View source for Biography:Karl Marx

{{short description|German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist and journalist}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Karl Marx
| honorific_suffix   = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>Marx [http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 became a Fellow] of the highly prestigious Royal Society of Arts, London, in 1862.</ref>
| image              = Karl Marx_001.jpg
| caption            = Karl Marx in 1875
| birth_name         = Karl Heinrich Marx
| birth_date         = {{birth date|df=y|1818|05|05}}
| birth_place        = Trier, [[History:Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], German Confederation
| death_date         = {{death date and age|df=y|1883|03|14|1818|05|05}}
| death_place        = [[Place:London|London]], {{wipe|England}}
{{labeldata|Buried| 17 March 1883 Tomb of Karl Marx, Highgate Cemetery, [[Place:London|London]], {{wipe|England}}}}
{{labeldata|Residence| {{wipe|Germany}}, {{wipe|France}}, Belgium, {{wipe|United Kingdom}}.}}
| nationality        = {{unbulleted list|Prussian (1818–1845)|Stateless (after 1845)}}
| occupation         = 
| party              = [[Organization:Communist Correspondence Committee|Communist Correspondence Committee]] {{small|(until 1847)}}<br/>[[Organization:Communist League|Communist League]] {{small|(1847–1852)}}<br/>[[Organization:International Workingmen's Association|International Workingmen's Association]] {{small|(1864–1872)}}
| spouse             = {{marriage|Jenny von Westphalen|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}}
| children           = 7, including Jenny, Laura, and Eleanor
| father             = Heinrich Marx
| mother             = Henriette Pressburg
| relatives          = {{unbulleted list|Louise Juta (sister)|Jean Longuet (grandson)}}
| module             = {{Infobox philosopher|embed=yes
| alma_mater       = {{unbulleted list|[[Organization:University of Bonn|University of Bonn]]|University of Berlin|University of Jena (PhD)<ref name="willamette1">{{cite web | url=http://willamette.edu/cla/classics/careers/marx/index.html | title=Classics: Karl Marx}}</ref>}}
| era              = [[Philosophy:19th-century philosophy|19th-century philosophy]]
| region           = [[Philosophy:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]]
| school_tradition = {{unbulleted list|[[Philosophy:Dialectical materialism|Dialectical materialism]]|[[Philosophy:Historical materialism|Historical materialism]]|[[Philosophy:Marxism|Marxism]]}}
| main_interests   = [[Philosophy:Philosophy|Philosophy]], [[Finance:Economics|economics]], [[History:History|history]], politics
| notable_ideas    = Marxist terminology, [[Finance:Surplus value|surplus value]], contributions to the labour theory of value, [[Social:Class conflict|class conflict]], [[Social:Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] and exploitation of the worker, [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|materialist conception of history]]
| influences       = [[Biography:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G.W.F. Hegel]]{{•}} [[Biography:Ludwig Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]]{{•}} [[Biography:Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin]]{{•}} Charles Babbage<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arch.oucs.ox.ac.uk/detail/94555/index.html|title=(ARCH) Babbage pages|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=14 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222104050/http://arch.oucs.ox.ac.uk/detail/94555/index.html|archive-date=22 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{•}} [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]]{{•}}  [[Biography:Epicurus|Epicurus]]{{•}} [[Biography:Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]{{•}} [[Biography:Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza]]{{•}} Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi<ref name="Paresh">{{cite book |last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Paresh |title=Marx's Associated Mode of Production: A Critique of Marxism |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |pages=39–41}}</ref>{{•}} Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz<ref name="Levine">{{cite book |last1=Levine |first1=Norman |title=Divergent Paths: The Hegelian foundations of Marx's method |date=2006 |publisher=Lexington Books |page=223}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated144">Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 144</ref>{{•}} David Ricardo{{•}} [[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]]{{•}} [[Biography:Adam Ferguson|Adam Ferguson]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Lisa |title=Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson and Karl Marx on the Division of Labour |journal=Journal of Classical Sociology |year=2007 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=339–66 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275893490|doi=10.1177/1468795X07082086 }}</ref>{{•}} [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]]{{•}} [[Biography:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]{{•}} Constantin Pecqueur<ref>Allen Oakley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=L949AAAAIAAJ&dq ''Marx's Critique of Political Economy: 1844 to 1860''], Routledge, 1984, p. 51.</ref>{{•}} [[Biography:Henri de Saint-Simon|Henri de Saint-Simon]]{{•}} Robert Owen{{•}} [[Biography:William Thompson (philosopher)|William Thompson]]{{sfn|Marx|pp. 397–99}}{{•}} [[Biography:Charles Fourier|Charles Fourier]]{{•}} [[Biography:Baron d'Holbach|Baron d'Holbach]]<ref>Mehring, Franz, ''Karl Marx: The Story of His Life'' (Routledge, 2003) p. 75</ref>{{•}} Justus von Liebig<ref>John Bellamy Foster. "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology", ''American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 105, No. 2 (September 1999), pp. 366–405.</ref>{{•}} Ludwig von Westphalen{{•}} [[Biography:Max Stirner|Max Stirner]]{{•}} François-Noël Babeuf{{•}} [[Biography:Voltaire|Voltaire]]{{•}} [[Biography:Giambattista Vico|Giambattista Vico]]{{•}} [[Biography:Maximilien Robespierre|Maximilien Robespierre]]{{•}} William Shakespeare{{•}} [[Biography:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]{{•}} [[Biography:Claude Adrien Helvétius|Claude Adrien Helvétius]]{{•}} François Guizot{{•}} Moses Hess
| influenced       = List of Marxists
| signature        = Karl Marx Signature.svg
 }}
}}
'''Karl Heinrich Marx'''<ref>{{cite article|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-39021?mediaType=Article|title=Marx, Karl Heinrich|first=Eric|last=Hobsbawm|work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography}}</ref> (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German [[Biography:Philosopher|philosopher]], [[Social:Economist|economist]], historian, sociologist, [[Philosophy:Political philosophy|political theorist]], [[Engineering:Journalist|journalist]] and [[Social:Revolutionary socialism|socialist revolutionary]]. Born in Trier, {{wipe|Germany}}, Marx studied [[Philosophy:Law|law]] and [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophy]] at university. He married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Due to his political publications, Marx became stateless and lived in exile with his wife and children in London for decades, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]] and publish his writings, researching in the reading room of the British Museum. His best-known titles are the 1848 [[Biology:Pamphlet|pamphlet]] ''The Communist Manifesto'' and the three-volume ''Das Kapital'' (1867–1883). His political and philosophical thought had enormous influence on subsequent intellectual, economic and political history, and his name has been used as an adjective, a noun and a school of social theory.

Marx's [[Philosophy:Critical theory|critical theories]] about society, economics and politics&nbsp;– collectively understood as [[Philosophy:Marxism|Marxism]]&nbsp;– hold that human societies develop through [[Social:Class conflict|class conflict]]. In [[Philosophy:Capitalism|capitalism]], this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as the bourgeoisie) that control the [[Social:Means of production|means of production]] and the working classes (known as the [[Social:Proletariat|proletariat]]) that enable these means by selling their [[Finance:Labour power|labour power]] in return for wages.<ref name=manifesto/> Employing a critical approach known as [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|historical materialism]], Marx predicted that, like previous socio-economic systems, capitalism produced [[Finance:Internal contradictions of capital accumulation|internal tensions]] that would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system known as [[Philosophy:Socialist mode of production|socialism]]. 
  
