate = 20 April 2012|quote= At Carthage Augustine had become a Manichaean and when on his return home he propounded certain heretical propositions she drove him away from her table, but a strange vision urged her to recall him. It was at this time that she went to see a certain holy bishop, whose name is not given, but who consoled her with the now famous words, "the child of those tears shall never perish."}}</ref>

At about the age of 17, Augustine began an affair with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover<ref name=Uta>{{cite book |title= Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven: Women, Sexuality and the Catholic Church | last =Ranke-Heineman | first = Uta| publisher= Penguin Books | place = US |year=1988| isbn=978-0385265270}}</ref> for over fifteen years<ref name="utne.com">Boyce, James (May 2015) [http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/st-augustine-and-original-sin-ze0z1505zken.aspx "Don't Blame the Devil: St Augustine and Original Sin"]. ''Utne Reader''.</ref> and gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388),<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 4:2</ref> who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare himself to marry a ten-year-old heiress. (He had to wait for two years because the legal age of marriage for women was twelve.) By the time he was able to marry her, however, he instead decided to become a celibate priest.<ref name="utne.com"/><ref>Brown, p. 63</ref>

Augustine was from the beginning a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek<ref name=O>[http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/augustine/ O'Donnell, James J. "Augustine the African", Georgetown University]. Faculty.georgetown.edu. Retrieved on 2015-06-17.</ref>—he tells us that his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized that he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. However, his mastery of Latin was another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to make his points.

===Move to Carthage, Rome, Milan===
[[File:Augustine Lateran.jpg|thumb|The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome]]

Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and would remain there for the next nine years.<ref name=EA/> Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay.

Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who while traveling through Carthage had been asked by the imperial court at Milan<ref name="celife" /> to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers.

Although Augustine spent ten years as a Manichaean, he was never an initiate or "elect", but an "auditor", the lowest level in this religion's hierarchy.<ref name = "celife" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chadwick |first1=Henry |title=Augustine: A Very Short Introduction |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191606632 |page=14}}</ref> While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism.<ref name="celife" /> In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the New Academy movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Kishlansky| first1=Mark| last2=Geary| first2=Patrick| last3=O'Brien| first3=Patricia| title=Civilization in the West| date=2010| publisher=Pearson Education Inc.| location=New Jersey| pages=142–143| volume=Vol. 1: to 1715| ref=Augustine of Hippo|isbn=978-0205664726}}</ref> At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in [[Philosophy:Neoplatonism|Neoplatonism]], and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Christianity.<ref name="EA" /> Not coincidentally, this was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I had issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391.<ref> Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. pp. 689, 690. {{ISBN|9789068310023}}.</ref>  Initially Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with [[Biography:Ambrose|Ambrose]] of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.

Augustine arrived in Milan and visited Ambrose having heard of his reputation as an orator. Augustine quickly discovered that Ambrose was a spectacular orator. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but older and more experienced.<ref name = "BeDuhn2009">{{cite book | first = Jason David | last = BeDuhn | title = Augustine's Manichaean Dilemma: Conversion and Apostasy, 373–388 C.E. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEmZaq1Gg3wC&pg=PA163 | accessdate = 17 June 2011 | date =2009| publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4210-2|page= 163}}</ref> Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, "And I began to love him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but as a friendly man."<ref name="Augustine: Account of His Own Conversion"/> Eventually, Augustine says that he was spiritually led into the faith of Christianity.<ref name="Augustine: Account of His Own Conversion"/> Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. Within his ''Confessions'', Augustine states, "That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should."<ref name="Augustine: Account of His Own Conversion">{{cite web| last1=Outler| first1=Albert| title="Medieval Sourcebook." Internet History Sourcebooks Project| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aug-conv.asp| website=Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook| publisher=Fordham University |accessdate=30 October 2014}}</ref> Ambrose adopted Augustine as a spiritual son after the death of Augustine's father.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to 'Non-free' Free Will: A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3161557538 |page=90}}</ref>

Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a respectable marriage for him. Although Augustine acquiesced, he had to dismiss his concubine and grieved for having forsaken his lover. He wrote, "My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding." Augustine confessed that he was not a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional wound was not healed.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 6:15</ref> It was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me [[Philosophy:Chastity|chastity]] and [[Philosophy:Sexual abstinence|continence]], but not yet."<ref name="FLNZ2">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 8:7.17</ref>

There is evidence that Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Burrus | first=Virginia| year=2011| title="Fleeing the Uxorious Kingdom": Augustine's Queer Theology of Marriage | journal =Journal of Early Christian Studies|volume=19| issue=1| pages = 1–20| doi=10.1353/earl.2011.0002}}</ref> In his ''Confessions'', he admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée, but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage, saying that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as ''Christianae vitae otium'' – the leisure of Christian life.<ref name="Ferguson208">Ferguson, Everett (1999) ''Christianity in Relation to Jews, Greeks, and Romans'', Taylor & Francis, p. 208, {{ISBN|0-8153-3069-3}}.</ref>

===Christian conversion and priesthood===
{{Ordination
| date of priestly ordination = 391
| place of priestly ordination = Hippo Regius, Africa, Roman Empire
| date of consecration = 396
| consecrated by = Megalius
| sources = <ref>{{cite web|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Augustine of Hippo|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm|website=[[New Advent]]|accessdate=22 January 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020030610/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm|archivedate=20 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian|url=http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|website=justus.anglican.org|publisher=Society of Archbishop Justus|accessdate=22 January 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824001306/http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|archivedate=24 August 2017}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Fra angelico - conversion de saint augustin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Conversion of St. Augustine'' by Fra Angelico]]

In late August of 386,<ref>The historian Peter Brown places Augustine's garden conversion at the end of August, 386. Brown, p. 64.
</ref> at the age of 31, having heard of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of Saint Anthony of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by hearing a child's voice say "take up and read" ({{lang-la|tolle, lege}}). Resorting to the [[Religion:Sortes Sanctorum|Sortes Sanctorum]], he opened the Bible at random and read Romans 13: 13-14: ''Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof.''<ref>{{cite book| author = Augustine of Hippo | title = Confessions |year= 2008| publisher= Oxford University Press| place = New York | pages =152–153 | others = Chadwick, Henry transl}}</ref>

He later wrote an account of his conversion in his ''Confessions'' ({{lang-la|Confessiones}}), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the ''Confessions'' also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics.<ref name="justus.anglican.org">[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian]. Justus.anglican.org. Retrieved on 2015-06-17.</ref> The following is taken from that work:

{{quote|<poem>Late have I loved Thee, O Lord; and behold,
Thou wast within and I without, and there I sought Thee.
Thou wast with me when I was not with Thee.
Thou didst call, and cry, and burst my deafness.
Thou didst gleam, and glow, and dispel my blindness.
Thou didst touch me, and I burned for Thy peace.
For Thyself Thou hast made us,
And restless our hearts until in Thee they find their ease.
Late have I loved Thee, Thou Beauty ever old and ever new.<ref name="justus.anglican.org"/></poem>}}
[[File:Ascanio Luciano – Capriccio with the vision of St. Augustine in a ruined arcade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The vision of St. Augustine'' by Ascanio Luciano]]

[[Biography:Ambrose|Ambrose]] baptized Augustine and his son Adeodatus, in Milan on [[Religion:Easter Vigil|Easter Vigil]], April 24–25, 387.<ref>Brown, p.  117.
</ref> A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his [[Religion:Christian apologetics|apology]] ''On the Holiness of the Catholic Church''.<ref name="celife"/> That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa.<ref name=EA/> Augustine's mother Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa.<ref>{{cite web| last=Pope| first=Hugh| work = [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] | title = Saint Monica| url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10482a.htm| accessdate=20 April 2012| quote=Here death overtook Monica and the finest pages of his "Confessions" were penned as the result of the emotion Augustine then experienced.}}</ref> Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property.<ref>Possidius, ''v. Aug.'' 3.1</ref> Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died.<ref>{{cite web| last=A'Becket| first=John| title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Adeodatus| url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01141e.htm| accessdate=20 April 2012}}</ref> Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends.<ref name=EA/>

In 391 Augustine was [[Religion:Ordination|ordained]] a [[Religion:Priest|priest]] in Hippo Regius (now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a famous [[Religion:Preacher|preacher]] (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.<ref name="celife">Portalié, Eugène (1907). [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm "Life of St. Augustine of Hippo"] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 30 September 2011</ref>

In 395, he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and became full Bishop shortly thereafter,<ref>Brown</ref> hence the name "Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste.<ref>Augustine, ''ep.''126.1</ref> He remained in that position until his death in 430. He wrote his autobiographical ''Confessions'' in 397–398. His work ''The City of God'' was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths had sacked Rome in 410.

Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a ''regula'' for his monastery that led to his designation as the "patron saint of [[Religion:Regular clergy|regular clergy]]".<ref>[http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-augustine-of-hippo/ Saint Augustine of Hippo] at ''saints.sqpn.com''. Retrieved 30 September 2011</ref>{{not in source|date=January 2020}}

Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his ''Sancti Augustini Vita''. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.<ref name=Weiskotten>{{cite book |author=Weiskotten, Herbert T. |title=The Life of Saint Augustine: A Translation of the Sancti Augustini Vita by Possidius, Bishop of Calama |publisher= Evolution Publishing | location = Merchantville, NJ | year=2008 | isbn = 978-1-889758-90-9}}</ref>

===Death and Sainthood===
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix= [[Religion:Saint|Saint]]
| name= Augustine of Hippo
| honorific_suffix= Bishop of Hippo Regius
| birth_date=13 November 354 AD
| death_date=28 August 430 AD (age 75)
| feast_day=28 August (Latin Church, [[Religion:Western Christianity|Western Christianity]])<br />15 June ([[Religion:Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christianity]])<br />4 November (Assyrian)
| image= Triunfo de San Agustín.jpg
| caption= The Triumph of Saint Augustine painted by Claudio Coello year 1664 
| venerated_in= All Christian denominations which venerate saints
| titles= [[Religion:Doctor of the Church|Doctor of the Church]], [[Religion:Bishop|Bishop]], [[Biography:Philosopher|Philosopher]], Theologian
|attributes= Child<br>Dove<br>Pen<br>Shell<br>Pierced Heart<br>Holding Book with a Small Church<br>Crozier<br>Miter
| patronage = Brewers, Printers, [[Medicine:Conjunctivitis|Against Sore Eyes]], Theologians, <br /> Bridgeport, Connecticut, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines, San Agustin, Isabela, Mendez, Cavite, Tanza, Cavite
| major_shrine=San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia, Italy
}}

Shortly before Augustine's death, the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to [[Religion:Arianism|Arianism]], invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege.<ref name=Weiskotten/>{{rp|43}} According to Possidius, Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.<ref name=Weiskotten/>{{rp|57}} Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.<ref>[http://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_augustine.html "St Augustine of Hippo"] at ''PhilosophyBasics.com''. Retrieved 30 September 2011.</ref>

Augustine was [[Religion:Canonization|canonized]] by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02662a.htm| title=New Advent – Pope Boniface VIII| accessdate=26 February 2012}}</ref> His feast day is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. He is invoked against sore eyes.<ref name="KnoYrSaint"/>

====Relics====
[[File:Basilica-sant'agostino-annaba03.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Augustine's arm bones, Saint Augustin Basilica, Annaba, Algeria]]
According to [[Biography:Bede|Bede]]'s ''True Martyrology'', Augustine's body was later [[Religion:Translation (relic)|translated]] or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]]s. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull ''Veneranda Santorum Patrum'', in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called ''Arca''), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life.

In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing some human bones (including part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed that they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, [[Religion:Monsignor|Monsignor]] Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint Augustine.<ref>[http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=2213&iparentid=145 Augustine's tomb, Augnet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222172526/http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=2213&iparentid=145 |date=22 February 2014 }}. Augnet.org (2007-04-22). Retrieved on 2015-06-17.</ref>

The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled ''Arca'', which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Dale, Shanon |title=A house divided: San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia and the politics of Pope John XXII| doi=10.1016/S0304-4181(00)00016-6| year=2001| journal=Journal of Medieval History| volume=27| page=55}}</ref><ref>Stone, Harold Samuel (2002) ''St. Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory'' (Studies in Print Culture and the History of the Book) Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, {{ISBN|1558493883}}.</ref>

In 1842, a portion of Augustine's right arm (cubitus) was secured from Pavia and returned to Annaba.<ref name="SchnaubeltFleteren1999">{{cite book|author1=Schnaubelt, Joseph C. |author2=Van Fleteren, Frederick |title=Augustine in Iconography: History and Legend|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JhTqAAAAMAAJ|date=1999|publisher=P. Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-2291-6|page=165}}</ref> It now rests in the Saint Augustin Basilica within a glass tube inserted into the arm of a life-size marble statue of the saint.

==Views and thought==
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}
{{Catholic philosophy}}
Augustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with John Chrysostom, Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity

===Theology===
====Christian anthropology====
Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of [[Religion:Christian anthropology|theological anthropology]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Stanford | title = Encyclopedia of Philosophy | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#PhiAnt | contribution = Saint Augustine {{ndash}} Philosophical Anthropology | year = 2016 }}</ref> He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise ''On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5'' (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged to the very nature of the human [[Philosophy:Person|person]].<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De cura pro mortuis gerenda'' CSEL 41, 627 [13–22]; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 595: ''Nullo modo ipsa spernenda sunt corpora. (...)Haec enim non ad ornamentum vel adiutorium, quod adhibetur extrinsecus, sed ad ipsam naturam hominis pertinent''.</ref> Augustine's favourite figure to describe ''body-soul'' unity is marriage: ''caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife''.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Enarrationes in psalmos'', 143, 6.</ref><ref>CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; 46, 234–35.</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De utilitate ieiunii'', 4, 4–5.</ref>

Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the [[Biography:Augustine of Hippo#Original sin|fall of humanity]] they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De quantitate animae'' 1.2; 5.9.</ref> Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De quantitate animae'' 13.12: ''Substantia quaedam rationis particeps, regendo corpori accomodata''.</ref>

Augustine was not preoccupied, as [[Biography:Plato|Plato]] and Descartes were, with going too much into details in efforts to explain the [[Philosophy:Metaphysics|metaphysics]] of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit that they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, and the soul is superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the free will'' (''De libero arbitrio'') 2.3.7–6.13.</ref><ref>{{Cite book | first = WE | last = Mann | contribution = Inner-Life Ethics | title=The Augustinian Tradition | publisher=University of California Press | year=1999 | pages=141–142 | isbn=978-0-520-20999-2 | editor-first = GB | editor-last = Matthews}}</ref>

Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,<ref>{{cite web | title = A Plea for the Christians |first = Athenagoras | last = the Athenian | url = http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0205.htm | publisher = New advent}}</ref> Tertullian,<ref>Flinn, Frank K. and Melton, J. Gordon (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=gxEONS0FFlsC&pg=PA4 ''Encyclopedia of Catholicism'']. Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Religions. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5455-8}}), p. 4</ref> [[Biography:Clement of Alexandria|Clement of Alexandria]] and Basil of Caesarea,<ref>Kristin, Luker (1985) [https://books.google.com/books?id=-SZnZTSQV9EC&pg=PA12 ''Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood'']. University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5209-0792-8}}), p. 12</ref> Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced [[Medicine:Abortion|abortion]]", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early abortions and later ones.<ref name="Fitzgerald, 1">{{Cite encyclopedia| publisher = Wm B Eerdmans | isbn = 978-0-8028-3843-8| page = 1| editor-first = Allan D | editor-last = Fitzgerald | last = Bauerschmidt | first = John C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcVhAGpvTQ0C&pg=PA1 |title=Abortion |encyclopedia = Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia| year = 1999}}</ref> He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of {{bibleverse||Exodus|21:22–23}}, which incorrectly translates the word "harm" (from the original Hebrew text) as "form" in the [[Social:Koine Greek|Koine Greek]] of the Septuagint. His view was based on the Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'". Therefore, he did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought that it could not be said with certainty that the fetus had already received a soul.<ref name="Fitzgerald, 1"/><ref>[http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/abortion/respect-for-unborn-human-life.cfm Respect for Unborn Human Life: the Church's Constant Teaching]. U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops</ref>

Augustine held that "the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone".<ref>{{cite book|title=On Moral Medicine: Theological Perspectives on Medical Ethics|editor1=Lysaught, M. Therese |editor2=Kotva, Joseph |editor3=Lammers, Stephen E. |editor4=Verhey, Allen |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|year=2012|isbn=978-0-8028-6601-1|page=676}}</ref> However, he considered procreation as one of the goods of marriage; abortion figured as a means, along with drugs which cause sterility, of frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum which included infanticide as an instance of ‘lustful cruelty’ or ‘cruel lust.’ Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an ‘evil work:’ a reference to either abortion or contraception or both."<ref name="Vasa">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ewtn.com/library/bishops/vasapelosi.htm|title=Modern Look at Abortion Not Same as St. Augustine's|website=www.ewtn.com|access-date=2016-12-04}}</ref>

====Creation====
In ''City of God'', Augustine rejected both the contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings.<ref>{{cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF1-02/npnf1-02-18.htm#P2017_1154484 |chapter=Of the Falseness of the History Which Allots Many Thousand Years to the World's Past |title=The City of God |at=Book&nbsp;12: Chapt.&nbsp;10 [419]}}</ref> In ''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' Augustine took the view that God had created everything in the universe simultaneously, and not over a period of six days as a literal interpretation of [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Genesis]] would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a [[Religion:Framework interpretation (Genesis)|logical framework]], rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach&nbsp;18:1, ''creavit omnia simul'' ("He created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof that the days of Genesis&nbsp;1 had to be taken non-literally.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |publisher=Wm B Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3843-8 |pages=377–378 |editor-first=Allan D. |editor-last=Fitzgerald |last=Teske |first=Roland J. |title=Genesi ad litteram liber imperfectus, De |encyclopedia=Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia |year=1999}}</ref> As an additional support for describing the six days of creation as a [[Heuristic|heuristic]] device, Augustine thought that the actual event of creation would be incomprehensible by humans and therefore needed to be translated.<ref>{{cite book |last=Franklin-Brown |first=Mary |title=Reading the world: Encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago & London |year=2012 |isbn=978-0226260709 |p=280}}</ref>