For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism, owing in part to its instability and [[Finance:Crisis theory|crisis-prone nature]], would eventuate the working class' development of [[Philosophy:Class consciousness|class consciousness]], leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a [[Social:Classless society|classless]], communist society constituted by a [[Philosophy:Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association of producers]].<ref>Karl Marx: [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm ''Critique of the Gotha Program'']</ref> Marx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised [[Social:Proletarian revolution|revolutionary action]] to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic [[Social:Emancipation|emancipation]].<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24" />

Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and his work has been both lauded and criticised.<ref name="Manchester"/> His work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to [[Finance:Capital (economics)|capital]], and subsequent economic thought.<ref>[[Biography:Roberto Mangabeira Unger|Roberto Mangabeira Unger]]. ''Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.</ref><ref>John Hicks, "Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern." ''The American Economic Review'' 64.2 (May 1974) p. 307: "The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;..."</ref><ref>[[Biography:Joseph Schumpeter|Joseph Schumpeter]] Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes. Volume 26 of Unwin University books. Edition 4, Taylor & Francis Group, 1952 {{ISBN|0-415-11078-5|978-0-415-11078-5}}</ref> Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marx's work, with many modifying or adapting his ideas. Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern [[Social:Social science|social science]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |title=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim.}}</ref>

==Biography==

===Childhood and early education: 1818–1836===
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx (1777–1838) and Henriette Pressburg (1788–1863). He was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the [[History:Kingdom of Prussia|Kingdom of Prussia]]'s Province of the Lower Rhine.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> Marx was ethnically but not religiously Jewish. His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> His father, as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education. He became a lawyer with a comfortably Upper middle class income; in addition to his income as an attorney, the family  owned a number of Moselle vineyards. Prior to his son's birth, and after the abrogation of Jewish emancipation in the Rhineland,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419|title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History|last=Carroll|first=James|year=2002|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-34888-9|location=|page=419|language=en}}</ref> Herschel converted from Judaism to join the state [[Religion:Prussian Union of Churches|Evangelical Church of Prussia]], taking on the German forename Heinrich over the Yiddish Herschel.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref>

[[File:Trier BW 2014-06-21 11-11-49.jpg|thumb|Marx's birthplace, now Brückenstraße 10, in Trier. The family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> Purchased by the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928, it now houses a museum devoted to him.<ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 12–13.</ref>]]

Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the [[Philosophy:Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], interested in the ideas of the philosophers [[Biography:Immanuel Kant|Immanuel Kant]] and [[Biography:Voltaire|Voltaire]]. A [[Philosophy:Classical liberalism|classical liberal]], he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, at that time being an [[Social:Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> In 1815, Heinrich Marx began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a Dutch Jewish woman from a prosperous business family that later founded the company Philips Electronics. Her sister Sophie Pressburg (1797–1854) married Lion Philips (1794–1866) and was the grandmother of both Gerard and Anton Philips and great-grandmother to Frits Philips. Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref>

Little is known of Marx's childhood.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> The third of nine children, he became the eldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie and Caroline, were [[Religion:Baptism|baptised]] into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 and their mother in November 1825.<ref>{{cite book|title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography. Volume 37|pp=57–58 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-861387-9}}</ref> Marx was privately educated by his father until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster, Hugo Wyttenbach, was a friend of his father. By employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government. Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students. Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff during Marx's attendance.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref>

In October 1835 at the age of 17, Marx travelled to the [[Organization:University of Bonn|University of Bonn]] wishing to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> Due to a condition referred to as a "weak chest",<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=15}}.</ref> Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18. While at the University at Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society ({{Lang-de|link=no|Landsmannschaft der Treveraner}}), at one point serving as club co-president.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> Additionally, Marx was involved in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university's Borussian Korps.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref>

===Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843===
{{Hegelianism}}
Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx became more serious about his studies and his life. He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated baroness of the Prussian ruling class who had known Marx since childhood. As she had broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with Marx, their relationship was socially controversial owing to the differences between their religious and class origins, but Marx befriended her father Ludwig von Westphalen (a liberal aristocrat) and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843, they married in a Protestant church in Kreuznach.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref>

In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> During the first term, Marx attended lectures of Eduard Gans (who represented the progressive Hegelian standpoint, elaborated on rational development in history by emphasising particularly its libertarian aspects, and the importance of social question) and of Karl von Savigny (who represented the Historical School of Law).<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> Although studying law, he was fascinated by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that "without philosophy nothing could be accomplished".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher [[Biography:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> During a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club (''Doktorklub''), a student group which discussed [[History:Hegelianism|Hegelian]] ideas, and through them became involved with a group of [[Philosophy:Political radicalism|radical thinkers]] known as the [[Philosophy:Young Hegelians|Young Hegelians]] in 1837. They gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and [[Biography:Bruno Bauer|Bruno Bauer]], with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's [[Philosophy:Metaphysics|metaphysical]] assumptions, but adopted his dialectical method to criticise established society, politics and religion from a leftist perspective.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> Marx's father died in May 1838, resulting in a diminished income for the family.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44,69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> Marx had been emotionally close to his father and treasured his memory after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}}.</ref>

[[File:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s]]

By 1837, Marx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, ''Scorpion and Felix'', a drama, ''Oulanem'', as well as a number of love poems dedicated to Jenny von Westphalen, though none of this early work was published during his lifetime.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}. These love poems would be published posthumously in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1'' (New York: International Publishers, 1975) pp. 531–632.</ref> Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, [[Art history|art history]] and the translation of Latin classics.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> He began co-operating with [[Biography:Bruno Bauer|Bruno Bauer]] on editing Hegel's ''Philosophy of Religion'' in 1840. Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, ''The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature'',<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1'' (New York: International Publishers, 1975) pp. 25–107.</ref> which he completed in 1841. It was described as "a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy".<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> The essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his PhD in April 1841.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref><ref name="willamette1"/> As Marx and Bauer were both [[Philosophy:Atheism|atheists]], in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled ''Archiv des Atheismus'' (''Atheistic Archives''), but it never came to fruition. In July, Marx and Bauer took a trip to [[Place:Bonn|Bonn]] from Berlin. There they scandalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on donkeys.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref>

Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> Marx moved to Cologne in 1842, where he became a journalist, writing for the radical newspaper ''Rheinische Zeitung'' (''Rhineland News''), expressing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics. Marx criticised right-wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements, whom he thought ineffective or counter-productive.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussian [[Social:Censorship|government censors]], who checked every issue for seditious material before printing, as Marx lamented: "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> After the ''Rheinische Zeitung'' published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy, Tsar Nicholas I requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref>

===Paris: 1843–1845===
In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radical leftist Parisian newspaper, the ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'' (''German-French Annals''), then being set up by the German socialist [[Biography:Arnold Ruge|Arnold Ruge]] to bring together German and French radicals<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> and thus Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843. Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, they found the living conditions difficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> Although intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the ''Jahrbücher'' was dominated by the latter and the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian [[Social:Collectivist anarchism|anarchist collectivist]] [[Biography:Mikhail Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> Marx contributed two essays to the paper, "Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right"<ref>Marx, Karl, "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) p. 3.</ref> and "On the Jewish Question",<ref>Marx, Karl, "On the Jewish Question", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'', p. 146.</ref>  the latter introducing his belief that the [[Social:Proletariat|proletariat]] were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}}.</ref> Only one issue was published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies (Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down).<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> After the paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left, ''Vorwärts!'' (''Forward!''). Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the League of the Just, a [[Philosophy:Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended some of their meetings, but did not join.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> In ''Vorwärts!'', Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=90}}.</ref>

[[File:Engels 1856.jpg|thumb|upright|Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; the two became lifelong friends and collaborators.]]

On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]] at the Café de la Régence, beginning a lifelong friendship.<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 75.</ref> Engels showed Marx his recently published ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'',<ref>Mansel, Philip: ''Paris Between Empires'', p. 390 (St. Martin Press, NY) 2001</ref><ref>Frederick Engels, "The Condition of the Working Class in England", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 295–596.</ref> convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/><ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) p. 82.</ref> Soon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, [[Biography:Bruno Bauer|Bruno Bauer]]. This work was published in 1845 as ''The Holy Family''.<ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 85–86.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "The Holy Family", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4'', pp. 3–211.</ref> Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians [[Biography:Max Stirner|Max Stirner]] and [[Biography:Ludwig Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]], but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.<ref name="et"/>

During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris (from October 1843 until January 1845),<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 in the book "Karl Marx: A Biography", written by a team of historians and writers headed by P.N. Fedoseyev (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973).</ref> Marx engaged in an intensive study of [[Finance:Political economy|political economy]] ([[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]], David Ricardo, [[Biography:James Mill|James Mill]], ''etc.'')'',''<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''et al''. ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 63.</ref> the French socialists (especially [[Biography:Henri de Saint-Simon|Claude Henri St. Simon]] and [[Biography:Charles Fourier|Charles Fourier]])<ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' (Oxford University Press: London, 1963) pp. 90–94.</ref> and the history of France.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev ''et al.'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) p. 62.</ref> The study of political economy is a study that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii</ref> and would result in his major economic work{{mdash}}the three-volume series called ''Capital''.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> [[Philosophy:Marxism|Marxism]] is based in large part on three influences: Hegel's dialectics, French utopian socialism and English economics. Together with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of "Marxism" were in place by the autumn of 1844.<ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'', pp. 35–61.</ref>  Marx was constantly being pulled away from his study of political economy{{mdash}}not only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally by editing a radical newspaper and later by organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry. Still Marx was always drawn back to his economic studies:  he sought "to understand the inner workings of capitalism".<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 62.</ref>

An outline of "Marxism" had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many features of the Marxist view of the world's political economy had been worked out in great detail, but Marx needed to write down all of the details of his economic world view to further clarify the new economic theory in his own mind.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> Accordingly, Marx wrote ''The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> These manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of alienated labour.<ref name=sep/> However, by the spring of 1845 his continued study of political economy, capital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new political economic theory that he was espousing&nbsp;– scientific socialism&nbsp;– needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 83.</ref>

The ''Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844'' had been written between April and August 1844, but soon Marx recognised that the ''Manuscripts'' had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach.  Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven "Theses on Feuerbach".<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref>  The "Theses on Feuerbach" are best known for Thesis 11, which states that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it".<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> This work contains Marx's criticism of [[Philosophy:Materialism|materialism]] (for being contemplative), [[Philosophy:Idealism|idealism]] (for reducing practice to theory) overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world.<ref name=sep/> It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|historical materialism]], an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> In 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down ''Vorwärts!'', with the interior minister, François Guizot, expelling Marx from France.<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 90"/> At this point, Marx moved from Paris to Brussels, where Marx hoped to once again continue his study of capitalism and political economy.

===Brussels: 1845–1848===
[[File:Communist-manifesto.png|thumb|upright|The first edition of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'', published in German in 1848]]

Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845. However, to stay in Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 90"/> In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer. In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels.<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 90" /><ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]: Dresden, 1972) p. 101</ref> Later, Mary Burns, Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester, England to join Engels in Brussels.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref>

In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the [[Social:Chartism|Chartists]], a socialist movement in Britain. This was Marx's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester from November 1842<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild [New Book Publishing House]: Dresden, 1972) p. 53</ref> to August 1844.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> Not only did Engels already know the English language,<ref name="N. Fedoseyev, p. 89">P.N. Fedoseyev, ''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 89.</ref> he had also developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders.<ref name="N. Fedoseyev, p. 89"/> Indeed, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers.<ref name="N. Fedoseyev, p. 89"/> Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester.<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 92.</ref>

In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|historical materialism]], ''The German Ideology''.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> In this work, Marx broke with [[Biography:Ludwig Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]], [[Biography:Bruno Bauer|Bruno Bauer]], [[Biography:Max Stirner|Max Stirner]] and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with Karl Grun and other "true socialists" whose philosophies were still based in part on "idealism". In ''German Ideology'', Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', pp. 96–97.</ref> ''German Ideology'' is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early writings of his, ''German Ideology'' would not be published in Marx's lifetime and would be published only in 1932.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/><ref>Wheen 2001. p. 93.</ref>

After completing ''German Ideology'', Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding "the theory and tactics" of a truly "revolutionary proletarian movement" operating from the standpoint of a truly "scientific materialist" philosophy.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> This work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy. Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend on most occasions to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society. This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called the book ''[[Philosophy:The Poverty of Philosophy|The Poverty of Philosophy]]'' (1847)<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6''(International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> and offered it as a response to the "petty bourgeois philosophy" of the French anarchist socialist [[Biography:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] as expressed in his book ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1840).<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 107.</ref>

[[File:Marx+Family and Engels.jpg|thumb|Marx, Engels and Marx's daughters]]

These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as ''The Communist Manifesto''. While residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation League of the Just.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1973) p. 124.</ref> As noted above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working class revolution.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–72.</ref> However, to organise the working class into a mass movement the League had to cease its "secret" or "underground" orientation and operate in the open as a political party.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> Members of the League eventually became persuaded in this regard. Accordingly, in June 1847 the League was reorganised by its membership into a new open "above ground" political society that appealed directly to the working classes.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev,''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', pp. 123–25.</ref> This new open political society was called the Communist League.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''et al'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 125.</ref> Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing up the programme and organisational principles of the new [[Organization:Communist League|Communist League]].<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–57.</ref>

In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work&nbsp;– a programme of action for the [[Organization:Communist League|Communist League]]. Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, ''The Communist Manifesto'' was first published on 21 February 1848.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> ''The Communist Manifesto'' laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League. No longer a secret society, the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 115.</ref> The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles".<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book|author1=Chris Shilling|author2=Philip A Mellor|title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114|year=2001|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-6549-7|page=114}}</ref> It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalist class) and the [[Social:Proletariat|proletariat]] (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the ''Manifesto'' presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.<ref>Marx and Engels 1848.</ref>

Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions and often violent upheavals that became known as the [[Social:Revolutions of 1848|Revolutions of 1848]].<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 125"/> In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the [[Place:French Second Republic|French Second Republic]].<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 125"/> Marx was supportive of such activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/> or 5,000 francs<ref>Saul Kussiel Padover, ''Karl Marx, an intimate biography'', McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 205</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> he allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–90</ref> the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it, subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican government in power he believed that he would be safe.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=Central European History |volume= 15 |issue= 4 |pages=332–50 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 }}</ref>