Augustine also does not envision original sin as causing structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of [[Religion:Adam and Eve|Adam and Eve]] were already created mortal before [[Religion:Fall of man|the Fall]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=On the Merits |at=1.2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=City of God |at=13:1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=Enchiridion |at=104}}</ref>

====Ecclesiology====
[[File:Carlo Crivelli - St. Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|''St. Augustine'' by Carlo Crivelli]]
Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught that there is one Church, but that within this Church there are two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the [[Religion:Laity|laity]]) and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the [[Religion:Sacrament|sacrament]]s, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that only those in a [[Religion:State (theology)|state of grace]] were the "true" or "pure" church on earth, and that priests and bishops who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite book
| author=Gonzalez, Justo L.
| title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)
| publisher=Abingdon Press
| isbn=978-0687171835
| date=1970–1975}}</ref>{{rp|28}}

Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in ''City of God''. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the bishops and priests of the Church are the [[Religion:Apostolic succession|successors of the Apostles]],<ref name="Gonzalez"/> and that their authority in the Church is God-given.

==== Eschatology ====
Augustine originally believed in [[Religion:Premillennialism|premillennialism]], namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general [[Unsolved:Resurrection|resurrection]], but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the first theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of [[Religion:Amillennialism|amillennialism]], although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern [[Religion:Postmillennialism|postmillennialists]]. The Catholic Church during the Medieval period built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.<ref>{{cite book| author=Blomberg, Craig L. |title=From Pentecost to Patmos| publisher=Apollos| year=2006| page=519| isbn=978-0805432480}}</ref>

During the Reformation theologians such as [[Biography:John Calvin|John Calvin]] accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death,<ref name=Cross>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=Frank L. |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=Elizabeth |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |ref=Cross}}</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Enchiridion'', 110</ref> and that [[Unsolved:Purgatory|purgatorial]] fires of the [[Unsolved:Intermediate state|intermediate state]] purify only those that died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.<ref name=Cross/>

====Mariology====
Although Augustine did not develop an independent [[Religion:Mariology|Mariology]], his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the [[Religion:Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]], he defended the [[Religion:Perpetual virginity of Mary|Ever-Virgin Mary]] as the [[Religion:Theotokos|Mother of God]], believing her to be "full of grace" (following earlier Latin writers such as [[Biography:Jerome|Jerome]]) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Sancta Virginitate'', 6,6, 191.</ref> Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary "conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever".<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Sancta Virginitate'', 18</ref>

====Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation====
Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts science and our God-given reason, the Biblical text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Genesi ad literam 1:19–20'', Chapt. 19 [408], ''De Genesi ad literam'', 2:9</ref>

====Original sin====

[[File:Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg|thumb|Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century]]
Augustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first.<ref group=lower-alpha>He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit''. (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 795)</ref> The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17).<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad litteram''), VIII, 6:12, vol. 1, pp. 192–93 and 12:28, vol. 2, pp. 219–20, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ; BA 49,28 and 50–52; PL 34, 377; cf. idem, ''De Trinitate'', XII, 12.17; CCL 50, 371–372 [v. 26–31; 1–36];  ''De natura boni'' 34–35; CSEL 25, 872; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 42, 551–572</ref> The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad litteram''), VIII, 4.8; BA 49, 20</ref> Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.<ref group=lower-alpha>Augustine explained it in this way: "Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more and more." ("[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130105.htm On the Trinity]" (''De Trinitate''), 5:7; CCL 50, 320 [1–12])</ref>

They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if [[Biography:Satan|Satan]] hadn't sown into their senses "the root of evil" (''radix Mali'').<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus''  ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 670)</ref> Their nature was wounded by [[Religion:Concupiscence|concupiscence]] or [[Philosophy:Libido|libido]], which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.<ref group=lower-alpha>In one of Augustine's late works, ''Retractationes'', he made a significant remark indicating the way he understood difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: "Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido" ("libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis"). See the whole passage: ''Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem generis, et utrumque non est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non potest». Quod ideo dictum est, quoniam "libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis". Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi''. Cf. ''De bono coniugali'', 16.18; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 385; ''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', II, 21.36; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 443; ''Contra Iulianum'', III, 7.16; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 710; ibid., V, 16.60; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 817. See also {{cite book |title= Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale |author= Idem |year= 1983 |publisher= Études Augustiniennes |location=Paris |page=97}}</ref> In terms of [[Philosophy:Metaphysics|metaphysics]], concupiscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', I, 25. 28; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 42, 590.</ref>

Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against [[Biography:Pelagius|Pelagius]] and his [[Religion:Pelagianism|Pelagian]] disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum,<ref name="Gonzalez"/> who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia.<ref>Marius Mercator ''Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.'',2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/; {{cite book |last= Bonner |first= Gerald |chapter= Rufinus of Syria and African Pelagianism |title= God's Decree and Man's Destiny |location= London |year= 1987 |pages= 31–47 |isbn= 978-0-86078-203-2 |publisher=  Variorum Reprints}}</ref>{{rp|35}} They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|355–356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm De gratia Christi et de peccato originali]'', I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</ref>

Like Jovinian, Pelagians insisted that human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, ''e.g.'' fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, ''i.e.'' a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition to that, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' 1.31–32</ref>

Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manichaeans for about nine years,<ref>Brown, p. 35</ref> who taught that the original sin was [[Social:Carnal knowledge|carnal knowledge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm |title=The Manichaean Version of Genesis 2–4 |accessdate=25 March 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029144459/http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm |archivedate=29 October 2005 }}. Translated from the Arabic text of Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, as reproduced by G. Flügel in ''Mani: Seine Lehre und seine Schriften'' (Leipzig, 1862; reprinted, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1969) 58.11–61.13.</ref> But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De libero arbitrio'' 1,9,1.</ref> By ''malum'' (evil) he understood most of all [[Religion:Concupiscence|concupiscence]], which he interpreted as a vice dominating people and causing in men and women moral disorder. Agostino Trapè insists that Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from the absence of Christian wedding rites.<ref>{{cite book |title= S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia |last= Trapè |first= A. | volume = I – Natura e Grazia | pages = 113–114 |publisher=Città Nuova|isbn=978-8831134026|year=1987}}</ref> As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian [[Philosophy:Stoicism|Stoic]] concept of passions, to interpret [[Biography:Paul the Apostle|Paul's]] doctrine of universal sin and redemption.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Brachtendorf, J. | year =1997 |title= Cicero and Augustine on the Passions|page= 307 |hdl= 2042/23075 }}</ref>

[[File:Peter Paul Rubens - St Augustine.JPG|thumb|''St. Augustine'' by Peter Paul Rubens]]
The view that not only human [[Philosophy:Soul|soul]] but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church.<ref>See: {{cite book |title=Enkrateia e Antropologia. Le motivazioni protologiche della continenza e della verginità nel christianesimo del primi secoli e nello gnosticismo |last=Sfameni Gasparro |first=G. |year=2001 |series= Studia Ephemeridis «Augustinianum» 20| location=Rome |pages=250–251}}; {{cite journal |last=Somers |first= H.|title=Image de Dieu. Les sources de l'exégèse augustinienne  |journal=Revue des Études Augustiniennes |volume=7 |issue= 1961 |page=115 |issn=0035-2012 |hdl=2042/712}}. Cf. John Chrysostom, ''Περι παρθενίας'' (''De Sancta Virginitate''), XIV, 6; SCh 125, 142–145; [[Biography:Gregory of Nyssa|Gregory of Nyssa]], ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130105.htm On the Making of Man]'', 17; SCh 6, 164–165; and ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2907.htm On Virginity]'', 12.2; SCh 119, 402 [17–20]. Cf. Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1309.htm On the Good of Marriage]'', 2.2; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 374.</ref> It is clear that the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of [[Biography:Plotinus|Plotinus]], a neo-Platonist<ref group=lower-alpha>Although Augustine praises him in the ''Confessions'', 8.2., it is widely acknowledged that Augustine's attitude towards that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apostle, as T.E. Clarke SJ writes: ''Towards Neoplatonism there was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here, the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic tradition in general) centers on two related notions: immutability as primary characteristic of divinity, and likeness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The disagreement chiefly concerned, as we have said, two related and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the Son of God and the resurrection of the flesh''. {{cite journal |last= Clarke, SJ |first= T.E. |title=St. Augustine and Cosmic Redemption |journal= Theological Studies |volume=19 |issue= 1958 |page= 151}}  Cf. É. Schmitt's chapter 2: ''L'idéologie hellénique et la conception augustinienne de réalités charnelles'' in: {{cite book |title= Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale |author= Idem |year= 1983 |publisher= Études Augustiniennes| location=Paris |pages=108–123}} {{cite book |title= The Young Augustine: The Growth of St. Augustine's Mind up to His Conversion |last=O'Meara |first=J.J. |year= 1954 |location=London |pages=143–151 and 195f}} {{cite book |title= Le "platonisme" des Pères |last= Madec |first=G. |page= 42}} in {{cite book |title=Petites Études Augustiniennes |author= Idem |year= 1994|series=«Antiquité» 142| location=Paris |pages= 27–50|publisher= Collection d'Études Augustiniennes}} Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5; Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120108.htm City of God]'' (''De Civitate Dei''), VIII, 5; CCL 47, 221 [3–4].</ref> who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind.<ref>Gerson, Lloyd P. ''Plotinus''. New York: Routledge, 1994. 203</ref> Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''"Enarrations on the Psalms"'' (''Enarrationes in psalmos''), 143:6; CCL 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad Litteram''), 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 34, 397.</ref>

Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the ''Confessions''.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|"It is, of course, always easier to oppose and denounce than to understand."<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|312}}}} Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires [[Religion:Redemption (theology)|redemption]] of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a ''remedium concupiscentiae'' – remedy of concupiscence.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De continentia'', 12.27; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 368; Ibid., 13.28; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 369; ''Contra Julianum'', III, 15.29, <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 717; Ibid., III, 21.42, <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 724.</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title=A Postscript to the Remedium Concupiscentiae| journal=The Thomist| volume= 70 | issue=4|year=2006| pages= 481–536 |url=http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/932| doi=10.1353/tho.2006.0000| last1=Burke| first1=Cormac}}</ref> The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.<ref>''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1501.htm Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism]'' (''De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum''), I, 6.6; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 112–113; cf. ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (De Genesi ad litteram'') 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 34, 397.</ref>

The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by [[Religion:Concupiscence|concupiscence]],<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Imperfectum Opus contra Iulianum'', II, 218</ref> which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body,<ref group=lower-alpha>In 393 or 394 he commented: ''Moreover, if unbelief is fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another's husband or wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above considerations, we are compelled to understand as being general and universal.'' ("[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm On the Sermon on the Mount]", ''De sermone Domini in monte'', 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52)</ref> making humanity a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.<ref name=Cross/>{{rp|1200–1204}} Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first to add the concept of inherited guilt (''reatus'') from Adam whereby an infant was eternally damned at birth.<ref name=wilson>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3161557538 |pages=93, 127, 140, 146, 231–233, 279–280}}</ref>

Although Augustine's anti-Pelagian defense of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, ''i.e.'' Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), [[Religion:Council of Orange (529)|Orange]] (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, ''i.e.'' Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418), his inherited guilt eternally damning infants was omitted by these councils and popes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3161557538 |pages=221, 231, 267, 296}}</ref> [[Biography:Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm of Canterbury]] established in his ''[[Philosophy:Cur Deus Homo|Cur Deus Homo]]'' the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess", thus separating it from ''concupiscence'', with which some of Augustine's disciples had defined it<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|371}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Making of the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmiddleag00sout |url-access=registration |last=Southern |first=R.W. |year=1953 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingofmiddleag00sout/page/234 234–237]}}</ref> as later did Luther and Calvin.<ref name=Cross/>{{rp|1200–1204}} In 1567, [[Biography:Pope Pius V|Pope Pius V]] condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.<ref name=Cross/>{{rp|1200–1204}}

====Predestination====
Augustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom.<ref name="Levering">{{cite book |last=Levering |first=Matthew |title=Predestination: Biblical and Theological Paths |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-960452-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLBS6Dl1OYgC}}</ref>{{rp|44}} Prior to 396, he believed that predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe in Christ, that God's grace was "a reward for human assent".<ref name="Levering"/>{{rp|48–49}} Later, in response to [[Biography:Pelagius|Pelagius]], Augustine said that the sin of [[Philosophy:Pride|pride]] consists in assuming that "we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us", and argued that God's grace causes individual act of faith.<ref name="Levering"/>{{rp|47–48}}

Scholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies double predestination, or the belief that God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny that he held such a view while some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did believe in double predestination.<ref>{{cite book |last=James |first=Frank A., III |year=1998 |title=Peter Martyr Vermigli and Predestination: The Augustinian Inheritance of an Italian Reformer |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford |url=https://www.questia.com/library/1833170/peter-martyr-vermigli-and-predestination-the-augustinian |url-access=subscription  |via=Questia |p=102}}</ref> About 412 AD, Augustine became the first Christian to understand predestination as a divine unilateral pre-determination of individuals' eternal destinies independently of human choice, although his prior Manichaean sect did teach this concept.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Widengren |first1=Geo |title=Der Manichäismus |date=1977 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |pages=63–65, 90}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stroumsa |first1=Gediliahu |title=Titus of Bostra and Alexander of Lycopolis: A Christian and a Platonic Refutation of Manichaean Dualism |journal=Neoplatonism and Gnosticism |date=1992 |volume=New York: University of New York Press. |pages=344–345}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free' Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck; Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum 111 |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3161557538 |pages=286–293}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Oort |first1=Johannes |title=Manichaean Christians in Augustine's Life and Work |journal=History and Religious Culture |date=2010 |volume=90 |page=520}}</ref>  Some Protestant theologians, such as Justo L. González<ref name="Gonzalez"/>{{rp|44}} and [[Biography:Bengt Hägglund|Bengt Hägglund]],<ref name="Hägglund 2007 139–140"/> interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is [[Religion:Irresistible grace|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[Religion:Perseverance of the saints|perseverance]].

In ''On Rebuke and Grace'' (''De correptione et gratia''), Augustine wrote: "And what is written, that He wills all men to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is among them."<ref name="St. Augustine of Hippo"/>

====Sacramental theology====
[[File:Vittore carpaccio, visione di sant'agostino 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''St. Augustine in His Study'' by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502]]

Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the [[Religion:Sacrament|sacrament]]s. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (''[[Religion:Ex opere operato|ex opere operato]]''); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.<ref name="Gonzalez"/> Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=of Hippo|first=St. Augustine|title=St. Augustine's Writings Against The Manichaeans And Against The Donatists: eBook Edition|year= 2012|publisher=Jazzybee Verlag|isbn=9783849621094}}</ref>

Augustine upheld the early Christian understanding of the [[Religion:Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], saying that Christ's statement, "This is my body" referred to the bread he carried in his hands,<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Explanations of the Psalms'' 33:1:10 [405]</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Sermons'' 227 [411]</ref> and that Christians must have faith that the bread and wine are in fact the body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Sermons'' 272</ref>. For instance he stated that "He [Jesus] walked here in the same flesh, and gave us the same flesh to be eaten unto salvation. But no one eats that flesh unless first he adores it; and thus it is discovered how such a footstool of the Lord's feet is adored; and not only do we not sin by adoring, we do sin by not adoring."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jurgens |first1=William |title=The Faith of the Early Fathers Vol 3 |date=June 1979 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0814610213 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rkvLsueY_DwC |accessdate=25 December 2019 |chapter=Ch. 1479a}}</ref>

Nevertheless in some of his writings, Augustine expressed a symbolic view of the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite book| author = J.H. Srawley | title = St. Ambrose on the Sacraments and on the Mysteries |year= 1950| publisher= S.P.C.K.| place = London | pages =39 | others = Thompson, T. transl}}</ref> For example, in his work ''On Christian Doctrine'', Augustine referred to the Eurcharist as a "figure" and a "sign."<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On Christian Doctrine,'' Book II, Chapter 3; Book III, Chapter 9; Book III, Chapter 16</ref> 

Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the importance of [[Religion:Infant baptism|infant baptism]]. About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are saved.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''A Sermon to Catechumens on the Creed'', Paragraph 16</ref> This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his ''City of God'', concerning the [[Unsolved:Apocalypse|Apocalypse]], may indicate that Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', Book 20, Chapter 8</ref>

===Philosophy===
[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Augustine_(CXXXVIr).jpg|thumb|Saint Augustine in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'' ]]
====Astrology====
Augustine's contemporaries often believed [[Unsolved:Astrology|astrology]] to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called ''mathemathici''. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, he used to warn that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and [[Unsolved:Horoscope|horoscope]]s. (Augustine's term "mathematici", meaning "astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated as "mathematicians".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of [[Biography:Hipparchus|Hipparchus]] or [[Biography:Eratosthenes|Eratosthenes]] but "common swindlers".<ref>{{cite book | title = Augustine the Bishop. The Life and Work of the Father of the Church| url = https://archive.org/details/augustinebishopl0000meer| url-access = registration| last= Van Der Meer| first= F |year= 1961 | location= London & New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/augustinebishopl0000meer/page/60 60]}}</ref><ref name=Bonner>{{cite book |title=St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies |last=Bonner |first=G | publisher = The Canterbury Press | location=Norwich |year=1986 | isbn = 978-0-86078-203-2}}</ref>{{rp|63}}<ref>{{cite book | title= Saint Augustin et Cicéron, I. Cicéron dans la formation et l'oeuvre de saint Augustin | last = Testard| first= M |year= 1958| publisher= Études Augustiniennes | location= Paris | pages= 100–106 | language = French}}</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'' 5,7,12; 7,6</ref>