===Cologne: 1848–1849===
Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 128.</ref> Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the ''Demands of the Communist Party in Germany'',<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref>  in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the ''Communist Manifesto'', believing that in Germany at that time the bourgeoisie must overthrow the [[Social:Feudalism|feudal]] monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.<ref>Wheen 2001. p. 129.</ref> On 1 June, Marx started publication of a daily newspaper, the ''[[Social:Neue Rheinische Zeitung|Neue Rheinische Zeitung]]'', which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the dominant editorial influence. Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League, according to [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]] it remained "a simple dictatorship by Marx".<ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 130–32.</ref><ref>Seigel, p. 50</ref><ref name="DL-Marx"/>

Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="Nicolaievsky2007"/><ref name="Splichal2002"/><ref name="Mehring2003"/> although each time he was acquitted.<ref name="Nicolaievsky2007"/><ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross|first=David M.|year=2014|title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns|publisher=Picket Line Press|isbn=978-1-4905-7274-1|pages=76–77}}</ref> Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]] collapsed and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Consequently, the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' was soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.<ref name="DL-Marx"/><ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 137–46.</ref> Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a [[Medicine:Cholera|cholera]] epidemic and was soon expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.<ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 147–48.</ref><ref name="Watson2010"/>

===Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860===
Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London. However, in the winter of 1849–1850 a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise "spontaneously" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was "adventuristic" and would be suicide for the Communist League.<ref name="N. Fedoseyev, p. 233">P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 233.</ref> Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/Willich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe. Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men.<ref name="N. Fedoseyev, p. 233"/> They are instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development. In the present stage of development (''circa'' 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage. In other words, the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working class agenda and a working class revolution.

After a long struggle which threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and eventually the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League. Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> The Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.<ref>Wheen 2001. pp. 151–55.</ref><ref name="Harriss2006"/> This organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction. The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the Schapper/Willich faction within the German Workers' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850 resigned from the Society.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref>

=== ''New-York Daily Tribune'' and journalism ===
In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to revolutionary activities, such that his family endured extreme poverty.<ref name="DusselMoseley2001"/><ref name="egsbio"/> His main source of income was Engels, whose own source was his wealthy industrialist father.<ref name=egsbio/> In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper, and contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes. In London, without finances to run a newspaper themselves, he and Engels turned to international journalism.  At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States, [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]], Austria and South Africa.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> Marx's principal earnings came from his work as European correspondent, from 1852 to 1862, for the ''New-York Daily Tribune'',<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book|last=Kluger|first=Richard|title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune|url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|date=1986}}</ref>{{rp|17}} and from also producing articles for more "bourgeois" newspapers.  Marx had his articles translated from German by {{Interlanguage link multi|Wilhelm Pieper (revolutionary)|de|3=Wilhelm Pieper (Revolutionär)|lt=Wilhelm Pieper}}, until his proficiency in English had become adequate.<ref name="Dispatches"/>

The ''New-York Daily Tribune'' had been founded in April 1841 by Horace Greeley.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', 274.</ref> Its editorial board contained progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among them George Ripley and the journalist Charles Dana, who was editor-in-chief. Dana, a fourierist and an abolitionist, was Marx's contact.

The ''Tribune'' was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public to make a "hidden war" to Henry Charles Carey.<ref>Michael Perelman : How Karl Marx Helped Shape the Republican Party [https://www.counterpunch.org/2015/12/25/how-karl-marx-helped-shape-the-republican-party] – More : Karl Mary and Henry Carey in the New-York Tribune [https://michaelperelman.wordpress.com/2008/05/19/political-economy-and-the-press-karl-marx-and-henry-carey-at-the-new-york-tribune/]</ref> The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation; at two cents, it was inexpensive;<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> and, with about 50,000 copies per issue, its circulation was the widest in the United States.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} Its editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}}  Marx's first article for the paper, on the British parliamentary elections, was published on 21 August 1852.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–32.</ref>

On 21 March 1857 Dana informed Marx that, due to the economic recession, only one article a week would be paid for, published or not; the others would be paid for only if published. Marx had sent his articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but, that October, the ''Tribune'' discharged all its correspondents in Europe except Marx and B. Taylor, and reduced Marx to a weekly article. Between September and November 1860, only five were published. After a six-month interval, Marx resumed contributions in September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him that there was no longer space in the ''Tribune'' for reports from London, due to American domestic affairs.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref>
In 1868, Dana set up a rival newspaper, the ''New York Sun'', at which he was editor-in-chief.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref>

In April 1857, Dana invited Marx to contribute articles, mainly on military history, to the ''New American Cyclopedia'', an idea of George Ripley, Dana's friend and literary editor of the ''Tribune''. In all, 67 Marx-Engels articles were published, of which 51 were written by Engels, although Marx did some research for them in the British Museum.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}</ref>

By the late 1850s, American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turned to topics such as the "slavery crisis" and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, in the "War Between the States".<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref>
Between December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical work about the French Revolution of 1848, titled  ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon''.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of KarlMarx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> In this he explored concepts in [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|historical materialism]], class struggle, [[Social:Dictatorship of the proletariat|dictatorship of the proletariat]], and victory of the proletariat over the bourgeois state.<ref name="Marx2008"/>

The 1850s and 1860s may be said to mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the young Marx's Hegelian [[Philosophy:Idealism|idealism]] and the more mature Marx's<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> scientific ideology associated with [[Philosophy:Structural Marxism|structural Marxism]];<ref name="Johnston2000"/> however, not all scholars accept this distinction.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> For Marx and Engels, their experience of the [[Social:Revolutions of 1848|Revolutions of 1848]] to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of economics and historical progression. After the "failures" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession. Contention arose between Marx and his fellow communists, whom he denounced as "adventurists". Marx deemed it fanciful to propose that "will power" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic component was the necessary requisite.

Recession in the United States' economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for revolutionary activity. Yet, this economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution. Open territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest. Moreover, any economic crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older economies of individual European nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders. When the so-called "[[Finance:Panic of 1857|Panic of 1857]]" in the United States spread globally, it broke all economic theory models,<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref> and was the first truly global economic crisis.

Financial necessity had forced Marx to abandon economic studies in 1844 and give thirteen years to working on other projects. He had always sought to return to economics.

===The First International and ''Capital''===
[[File:Zentralbibliothek Zürich Das Kapital Marx 1867.jpg|thumb|upright|The first volume of ''Das Kapital'']]

Marx continued to write articles for the ''New York Daily Tribune'' as long as he was sure that the ''Tribune''{{'}}s editorial policy was still progressive. However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> No longer was the ''Tribune'' to be a strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union victory. The new editorial board supported an immediate peace between the Union and the [[Place:Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy. Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was forced to withdraw as a writer for the ''Tribune.''<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev ''et al.'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 345.</ref>

In 1864, Marx became involved in the [[Organization:International Workingmen's Association|International Workingmen's Association]] (also known as the First International),<ref name="Nicolaievsky2007"/> to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.<ref name="Nicolaievsky2007-267"/> In that organisation, Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on [[Biography:Mikhail Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin]] (1814–1876).<ref name=egsbio/> Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871, when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. In response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "The Civil War in France", a defence of the Commune.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–59.</ref>

Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand capitalism and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of [[Finance:Political economy|political economists]] and on economic data.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20"/> By 1857, Marx had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state and foreign trade and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939 under the title ''[[Philosophy:Grundrisse|''Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy'']]''.<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref>

Finally in 1859, Marx published ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'',<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> his first serious economic work. This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume ''Das Kapital'' (English title: ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy''), which he intended to publish at a later date. In ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', Marx expands on the labour theory of value advocated by David Ricardo. The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly.<ref>P.N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 318.</ref>

[[File:Karl-Marx.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Marx 1875. Photographer John Mayall jun.]]

The successful sales of ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'' stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three large volumes that would compose his major life's work&nbsp;– ''Das Kapital'' and the ''[[Finance:Theories of Surplus Value|Theories of Surplus Value]]'', which discussed the theoreticians of political economy, particularly [[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]] and David Ricardo.<ref name=egsbio/> ''Theories of Surplus Value'' is often referred to as the fourth volume of ''Das Kapital'' and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the [[Finance:History of economic thought|history of economic thought]].<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> In 1867, the first volume of ''Das Kapital'' was published, a work which analysed the capitalist process of production.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/> Here Marx elaborated his labour theory of value, which had been influenced by Thomas Hodgskin. Marx acknowledged Hodgskin's "admirable work" ''Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital'' at more than one point in ''Capital.''<ref>See footnote No. 2 on the bottom of p. 360 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35''.</ref> Indeed, Marx quoted Hodgskin as recognising the alienation of labour that occurred under modern capitalist production. No longer was there any "natural reward of individual labour. Each labourer produces only some part of a whole, and each part having no value or utility of itself, there is nothing on which the labourer can seize, and say: 'This is my product, this will I keep to myself'".<ref>Thomas Hodgskin, ''Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital'' (London, 1825) p. 25.</ref> In this first volume of ''Capital'', Marx outlined his conception of [[Finance:Surplus value|surplus value]] and [[Finance:Exploitation of labour|exploitation]], which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/> Demand for a Russian language edition of ''Capital'' soon led to the printing of 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27 March 1872. By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German language edition of ''Capital'' had been sold out and a second edition was published.

Volumes II and III of ''Capital'' remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death.<ref name=egsbio/> Volume II of ''Capital'' was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name ''Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> Volume III of ''Capital'' was published a year later in October 1894 under the name ''Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''Theories of Surplus Value'' derived from the sprawling ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'', a ''second'' draft for ''Capital'', the latter spanning volumes 30–34 of the ''Collected Works of Marx and Engels''.  Specifically, ''Theories of Surplus Value'' runs from the latter part of the ''Collected Works' '' thirtieth volume through the end of their thirty-second volume;<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> meanwhile, the larger ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'' run from the start of the ''Collected Works' '' thirtieth volume through the first half of their thirty-fourth volume.  The latter half of the Collected Works' thirty-fourth volume consists of the surviving fragments of the ''Economic Manuscripts of 1863–1864'', which represented a ''third'' draft for Capital, and a large portion of which is included as an appendix to the Penguin edition of ''Capital'', volume I.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=marxists.org}}</ref> A German language abridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published as the "fourth volume" of ''Capital'' in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref>

[[File:Marx old.jpg|thumb|upright|Marx in 1882]]

During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.<ref name=egsbio/> He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His ''Critique of the Gotha Programme'' opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and [[Biography:August Bebel|August Bebel]] to compromise with the [[Philosophy:State socialism|state socialism]] of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.<ref name=egsbio/> This work is also notable for another famous Marx quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".<ref name="CGP P1"/>

In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village ''mir''.<ref name=egsbio/><ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides".<ref name="k72"/> Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.<ref name=k72/> However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that "at the core of the capitalist system&nbsp;... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production".<ref name=k72/> In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that "the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type&nbsp;– collective production and appropriation". He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, ''etc''. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State''.

==Personal life==

===Family===
[[File:Jenny laura marx.jpg|thumb|upright|Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869): all the Marx daughters were named Jenny in honour of their mother, Jenny von Westphalen.]]

Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.<ref>Peter Singer (2000).'' Marx a very short introduction''. p. 5. {{ISBN|0-19-285405-4}}</ref> The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–1852); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–1898) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,<ref name=Montefiore>{{cite news |last=Montefiore|first=Simon Sebag|title=The Means of Reproduction|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.<ref name="Karl Marx"/> Although it has been claimed since 1962 that Marx was the father of Helene Demuth's illegitimate son, according to [[Biography:Terrell Carver|Terrell Carver]], "this [claim] is not well founded on the documentary materials available".<ref name="Carver, 1991">{{cite book|last=Carver|first=Terrell|title=The Cambridge Companion to Marx|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-521-36694-6|page=11|chapter-url=https://www.google.com/books?id=6VrfmJOEzZsC&lpg=PA11&dq=The%20Cambridge%20Companion%20to%20Marx%20Demuth&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor-last=Carver|editor-first=Terrell|accessdate=30 May 2014|chapter=Reading Marx: Life and Works}}</ref>

Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of "Monsieur Ramboz", whilst in London he signed off his letters as "A. Williams". His friends referred to him as "Moor", owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged his children to call him "Old Nick" and "Charley".<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 152"/> He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as "General", his housekeeper Helene as "Lenchen" or "Nym", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as "Qui Qui, Emperor of China" and another, Laura, was known as "[[Biology:Cockatoo|Kakadou]]" or "the Hottentot".<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 152"/>

===Health===
Marx was afflicted by poor health (what he himself described as "the wretchedness of existence")<ref>Blumenberg, 98.</ref> and various authors have sought to describe and explain it. His biographer Werner Blumenberg attributed it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterwards free, exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle. The attacks often came with headaches, eye inflammation, neuralgia in the head and rheumatic pains. A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted insomnia was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics. The illness was aggravated by excessive nocturnal work and faulty diet. Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled cucumbers, "none of which are good for liver patients", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked an enormous amount "and since he had no money, it was usually bad-quality cigars". From 1863, Marx complained a lot about boils: "These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same causes".<ref>Blumenberg, 100.</ref> The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright. According to Blumenberg, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients:

<blockquote>The illness emphasised certain traits in his character. He argued cuttingly, his biting satire did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel. Though in general Marx had a blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them. His verdicts, not only about enemies but even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take offence&nbsp;... There must have been few whom he did not criticize like this&nbsp;... not even Engels was an exception.<ref>Blumenberg, 99–100.</ref></blockquote>

According to Princeton historian J.E. Seigel, in his late teens Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy, the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service. In later life whilst working on ''Capital'' (which he never completed),<ref>Blumenberg, 98; Siegel, 494.</ref> Marx suffered from a trio of afflictions. A liver ailment, probably hereditary, was aggravated by overwork, bad diet and lack of sleep. Inflammation of the eyes was induced by too much work at night. A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, "was probably brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life&nbsp;– alcohol, tobacco, poor diet, and failure to sleep&nbsp;– all contributed. Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this dangerous regime". In Professor Siegel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his father.<ref>Seigel, 495–96.</ref>