====Epistemology====
[[Philosophy:Epistemology|Epistemological]] concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues [''Contra academicos'' (386) and ''De Magistro'' (389)], both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of [[Philosophy:Divine illumination|divine illumination]]. The doctrine of illumination claims that God plays an active and regular part in human perception (as opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes' idea of clear and distinct perceptions) and understanding by illuminating the mind so that human beings can recognize intelligible realities that God presents. According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds, and is different from other forms of sense perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.<ref name=encyclopedia>{{cite encyclopedia| last=Mendelson| first=Michael| title=Saint Augustine| url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/augustine/| encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| accessdate=21 December 2012| date=2000-03-24}}</ref>

Augustine also posed the [[Philosophy:Problem of other minds|problem of other minds]] throughout different works, most famously perhaps in ''[[Religion:On the Trinity|On the Trinity]]'' (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds.<ref>{{cite book| author=Matthews, Gareth B. |title=Thought's ego in Augustine and Descartes| url=https://archive.org/details/thoughtsegoinaug00matt | url-access=registration | isbn=978-0801427756| publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1992}}</ref> In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.<ref>{{cite journal| last=King| first=Peter| author2=Nathan Ballantyne| title=Augustine on Testimony| journal=Canadian Journal of Philosophy| year=2009| volume=39| issue=2| doi=10.1353/cjp.0.0045| url=http://www.canadianjournalofphilosophy.com/PDFs/cjp39-2--195-214--Ballantyne-King.pdf| page=195| url-status=dead| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911164130/http://www.canadianjournalofphilosophy.com/PDFs/cjp39-2--195-214--Ballantyne-King.pdf| archivedate=11 September 2011| df=dmy-all}}</ref>

====Just war====
Augustine asserted that Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance.<ref>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html "A Time For War?"] ''Christianity Today'' (2001-01-09). Retrieved on 2013-04-28.</ref> However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work ''The City of God''.<ref>[https://archive.is/20120728203512/http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html Augustine of Hippo]. Crusades-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 2013-04-28.</ref> In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation.<ref>[https://archive.is/20120728203512/http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html St. Augustine of Hippo], Crusades-Encyclopedia</ref> Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.<ref>[http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm "Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103033459/http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm |date=3 November 2013 }}. Jknirp.com (2007-01-23). Retrieved on 2013-04-28.</ref> [[Biography:Thomas Aquinas|Thomas Aquinas]], centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.<ref>[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0029.html "The Just War"]. Catholiceducation.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-28.</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=The Story of Christianity| url=https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian01gonz| url-access=registration| author=Gonzalez, Justo L. |year=1984| publisher=Harper| isbn=978-0061855887| place=San Francisco}}</ref>

====Free will====
Included in Augustine's earlier [[Philosophy:Theodicy|theodicy]] is the claim that God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing [[Philosophy:Free will|free will]]. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not considered as "free" as it once was because it is bound by material things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption.<ref>{{cite book| editor-first=Chad |editor-last=Meister| editor2-first=Paul| editor2-last=Copan| title=The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion| date=2012| series=Routledge Philosophy Companions| location=London| isbn=978-0415782944| edition= 2nd}}</ref> After 412 CE, Augustine changed his theology, teaching that humanity had no free will to believe in Christ but only a free will to sin: "I in fact strove on behalf of the free choice of the human ‘will,’ but God's grace conquered" (''Retract''. 2.1).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3161557538 |page=285 }}</ref>

The early Christians opposed the deterministic views (e.g., fate) of Stoics, Gnostics, and Manichaeans that were prevalent in those first four centuries.<ref>{{cite book |author1=McIntire, C.T. |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Lindsay |title=The Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=5 |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |location=Farmington Hills, MI |pages=3206–3209 |edition=2nd |article=Free Will and Predestination: Christian Concepts}}</ref> Christians championed the concept of a relational God who interacts with humans rather than a Stoic or Gnostic God who unilaterally foreordained every event (yet Stoics still claimed to teach free will).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dihle |first1=Albrecht |title=The Theory of Will in Classical Antiquity |date=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |page=152}}</ref> Every early Christian author with extant writings who wrote on the topic prior to Augustine of Hippo (412) advanced human free choice rather than a deterministic God.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |pages=93–94, 273–274}}</ref> Augustine taught traditional free choice until 412, when he reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic training when battling the Pelagians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |pages=281–294}}</ref> Only a few Christians accepted Augustine's alteration of Christian free choice until the Protestant Reformation when both Luther and Calvin embraced Augustine's deterministic teachings wholeheartedly.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Luther |translator1-last=Krodel |translator1-first=Gottfried |editor1-last=Lehman |editor1-first=Helmut |title=Luther's Works |volume=48 |date=1963 |publisher=Fortress Press |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Calvin |first1=John |translator1-last=Cole |translator1-first=Henry |title=Calvin's Calvinism |article=A Treatise on the Eternal Predestination of God |date=1927 |publisher=Sovereign Grace Union |location=London |page=38}}</ref>

The [[Organization:Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will.<ref name="ceteach"/> He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish.<ref name="ceteach"/> While God knows who will and won't be saved, with no possibility for the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.<ref name="ceteach">Portalié, Eugène. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02091a.htm "Teaching of St. Augustine of Hippo"] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company (1907). Retrieved 30 September 2011</ref> However, after 412 CE, Augustine exchanged the traditional Christian defense of divine foreknowledge of human free will choices to explain predestination for a more Stoic and Gnostic/Manichaean view of deterministic predestination wherein the will was not free except to sin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology ''in the series Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum 111''|date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen, Germany |isbn=978-3161557538 |pages=286–298}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Ken |title=The Foundation of Augustinian–Calvinism |date=2019 |publisher=Regula Fidei Press |pages=5–18, 55–80, 120 |isbn=9781082800351 |}}</ref>

===Sociology, morals and ethics===

====Slavery====
Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves "as an act of piety".<ref>Augustine, "Of the Work of Monks", p. 25, Vol. 3, ''Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers'', Eerdman's, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted 1986</ref> He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted sale of children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their children as a means of survival.<ref>The Saints, Pauline Books & Media, Daughters of St. Paul, Editions du Signe (1998), p. 72</ref>

In his book, ''The City of God'', he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He wrote that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts". Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. "The condition of slavery is the result of sin", he declared.<ref>Augustine, ''The City of God'', Ch. 15, p. 411, Vol. II, ''Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers'', Eerdman's, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted 1986</ref> In ''The City of God'', Augustine wrote he felt that the existence of slavery was a punishment for the existence of sin, even if an individual enslaved person committed no sin meriting punishment. He wrote: "Slavery is, however, penal, and is appointed by that law which enjoins the preservation of the natural order and forbids its disturbance."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120119.htm|title=Church Fathers: City of God, Book XIX (St. Augustine)|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref> Augustine believed that slavery did more harm to the slave owner than the enslaved person himself: "the lowly position does as much good to the servant as the proud position does harm to the master."<ref name=":0" /> Augustine proposes as a solution to sin a type of cognitive reimagining of one's situation, where slaves "may themselves make their slavery in some sort free, by serving not in crafty fear, but in faithful love," until the end of the world eradicated slavery for good: "until all unrighteousness pass away, and all principality and every human power be brought to nothing, and God be all in all."<ref name=":0" />

====Jews====
Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the [[Religion:Jews|Jews]] as a special people,<ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch. ''The Reformation: A History'' (Penguin Group, 2005) p 8.</ref> and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', book 18, chapter 46.</ref> He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy, namely "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at "the end of time", argued that God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands.<ref>Edwards, J. (1999) ''The Spanish Inquisition'', Stroud, pp. 33–35, {{ISBN|0752417703}}.</ref> The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews "survive but not thrive" (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book ''Constantine's Sword'', for example)<ref>Carroll, James (2002) ''Constantine's Sword''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN|978-0618219087}}. p. 219.</ref> is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.<ref>[http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1864878,00.html Paula Fredriksen, interviewed by David Van Biema, "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?"]. {{wipe|Time (magazine)}}, December 7, 2008.</ref>

====Sexuality====
For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. In ''On Christian Doctrine'' Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On Christian Doctrine'', 3.37</ref> Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual passion has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male erection), sexual passion is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.19). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate the species inevitably perpetuates evil (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.27; ''A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' 2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the "better" way (''Confessions'' 8.2) and abstain from marriage (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin, although necessarily producing the evil of sexual passion. Based on the same logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the act.<ref>Russell, p. 356.</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', Book I, Ch. 16, 18.</ref>

Before the Fall, Augustine believed that sex was a passionless affair, "just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat"; the penis would have been engorged for sexual intercourse "simply by the direction of the will, not excited by the ardour of concupiscence" (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 2.29; cf. ''City of God'' 14.23). After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary erections: "Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the body also" (''City of God'' 14.16).