In 2007, a retrodiagnosis of Marx's skin disease was made by dermatologist Sam Shuster of [[Organization:Newcastle University|Newcastle University]] and for Shuster the most probable explanation was that Marx suffered not from liver problems, but from [[Medicine:Hidradenitis suppurativa|hidradenitis suppurativa]], a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of apocrine ducts opening into hair follicles. This condition, which was not described in the English medical literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain (which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions. To arrive at his retrodiagnosis, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50 volumes of the ''Marx/Engels Collected Works''. There, "although the skin lesions were called 'furuncles', 'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent, destructive and site-specific for that diagnosis". The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted repeatedly in the armpits, groins, perianal, genital ([[Medicine:Human penis|penis]] and scrotum) and suprapubic regions and inner thighs, "favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa". Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis "can now be made definitively".<ref>Shuster, 1–2.</ref>

Shuster went on to consider the potential [[Social:Psychosocial|psychosocial]] effects of the disease, noting that the skin is an organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress, including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood and well-being, feelings for which Shuster found "much evidence" in the Marx correspondence. Professor Shuster went on to ask himself whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop [[Social:Marx's theory of alienation|his theory of alienation]].<ref>Shuster, 3.</ref>

===Death===
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|Tomb of Karl Marx, East Highgate Cemetery, London]]

Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a [[Medicine:Catarrh|catarrh]] that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the [[Medicine:Bronchitis|bronchitis]] and [[Medicine:Pleurisy|pleurisy]] that killed him in London on 14 March 1883, when he died a stateless person at age 64.<ref name="stateless"/> Family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery (East), London, on 17 March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists ([[Biography:George Eliot|George Eliot]]'s grave is nearby). There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.<ref>Wheen 2001. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA382 p. 382].</ref><ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Research from contemporary sources identifies thirteen named individuals attending the funeral. They were, [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]], Eleanor Marx, Edward Aveling, [[Biography:Paul Lafargue|Paul Lafargue]], Charles Longuet, Helene Demuth, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Gottlieb Lemke, Frederick Lessner, G Lochner, Sir [[Biography:Ray Lankester|Ray Lankester]], [[Biography:Carl Schorlemmer|Carl Schorlemmer]] and Ernest Radford.<ref>John Shepperd, 'Who was really at Marx's funeral?', in "Friends of Highgate Cemetery Newsletter ", April (2018), pp. 10–11. https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf</ref> A contemporary newspaper account claims that 25 to 30 relatives and friends attended the funeral.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx', in The People, 25 March 1883, p.3.</ref> A writer in The Graphic noted that, 'By a strange blunder ... his death was not announced for two days, and then as having taken place at Paris. Next day the correction came from Paris; and when his friends and followers hastened to his house in Haverstock Hill, to learn the time and place of burial, they learned that he was already in the cold ground. But for this secresy [sic] and haste, a great popular demonstration would undoubtedly have been held over his grave'.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx' in 'The Graphic', 31 March 1883, pp. 319, 322</ref>

Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels' speech included the passage: {{quote|On the 14th&nbsp;of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep&nbsp;– but forever.<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx"/>}}

Marx's surviving daughters Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles Longuet and [[Biography:Paul Lafargue|Paul Lafargue]], Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter, the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883. Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne Communist Trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League"; and [[Biography:Carl Schorlemmer|Carl Schorlemmer]], a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Another attendee of the funeral was Sir [[Biography:Ray Lankester|Ray Lankester]], a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/>

Marx left a personal estate valued for probate at £250 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|250|1883|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}}).<ref name="probate">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk|title=Marx, Karl|author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1883 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref> Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his considerable estate (valued in 2011 at US$4.8&nbsp;million).<ref name=Montefiore />

Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954. The tomb at the new site, unveiled on 14 March 1956,<ref>{{cite web|title=The posthumous life of Karl Marx, Highgate Cemetery|url=http://thelondondead.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/the-posthumous-life-of-karl-marx.html|website=The London Dead|date=7 July 2014|accessdate=14 July 2015}}</ref> bears the carved message: "[[Philosophy:Workers of the world, unite!|Workers of All Lands Unite]]", the final line of ''The Communist Manifesto''; and, from the 11th "Thesis on Feuerbach" (as edited by Engels), "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways{{mdash}}the point however is to change it".<ref name="wh1" /> The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment.<ref name="wh1"/>

The Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked: "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within 25 years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47 per cent in those countries with [[Social:Representative democracy|representative democratic]] elections.<ref>Hobsbawm 2011. pp. 3–4.</ref>

==Thought==
{{Marxism}}

===Influences===
Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers including, but not limited to:
* [[Biography:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]'s philosophy<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/>
* The classical [[Finance:Political economy|political economy]] (economics) of [[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]] and David Ricardo,<ref name="Sherman1995"/> as well as Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi's critique of laissez-faire economics and analysis of the precarious state of the proletariat<ref name="Paresh" />
* French socialist thought,<ref name="Sherman1995"/> in particular the thought of [[Biography:Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[Biography:Henri de Saint-Simon|Henri de Saint-Simon]], [[Biography:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Biography:Charles Fourier|Charles Fourier]]<ref name="Beilharz1992"/><ref name="Clark1998"/>
* Earlier German philosophical materialism among the [[Philosophy:Young Hegelians|Young Hegelians]], particularly that of [[Biography:Ludwig Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]] and [[Biography:Bruno Bauer|Bruno Bauer]],<ref name=et/> as well as the French materialism of the late 18th century, including Diderot, [[Biography:Claude Adrien Helvétius|Claude Adrien Helvétius]] and d'Holbach
* The working class analysis by [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]],<ref name="Bottomore1991"/> as well as the early descriptions of class provided by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as François Guizot and Augustin Thierry
* Marx's Judaic legacy has been identified as formative to both his moral outlook<ref>Eagleton, Terry ''Why Marx Was Right''  Yale University Press, 2011, p. 158</ref> and his materialist philosophy.<ref>Seigel, Jerrold  ''Marx's Fate'' Princeton University Press, 1978, pp.  112–19</ref>

Marx's view of history, which came to be called [[Philosophy:Historical materialism|historical materialism]] (controversially adapted as the philosophy of [[Philosophy:Dialectical materialism|dialectical materialism]] by Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) [[Philosophy:Dialectic|dialectic]]ally.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> However, Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> Despite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used Gothic language in several of his works: in ''The Communist Manifesto'' he proclaims "A spectre is haunting Europe&nbsp;– the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre", and in ''The Capital'' he refers to capital as "[[Unsolved:Necromancy|necromancy]] that surrounds the products of labour".<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/OPE/archive/0604/att-0138/01-PoliticalEconOfTheDead.pdf|author=Mark Neocleous|title=The Political Economy of the Dead: Marx's Vampires}}</ref>

Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,<ref name="Sherman1995"/> Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty and that only a large-scale change in the [[Finance:Economic system|economic system]] can bring about real change.<ref name="Clark1998"/>

The other important contributions to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'', which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of [[Social:Class conflict|class conflict]] and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution,<ref name="Bottomore1991"/> as well as from the social democrat Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, who in ''Die Bewegung der Produktion'' described the movement of society as "flowing from the contradiction between the forces of production and the mode of production."<ref name="Levine" /><ref name="autogenerated144"/>

Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx therefore concluded that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his "Theses on Feuerbach" that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24"/><ref name="wh1"/>