Augustine believed that Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam.<ref name="ReferenceC">Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', 14.13</ref><ref>Clark, E. ed. (1996) ''St. Augustine on Marriage and Sexuality''. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.</ref>  Accordingly, Augustine did not believe that Adam was any less guilty of sin.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1484/J.RA.5.102318|author=Clark, E.|title='Adam's Only Companion': Augustine and the Early Christian Debate on Marriage|journal=Recherches Augustiniennes|volume=21 |year=1986|pages= 139–62}}</ref>  Augustine praises women and their role in society and in the Church. In his ''Tractates on the Gospel of John'', Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the Church in agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride of Christ. "Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her."<ref>(Eph: 5, 25)</ref>

====Pedagogy====
[[File:Sandro Botticelli - St Augustin dans son cabinet de travail.jpg|thumb|''Saint Augustine in His Study'' by Sandro Botticelli, 1494, Uffizi Gallery]]
Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is ''De Magistro'' (On the Teacher), which contains insights about education. His ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In the last years of his life Augustine wrote his ''Retractationes'' (''Retractations''), reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of "retractationes" may be "reconsiderations". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the way Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room for doubt, development, and change.<ref name=mccloskey/>

Augustine was a strong advocate of [[Critical thinking|critical thinking]] skills. Because written works were still rather limited during this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed that dialectic is the best means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Augustine's dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.<ref name=mccloskey>McCloskey, Gary N. (April 2008) [http://www.merrimack.edu/academics/augustinian_pedagogy/documents/encountering_0408.pdf Encounters of Learning: Saint Augustine on Education], Saint Augustine Institute for Learning and Teaching, [[Organization:Merrimack College|Merrimack College]].</ref>

He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds:
* the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;
* the student who has had no education; and
* the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.

If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding" and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.

Under the influence of [[Biography:Bede|Bede]], [[Biography:Alcuin|Alcuin]], and Rabanus Maurus, ''De catechizandis rudibus'' came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.<ref>Howie, G. (1969) ''Educational Theory and Practice in St. Augustine'' (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 150–153</ref>

Augustine believed that students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The ''mixed style'' includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The ''grand style'' is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional [[Religion:Bible|Bible]]-based practice of strict discipline.

==Works==
[[File:Antonio Rodríguez - Saint Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Saint Augustine'' painting by Antonio Rodríguez]]
Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles.<ref>Wright, F.A. and Sinclair, T.A. (1931) ''A History of Later Latin Literature'', Dawsons of Pall Mall, London, pp. 56 ff.</ref> They include apologetic works against the heresies of the [[Religion:Arianism|Arians]], Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian [[Philosophy:Doctrine|doctrine]], notably ''De Doctrina Christiana'' (''On Christian Doctrine''); [[Religion:Exegesis|exegetical]] works such as commentaries on [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Genesis]], the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans; many [[Religion:Sermon|sermon]]s and letters; and the ''Retractationes'', a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life.

Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his ''Confessions'', which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for ''De civitate Dei'' (''[[Philosophy:The City of God|The City of God]]'', consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His ''[[Religion:On the Trinity|On the Trinity]]'', in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the [[Religion:Trinity|Trinity]], is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably of more doctrinal importance that the ''Confessions'' or the ''City of God''.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 43705747|title = St Augustine on the Trinity—I|journal = Life of the Spirit |volume = 15|issue = 180|pages = 540–548|last1 = Hill|first1 = Edmund|year = 1961}}</ref> He also wrote ''On Free Choice of the Will'' (''De libero arbitrio''), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.

==Influence==
[[File:Vergós Group - Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics'' painting by Vergós Group]]

In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by [[Philosophy:Stoicism|Stoicism]], [[Philosophy:Platonism|Platonism]] and [[Philosophy:Neoplatonism|Neoplatonism]], particularly by the work of [[Biography:Plotinus|Plotinus]], author of the ''[[Philosophy:Enneads|Enneads]]'', probably through the mediation of [[Biography:Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] and [[Biography:Gaius Marius Victorinus|Victorinus]] (as [[Biography:Pierre Hadot|Pierre Hadot]] has argued). Although he later abandoned Some Neoplatonist Concepts, some ideas are still visible in his early writings.<ref>Russell, Book II, Chapter IV</ref> His early and influential writing on the [[Philosophy:Will|human will]], a central topic in [[Philosophy:Ethics|ethics]], would become a focus for later philosophers such as [[Biography:Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Biography:Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], and [[Biography:Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and [[Biography:Cicero|Cicero]] (known for his teaching on argument).<ref name=encyclopedia/>

===In philosophy===
[[Biography:Philosopher|Philosopher]] [[Biography:Bertrand Russell|Bertrand Russell]] was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the ''Confessions'', comparing it favourably to [[Biography:Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s version of the view that time is subjective.<ref>Russell, pp. 352–353.</ref> Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists [[Eternity|outside of time]] in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of [[Memory|memory]]. [[Biography:Frances Yates|Frances Yates]] in her 1966 study ''The Art of Memory'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory<ref>[http://www.stoa.org/hippo/text10.html#TB10C8S12 Confessiones Liber X: commentary on 10.8.12] ''(in Latin)''</ref> clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a [[Biology:Mnemonic|mnemonic]] technique for organizing large amounts of information.

Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his ''Confessions'', had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern [[Philosophy:Phenomenology|phenomenology]] and [[Philosophy:Hermeneutics|hermeneutics]].<ref>{{cite book| last=de Paulo| first=Craig J.N.| title=The Influence of Augustine on Heidegger: The Emergence of an Augustinian Phenomenology| year=2006| publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press | isbn=978-0773456891}}</ref> [[Biography:Edmund Husserl|Edmund Husserl]] writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem."<ref>Husserl, Edmund (1964) ''Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness.'' Tr. James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana UP, p. 21.</ref>

[[Biography:Martin Heidegger|Martin Heidegger]] refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work ''[[Philosophy:Being and Time|Being and Time]]''.<ref group=lower-alpha>For example, Heidegger's articulations of how "Being-in-the-world" is described through thinking about ''seeing'': "The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation of ''concupiscentia''." Heidegger then quotes the''Confessions'': "Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines', ... 'but we even say, 'See how that sounds'". ''Being and Time'', Trs. Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964, p. 171.</ref> [[Biography:Hannah Arendt|Hannah Arendt]] began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, ''Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin'' (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for ''vita socialis'' in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity."<ref>{{cite journal| author=Chiba, Shin| title= Hannah Arendt on Love and the Political: Love, Friendship, and Citizenship| journal=The Review of Politics| volume= 57| issue= 3 | year=1995| pages= 505–535 [507]| jstor=1408599| doi=10.1017/S0034670500019720}}</ref>

Jean Bethke Elshtain in ''Augustine and the Limits of Politics'' tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced [[Social:The Holocaust|the Holocaust]] as merely banal [in ''Eichmann in Jerusalem'']."<ref>{{cite journal| author=Tinder, Glenn| journal=American Political Science Review| volume= 91| issue= 2| year=1997| title=Augustine and the Limits of Politics, by Jean Bethke Elshtain| pages= 432–433| url=http://www.unz.org/Pub/AmPoliticalScienceRev-1997jun-00432| doi=10.2307/2952372| last2=Elshtain| first2=Jean Bethke| jstor=2952372}}</ref>

Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian [[Philosophy:Political theology|political theology]]; and third, Augustinian political theory.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Woo, B. Hoon| journal= Political Theology |volume= 16 |issue= 5 |year=2015 |title= Pilgrim's Progress in Society{{snd}}Augustine's Political Thought in ''The City of God'' |pages= 421–441 |url= https://www.academia.edu/16870779 |doi= 10.1179/1462317X14Z.000000000113}}</ref>

===In theology===
[[Biography:Thomas Aquinas|Thomas Aquinas]] was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall, without "supernatural gifts".<ref name=Cross/>{{rp|1203}} While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see [[Philosophy:Total depravity|total depravity]]).<ref name=Cross/>{{rp|1200–1204}}

According to [[Biography:Leo Ruickbie|Leo Ruickbie]], Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against [[Religion:Paganism|paganism]] and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and [[Social:Witchcraft|witchcraft]]. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the [[Philosophy:Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[Philosophy:Marxism|Marxism]], Freudianism and eco-fundamentalism.<ref name="Deepak Lal">Lal, D. (March 2002) [http://www.econ.ucla.edu/workingpapers/wp812.pdf "Morality and Capitalism: Learning from the Past"]. Working Paper Number 812, Department of Economics, [[Organization:University of California, Los Angeles|University of California, Los Angeles]].</ref> Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thought, particularly ''The City of God'', in their book of political philosophy ''Empire''.

Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as John Piper. [[Biography:Hannah Arendt|Hannah Arendt]], an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career. [[Biography:Ludwig Wittgenstein|Ludwig Wittgenstein]] extensively quotes Augustine in ''[[Philosophy:Philosophical Investigations|Philosophical Investigations]]'' for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from the ''Confessions''. Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of [[Biography:Ferdinand de Saussure|Ferdinand de Saussure]], who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of [[Philosophy:Semiotics|semiotics]], but rather built upon [[Philosophy:Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and Neoplatonist knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian connection: "as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual exigencies."<ref>Munteanu, E. (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=IWtCAAAAQBAJ "On the Object-Language / Metalanguage Distinction in Saint Augustine's Works. De Dialectica and de Magistro"], p. 65 in Cram, D., Linn, A.R., & Nowak, E. (eds.). ''History of Linguistics: Volume 2: From Classical to Contemporary Linguistics''. [[Company:John Benjamins Publishing Company|John Benjamins Publishing Company]]. {{ISBN|978-9027283818}}</ref>

In his autobiographical book ''Milestones'', [[Biography:Pope Benedict XVI|Pope Benedict XVI]] claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.

===Oratorio===
[[File:Jaume Huguet - Consecration of Saint Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''The Consecration of Saint Augustine'' by Jaume Huguet]]

Much of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio ''La conversione di Sant'Agostino'' (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based on an earlier five-act play ''Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus'' written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7vpR97_-VIC&lpg=PA98|title=A History of the Oratorio|last=Smither|first=Howard E.|date=1977|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0807812747}}</ref> In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent<ref>{{Cite book|title=La conversione Di Sant' Agostino|last=Hasse|first=Johann Adolf|publisher=Capriccio Digital|year=1993|isbn=|location=CD Booklet: Marcus Creed's recording of La conversion di Sant' Agostino with the RIAS Kammerchor; 10 389/90.|page=13}}</ref> says: {{Quote|text=Maria Antonia Walpurgis revised the five-part Jesuit drama into a two-part oratorio liberty in which she limits the subject to the conversion of Augustine and his submission to the will of God. To this was added the figure of the mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation appear by experience rather than the dramatic artifice of deus ex machina.|sign=|source=}}Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=12em|rules=yes|gap=2em|small=yes}}
* Alexander of San Elpidio
* Mar Ammo
* [[Unsolved:Augustinian hypothesis|Augustinian hypothesis]]
* Augustinian Institute
* ''Augustinian Studies''
* [[Philosophy:Augustinian theodicy|Augustinian theodicy]]
* Augustinians
* Domingo Bañez
* [[Biography:Thomas Bradwardine|Thomas Bradwardine]]
* ''Confessions'' (Augustine)
* [[Religion:Constantinian shift|Constantinian shift]]
* [[Religion:Council of Orange (529)|Council of Orange (529)]]
* [[Religion:Ecclesiology|Ecclesiology]]
* [[Biography:Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]]
* [[Religion:Filioque|Filioque]]
* [[Philosophy:Free will|Free will]]
* [[Biography:Gregory of Rimini|Gregory of Rimini]]
* [[Biography:Michael Horton (theologian)|Michael Horton]]
* [[Religion:Incurvatus in se|Incurvatus in se]]
* Cornelius Jansen
* [[Religion:Jansenism|Jansenism]]
* [[Philosophy:Just war theory|Just war theory]]
* Johannes Klenkok
* Abraham Kuijper
* John Gresham Machen 
* [[Religion:Neo-Calvinism|Neo-Calvinism]]
* Order of Saint Augustine
* [[Religion:Original sin|Original sin]]
* [[Philosophy:Otium|Otium]]
* [[Biography:Blaise Pascal|Blaise Pascal]]
* Patron saint archive
* Francis Landey Patton
* [[Religion:Pelagianism|Pelagianism]]
* [[Philosophy:Philosophy of history|Philosophy of history]]
* [[Religion:Philosophy of religion|Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Philosophy:Predestination|Predestination]]
* Johann Pupper
* [[Philosophy:Problem of evil|Problem of evil]]
* Reformed
* [[Philosophy:Scholasticism|Scholasticism]]
* [[Religion:Semipelagianism|Semipelagianism]]
* [[Religion:Theology of John Calvin|Theology of John Calvin]]
* [[Truth]]
* Bennet Tyler
* B. B. Warfield
{{Div col end}}

== Music ==
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, ''Pour Saint Augustin mourant,'' motet for 2 voices and bc H 419 (1690).
<br />
== Media ==

*''Augustine of Hippo'' miniseries of 1972, directed by Roberto Rossellini.
*''Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire'' miniseries of 2010, directed by Christian Duguay.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Cited sources==
* {{cite book|ref=Brown| last=Brown| first=Peter| title=Augustine of Hippo: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/augustineofhippo00brow_0|url-access=registration| year=2000| publisher=University of California Press| location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0520227576}}
* {{cite book|ref=Russel|author=Russell, Bertrand|year=1945|title=A History of Western Philosophy|publisher=Simon & Schuster|title-link=A History of Western Philosophy}}

==Further reading==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|1=
* {{cite book|title=Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation|year=1978|publisher=Newman Press|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Augustine|first=Saint|title=The Essential Augustine|year=1974|publisher=Hackett|location=Indianapolis|edition= 2nd|editor=Vernon Joseph Bourke}}
* {{cite book | title = Augustine and the Trinity |  author = Ayres, Lewis | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-521-83886-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Bourke|first=Vernon Joseph|title=Augustine's Quest of Wisdom|year=1945|publisher=Bruce|location=Milwaukee}}
* {{cite book|last=Bourke|first=Vernon Joseph|title=Wisdom From St. Augustine|year=1984|publisher=Center for Thomistic Studies|location=Houston}}
* {{cite journal |author= Brachtendorf J | issue=1997 |title= Cicero and Augustine on the Passions|journal= Revue des Études Augustiniennes |volume= 43|pages= 289–308 |hdl= 2042/23075 | doi=10.1484/J.REA.5.104767 | year=1997 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Burke | first=Cormac | title=St. Augustine and Conjugal Sexuality | journal=Communio | year=1990 | volume=IV | issue=17 | url=http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/355 |pages=545–565}}
* {{cite book | last = Burnaby | first = John | title = Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine |year=1938| publisher = The Canterbury Press Norwich | isbn = 978-1-85311-022-1 }}
* Chadwick, Henry. ''Augustine: A Very Short Introduction'' (2013).
* Chadwick, Henry. ''Augustine of Hippo: A Life'' (2010).
* {{cite book|last=Conybeare|first=Catherine|title=The Irrational Augustine| year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-199-26208-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Clark|first=Mary T.|title=Augustine| year=1994|publisher=Geoffrey Chapman|isbn=978-0-225-66681-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Deane|first=Herbert A.|title=The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine|year=1963|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|editor-last1=Demacopoulos|editor-first1=George E.|editor-last2=Papanikolaou|editor-first2=Aristotle|title=Orthodox Readings of Augustine|year=2008|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimirs Seminary Press|url=https://books.google.rs/books?id=sGxG8wTFymEC|isbn=978-0881413274}}
* {{cite book|last=de Paulo|first=Craig J.N.|title=Augustinian Just War Theory and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: Confessions, Contentions and the Lust for Power|year=2011|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-1232-4}}
* {{cite journal | last=Doull | first=James A. | title=Augustinian Trinitarianism and Existential Theology | journal=Dionysius | year=1979 | volume=III | pages=111–159}}
* {{cite journal | last=Doull | first=James A. | title=What is Augustinian "Sapientia"?| journal=Dionysius | year=1988 | volume=XII | pages=61–67}}
* {{cite book |editor=Fitzgerald, Allan D. |title=Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia |publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. | location = Grand Rapids | year=1999 | isbn = 978-0-8028-3843-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Gilson|first=Etienne|title=The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine|url=https://archive.org/details/christianphiloso00gilsrich|url-access=registration|year=1960|publisher=Random House|location=New York|others=L.E.M. Lynch, trans}}
* Green, Bradley G. [http://www.jamesclarke.co/product_info.php/products_id/1675?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 ''Colin Gunton and the Failure of Augustine: The Theology of Colin Gunton in the Light of Augustine''], James Clarke and Co. (2012), {{ISBN|978-0227680056}}
* {{cite book | last = Kolbet | first = Paul R.| title = Augustine and the Cure of Souls: Revising a Classical Ideal | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press | location = Notre Dame, Indiana | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0268033217 }}
* {{cite book|last=Lawless|first=George P.|title=Augustine of Hippo and His Monastic Rule|year=1987|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=LeMoine|editor1-first=Fannie|editor2-first=Christopher|editor2-last=Kleinhenz|series=Garland Medieval Casebooks|volume=9|title=Saint Augustine the Bishop: A Book of Essays|location=New York|publisher=Garland|year=1994 }}
* {{cite book|last=Lubin |first=Augustino |title=Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini – chorographica et topographica descriptio |location=Paris |year=1659 |url=http://www.cassiciaco.it/ita/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321185503/http://www.cassiciaco.it/ita/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm |archivedate=21 March 2005 }}
* {{cite book | last = Mackey | first = Louis| title = Faith Order Understanding: Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition | publisher = PIMS | location = Totonto | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-88844-421-9 }}
* {{cite book|title=Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/augustinecollect00mark|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Anchor|location=Garden City, NY|editor=Markus, R.A.}}
* {{cite book | title = Augustine | author = Matthews, Gareth B. | publisher = Blackwell | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-631-23348-0}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Mayer|editor1-first=Cornelius P.|encyclopedia=Augustinus-Lexikon|publisher=Schwabe AG|location=[[Place:Basel|Basel]]}}
* Miles, Margaret R. (2012). ''[http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter]'', Lutterworth Press, {{ISBN|978-0718892623}}.
* {{cite book|last=Nash|first=Ronald H|title=The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge|year=1969|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Wiener | editor-first = Philip | title = Dictionary of the History of Ideas | publisher = Scribner | location = New York | year = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-684-13293-8|volume=3 | chapter = Platonism in the Renaissance | chapterurl=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64 | last = Nelson | first = John Charles | pages = 510–515 (vol. 3) | quote=(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...)  }}
* {{cite book|last=O'Daly|first=Gerard|title=Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley}}
* {{cite book | last = O'Donnell | first = James |  title = Augustine: A New Biography | publisher = ECCO | location = New York | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-06-053537-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt }}
* {{cite book|last=Pagels|first=Elaine|title=Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity|publisher=Vintage Books|year=1989|isbn=978-0-679-72232-8|url=https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai}}
* {{Citation | last =Park | first =Jae-Eun | url =https://www.academia.edu/4811679 | title = Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them | journal = The Reformed Theological Review | volume = 72 | issue = 2 |year=2013 | pages = 103–121}}.
* {{cite book |author=Plumer, Eric Antone |title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |  isbn = 978-0-19-924439-3}}
* {{cite book | title = Saint Augustine the Algerian | author = Pollman, Karla | publisher = Edition Ruprecht | location = Göttingen | year = 2007|isbn=978-3-89744-209-2 }}
* {{cite book|last=Pottier|first=René|title=Saint Augustin le Berbère |publisher=Fernand Lanore|year=2006|isbn=978-2-85157-282-0|language=French}}
* ''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp.&nbsp;28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp.&nbsp;22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp.&nbsp;33–35.
* {{cite book|last=Starnes|first=Colin| title=Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX|year=1990|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press|location=Waterloo, Ontario}}
* {{cite book | last = Tanquerey | first = Adolphe | title = The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology | publisher = Tan Books & Publishers | location =  Rockford, Illinois | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-89555-659-2|page=37)| title-link = Ascetical theology }}
* {{cite book |title= S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia |last= Trapè |first= A. |location= Rome|publisher=  Città Nuova |year=1990 | series = Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4 | volume = I – Natura e Grazia | page = 422 | isbn= 978-88-311-3402-6}}
* {{cite book | last = von Heyking | first = John | title = Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World | publisher = University of Missouri Press | location = Columbia | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8262-1349-5 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Woo | first=B. Hoon | title=Augustine's Hermeneutics and Homiletics in ''De doctrina christiana'' | journal= Journal of Christian Philosophy | year=2013 | volume=17 | url=https://www.academia.edu/5228314 |pages=97–117}}
* {{cite journal | last=Woo | first=B. Hoon | title= Pilgrim's Progress in Society – Augustine's Political Thought in ''The City of God'' | journal= Political Theology | year=2015 | volume=16 | issue=5 | url=https://www.academia.edu/16870779 |pages=421–441 | doi=10.1179/1462317x14z.000000000113}}
* {{cite book | last = Zumkeller O.S.A. | first = Adolar | title = Augustine's Ideal of the Religious Life | publisher = Fordham University Press | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-8232-1105-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/augustinesidealo00zumk }}
* {{cite book | last = Zumkeller O.S.A. | first = Adolar | title = Augustine's Rule | publisher = Augustinian Press | location = Villanova | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-941491-06-8 }}
}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Augustine of Hippo
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

===General===
* [http://www.augustinus.it/links/inglese/opere.htm "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)"] from Augustinus.it
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180316095930/http://www.abbaye-saint-benoit.ch/saints/augustin/ "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)"] from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais
* [http://www.mercaba.org/Filosofia/Medieval/agustin_de_hipona_00.htm "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)"] from Mercaba, Catholic leaders' website
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/augustine?show=worksBy "Works by Saint Augustine"] from CCEL.org
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Augustine&redirect=true Works by Augustine at Perseus Digital Library]
* {{cite SEP |url-id=augustine|title=Saint Augustine|last=Mendelson|first=Michael}}
* {{cite IEP|augustin|Augustine}}
* {{cite IEP|aug-poso|Augustine's Political and Social Philosophy}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/281.html "St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church"], ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''
* [http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/jod/augustine/ Augustine of Hippo] edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.
* Augustine's Theory of Knowledge
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/augustine.html "Saint Augustine of Hippo"] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info Christian Iconography] website
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/augustine.htm "The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor"] from the Caxton translation of the ''Golden Legend''
* [http://davidaslindsay.blogspot.com/2009/08/doctor-gratiae.html David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120409175403/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~nmcenter/women-cp/augustin.html St. Augustine – A Male Chauvinist?]   [http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/MALECHAU.HTM], Fr. Edmund Hill, OP. Talk given to the [[Biography:Robert Hugh Benson|Robert Hugh Benson]] Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on 22 November 1994.
* [http://www.churchhistorytimelines.com/pages/st-augustine St. Augustine Timeline – Church History Timelines]
* Giovanni Domenico Giulio: ''Nachtgedanken des heiligen Augustinus.'' Trier 1843 {{ULBDD|urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-481434}}

===Bibliography===
* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php Augustine of Hippo] at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles
* [http://www.findingaugustine.org/ Bibliography on St. Augustine] Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium

===Works by Augustine===
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Augustine,+Aurelius|name=Aurelius Augustine}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Augustine,+Saint,+Bishop+of+Hippo|name=Saint Augustine}}<!--Same person has multiple IDs at PG-->
* {{Internet Archive author |dname=Saint Augustine|search=("Bishop of Hippo" OR "Saint Augustine" OR "Augustine, Saint" OR "Aurelius Augustine" OR "Aurelius, Augustine" OR "Saint Austin" OR "Austin, Saint")}}
* {{Librivox author |id=79}}
* [http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/ St. Augustine] at the [[Religion:Christian Classics Ethereal Library|Christian Classics Ethereal Library]]
* [http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/augustine-against-secundinus-the-manichaean-in-english/ Augustine against Secundinus] in English.
* [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT31.HTM Aurelius Augustinus] at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list
* [http://www.augustinus.it/ Augustinus.it] – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_40_0354-0430-_Augustinus,_Sanctus.html Sanctus Augustinus] at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin
* [http://www.doxologypress.org/theaudio/index.html City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine] audio books
* {{cite book|author=Saint Augustine|title=The Happy Life; Answer to Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil; Soliloquies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4EJZWrmqgkC|publisher=CUA Press|location=US|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8132-1551-8}}
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0580 Digitized manuscript] created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0895 Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini] – digitized codex created between 1150 and 1175, also known as "Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1–83", at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0892 Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem librum] – digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about John's Gospel at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://real-r.mtak.hu/104/ ''Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae''] – digitized codex created in 1539; at [http://konyvtar.mta.hu/index_en.php Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_019.html Lewis E 19 In epistolam Johannis ad Parthos (Sermons on the first epistle of Saint John) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_021.html Lewis E 21 De sermone domini in monte habito (On the sermon on the mount) and other treatises; De superbia (On pride) and other treatises; Expositio dominice orationis (Exposition on the lord's prayer) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_022.html Lewis E 22 Enarrationes in psalmos (Expositions on the psalms); Initials (ABC); Prayer at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_023.html Lewis E 23 Sermons at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_213.html Lewis E 213 Rule of Saint Augustine; Sermon on Matthew 25:6 at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0007/html/lehigh_003.html Lehigh Codex 3 Bifolium from De civitate Dei, Book 22 at OPenn]

===Biography and criticism===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060610111127/http://augnet.org/ Order of St Augustine]
* [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100528110934/http://www.villanova.edu/mission/spirituality/about/ Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy] by [[Biography:Donald Burt|Donald Burt]], OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0049 Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei] by [[Biography:Robert Kilwardby|Robert Kilwardby]], digitized manuscript of 1464 at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]

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