===Philosophy and social thought===
Marx's polemic with other thinkers often occurred through [[Philosophy:Critique|critique]] and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences".<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/><ref name="Sherman1995"/> He criticised speculative philosophy, equating [[Philosophy:Metaphysics|metaphysics]] with ideology.<ref name="Bannerji2001"/> By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.<ref name="Sherman1995"/> This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24"/>

====Human nature====
{{further|Philosophy:Marx's theory of human nature}}
{{multiple image
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| footer = The philosophers [[Biography:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G.W.F. Hegel]] and [[Biography:Ludwig Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]], whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx
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Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic [[Social:Despotism|despotism]] with no identifiable despot,<ref>Annelien de Dijn, [https://books.google.com/books?id=a3SFelqBLw8C&dq= ''French Political Thought from Montesquieu to Tocqueville''], Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 152.</ref> Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with [[Biography:Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], who discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse "the despotism of capital".<ref>Karl Marx. ''Capital: A Critique of Political Economy'', vol. 1, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (New York: Modem Library, 1906), 440.</ref> Fundamentally, Marx assumed that [[History:Human history|human history]] involves transforming [[Philosophy:Human nature|human nature]], which encompasses both human beings and material objects.<ref name="Ollman1973"/> Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.<ref name = "Marx_labour">Marx K (1999). [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch07.htm "The labour-process and the process of producing surplus-value".] In K Marx, ''Capital'' (Vol. 1, Ch. 7). Marxists.org. Retrieved 20 October 2010. Original work published 1867.</ref><ref name = "Marx_critique">See Marx K (1997). "Critique of Hegel's dialectic and philosophy in general". In K Marx, ''Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society'' (LD Easton & KH Guddat, Trans.), pp. 314–47. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Original work published 1844.</ref> For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal [[Social:Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a [[Philosophy:Subject|subjective]] agent, renders its potential counterpart an [[Philosophy:Object|object]] to be apprehended.<ref name = "Marx_critique"/> Marx further argues that by moulding nature<ref name = "Lefever">See also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". ''The American Economist(21)''2, pp. 40–48.</ref> in desired ways<ref name = "Holland_desire">See also Holland EW (2005). "Desire". In CJ Stivale (Ed.), ''Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts'', pp. 53–62. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.</ref> the subject takes the object as its own and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, the [[Philosophy:Marx's theory of human nature|human nature]]&nbsp;– {{lang|de|Gattungswesen}}, or species-being&nbsp;– exists as a function of human labour.<ref name = "Marx_labour"/><ref name = "Marx_critique"/><ref name = "Holland_desire"/> Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.<ref name = "Marx_objects"/> Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his {{em|own work}}",<ref name = "Marx_work">Marx (1997), p. 321, emphasis in original.</ref> but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.<ref name = "Marx_spiritual">Marx (1997), p. 324.</ref> Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects".<ref name = "Marx_objects">Marx (1997), p. 325, emphasis in original.</ref> Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour" and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "[[Finance:Labour power|labour power]]".<ref name=sep/>

====Labour, class struggle and false consciousness====
{{quote|The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.|Karl Marx, ''The Communist Manifesto''<ref name="MarxEngels2009pp5">{{cite book|author1=Karl Marx|author2=Friedrich Engels|title=The Communist Manifesto|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pC1RMZh4iC0C&pg=PA5|year=2009|publisher=Echo Library|isbn=978-1-4068-5174-8|page=5}}</ref>}}
[[File:Marx et Engels à Shanghai.jpg|upright|thumb|A monument dedicated to Marx and Engels in Shanghai, China]]
Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power.<ref name="Calhoun2002-22"/> He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of [[Social:Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]].<ref name="Mészáros2006"/> As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.<ref name="Calhoun2002-22"/> Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.<ref name="Calhoun2002-22"/> For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour&nbsp;– one's capacity to transform the world&nbsp;– is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss.<ref name="Calhoun2002-22"/> Marx described this loss as [[Finance:Commodity fetishism|commodity fetishism]], in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.<ref name="Balibar1995"/>

[[Finance:Commodity fetishism|Commodity fetishism]] provides an example of what Engels called "[[False consciousness|false consciousness]]",<ref name="KołakowskiFalla2005">{{cite book |author1=Leszek Kołakowski|author2=Paul Stephen Falla|title=Main currents of Marxism: the founders, the golden age, the breakdown|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=2005|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-06054-6|page=226}}</ref> which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.<ref name="Hernadi1989"/> Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods, but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).<ref name=sep/><ref name="Thompson1990"/> An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface<ref>Karl Marx: [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm Introduction] to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in: ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844</ref> to his 1843 ''Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right'': {{quote|Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.<ref name="MarxO'Malley1977"/>|sign=|source=}}

Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis at the {{Interlanguage link multi|Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|de|3=Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|lt=Gymnasium zu Trier}} argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic ''status quo'' and [[Social:Economic inequality|inequality]].<ref name="SwatosKivisto1998"/>

Marx was an outspoken opponent of [[Finance:Child labour|child labour]],<ref>In ''The Communist Manifesto'', Part II:Proletariats and Communist and ''Capital, Volume I'', Part III</ref> saying that British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref>{{cite speech|author=Karl Marx|title=Inaugural Address of the International Working Men's Association|year=1864}}</ref>

====Economy, history and society====
{{further|Finance:Marxian economics}}
[[File:Murales Rivera - Treppenhaus 7 Marx.jpg|thumb|right|Mural by Diego Rivera showing Karl Marx, in the National Palace in Mexico City]]
Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society's past, present and future (see also [[Philosophy:Economic determinism|economic determinism]]).<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/><ref name="Clark1998"/><ref name="Turner2005"/> Accumulation of capital shapes the [[Social:Social system|social system]].<ref name="Clark1998"/> For Marx, [[Social:Social change|social change]] was about conflict between opposing interests, driven in the background by economic forces.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.<ref name="Turner2005"/> In his [[Social:Sociocultural evolution|evolutionary]] model of history, he argued that [[History:Human history|human history]] began with free, productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> Marx noted that this was not an intentional process, rather no individual or even state can go against the forces of economy.<ref name="Clark1998"/>

The organisation of society depends on [[Social:Means of production|means of production]]. The means of production are all things required to produce material goods, such as land, natural resources and technology but not human labour.  The relations of production are the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.<ref name="Turner2005"/> Together, these compose the [[Social:Mode of production|mode of production]] and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of modes of production. Marx differentiated between [[Social:Base and superstructure|base and superstructure]], where the base (or substructure) is the economic system and superstructure is the cultural and political system.<ref name="Turner2005"/> Marx regarded this mismatch between economic base and social [[Social:Base and superstructure|superstructure]] as a major source of social disruption and conflict.<ref name="Turner2005"/>

Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new [[Social:Communist society|communist society]] that should replace it, his explicit critique is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones ([[Social:Slavery|slavery]] and [[Social:Feudalism|feudalism]]).<ref name=sep/> Marx never clearly discusses issues of [[Philosophy:Morality|morality]] and [[Philosophy:Justice|justice]], but scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.<ref name=sep/>
[[File:Karl Marx - Moscow - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow, whose inscription reads: "[[Philosophy:Workers of the world, unite!|Proletarians of all countries, unite!]]"]]

Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Wood1993"/> On one hand, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment. On the other hand, he characterised capitalism as "revolutionising, industrialising and universalising qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased [[Finance:Productivity|productivity]] and growth, [[Philosophy:Rationality|rationality]] and scientific revolution) that are responsible for progress.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history and was responsible for the overthrow of [[Social:Feudalism|feudalism]].<ref name="Clark1998" /><ref name="Gilbert2010" /> Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist has an incentive to reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.<ref name="Calhoun2002-22"/>

According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "[[Finance:Surplus value|surplus value]]" and argued that it was based on [[Finance:Surplus labour|surplus labour]], the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.<ref name=sep/> Although Marx describes capitalists as [[Unsolved:Vampire|vampire]]s sucking worker's blood,<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"<ref name=sep/> and that capitalists cannot go against the system.<ref name="Clark1998"/> The problem is the "cancerous cell" of [[Finance:Capital (economics)|capital]], understood not as property or equipment, but the relations between workers and owners&nbsp;– the economic system in general.<ref name="Clark1998"/>

At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to [[Finance:Crisis theory|periodic crises]].<ref name=wk/> He suggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in labour.<ref name=sep/> Since Marx believed that profit derived from surplus value appropriated from labour, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall as the economy grows.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/> Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth and collapse.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/> Moreover, he believed that in the long-term, this process would enrich and [[Social:Empowerment|empower]] the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/><ref name="Clark1998"/> In section one of ''The Communist Manifesto'', Marx describes [[Social:Feudalism|feudalism]], capitalism and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:
{{quote|We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged&nbsp;... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes&nbsp;... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.<ref name=manifesto/>}}

[[File:MandK Industrial Revolution 1900.jpg|thumb|Outside a factory in Oldham. Marx believed that industrial workers (the proletariat) would rise up around the world.]]

Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:
{{quote|The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.<ref name="manifesto"/>|sign=|source=}}

Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop [[Philosophy:Class consciousness|class consciousness]], in time realising that they can and must change the system.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/><ref name="Clark1998"/> Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23"/> Marx argued in ''The German Ideology'' that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class: {{quote|Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence.<ref name="Elster1985"/>|sign=|source=}}

In this new society, the alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/> It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.<ref name="Clark1998"/> In such a [[Philosophy:Utopia|utopia]]n world, there would also be little need for a state, whose goal was previously to enforce the alienation.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23"/> Marx theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, would exist a period of [[Social:Dictatorship of the proletariat|dictatorship of the proletariat]]&nbsp;– where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production.<ref name="Clark1998"/> As he wrote in his ''Critique of the Gotha Program'', "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat".<ref name="Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme"/> While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the United States and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries in which workers cannot "attain their goal by peaceful means" the "lever of our revolution must be force".<ref>"You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries – such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland – where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognise the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal to erect the rule of labour." [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/09/08.htm La Liberté Speech] delivered by Karl Marx on 8 September 1872, in Amsterdam</ref>

===International relations===
[[File:Karl Marx memorial.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|Karl Marx Monument in Chemnitz (known as ''Karl-Marx-Stadt'' from 1953 to 1990)]]
Marx viewed [[Place:Russian Empire|Russia]] as the main counter-revolutionary threat to European revolutions.<ref name="anderson">Kevin B. Anderson (2016). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TxCZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239 Marx at the Margins: On Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Non-Western Societies]''". University of Chicago Press. pp. 49–239. {{ISBN|0-226-34570-X}}</ref> During the Crimean War, Marx backed the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and its allies Britain and France against Russia.<ref name="anderson"/> He was absolutely opposed to [[Social:Pan-Slavism|Pan-Slavism]], viewing it as an instrument of Russian foreign policy.<ref name="anderson"/> Marx had considered the Slavic nations except Poles as 'counter-revolutionary'. Marx and Engels published in the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' in February 1849:

{{quote|To the sentimental phrases about brotherhood which we are being offered here on behalf of the most counter-revolutionary nations of Europe, we reply that hatred of Russians was and still is the primary revolutionary passion among Germans; that since the [[Social:Revolutions of 1848|revolution]] [of 1848] hatred of Czechs and Croats has been added, and that only by the most determined use of terror against these Slav peoples can we, jointly with the Poles and Magyars, safeguard the revolution. We know where the enemies of the revolution are concentrated, ''viz''. in Russia and the Slav regions of Austria, and no fine phrases, no allusions to an undefined democratic future for these countries can deter us from treating our enemies as enemies. Then there will be a struggle, an "inexorable life-and-death struggle", against those Slavs who betray the revolution; an annihilating fight and ruthless terror&nbsp;– not in the interests of Germany, but in the interests of the revolution!"<ref>Cited in: B. Hepner, "Marx et la puissance russe," in: K. Marx, ''La Russie et l'Europe'', Paris, 1954, p. 20. Originally published in ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'', no. 223, 16 February 1849.</ref>|sign=|source=}}

Marx and Engels sympathised with the [[Philosophy:Narodniks|Narodnik]] revolutionaries of the 1860s and 1870s. When the Russian revolutionaries assassinated Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Marx expressed the hope that the assassination foreshadowed 'the formation of a Russian commune'.<ref>Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to the Chairman of the Slavonic Meeting, 21 March 1881. Source: Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Selected Correspondence'' (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1975).</ref> Marx supported the Polish uprisings against tsarist Russia.<ref name="anderson"/> He said in a speech in London in 1867:

{{quote|In the first place the policy of Russia is changeless... Its methods, its tactics, its manoeuvres may change, but the polar star of its policy – world domination – is a fixed star. In our times only a civilised government ruling over barbarian masses can hatch out such a plan and execute it. ... There is but one alternative for Europe. Either Asiatic barbarism, under Muscovite direction, will burst around its head like an avalanche, or else it must re-establish Poland, thus putting twenty million heroes between itself and Asia and gaining a breathing spell for the accomplishment of its social regeneration.<ref>Speech delivered in London, probably to a meeting of the International's General Council and the Polish Workers Society on 22 January 1867, text published in ''Le Socialisme'', 15 March 1908; ''Odbudowa Polski'' (Warsaw, 1910), pp. 119–23; ''Mysl Socjalistyczna'', May 1908. From Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''The Russian Menace to Europe'', edited by Paul Blackstock and Bert Hoselitz, and published by George Allen and Unwin, London, 1953, pp. 104–08.</ref>|sign=|source=}}

[[File:India-7669 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|thumb|upright|CPI(M) mural in Kerala, {{wipe|India}}]]
Marx supported the cause of Irish independence<!--The quote shows he meant more than Home Rule. He also seemed to be confusing England and Great Britain.-->. In 1867, he wrote Engels: "I used to think the separation of Ireland from England impossible. I now think it inevitable. The English working class will never accomplish anything until it has got rid of Ireland. ... English reaction in England had its roots ... in the subjugation of Ireland."<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/01/archives/karl-marx-and-the-irish.html Karl Marx and the Irish]". ''The New York Times''. December 1971.</ref>

Marx spent some time in French Algeria, which had been invaded and made a [[Place:French colonial empire|French colony]] in 1830, and had opportunity to observe life in colonial North Africa. He wrote about the colonial justice system, in which "a form of torture has been used (and this happens 'regularly') to extract confessions from the Arabs; naturally it is done (like the English in India) by the 'police'; the judge is supposed to know nothing at all about it."<ref name="alahram"/> Marx was surprised by the arrogance of many European settlers in Algiers and wrote in a letter: "when a European colonist dwells among the 'lesser breeds,' either as a settler or even on business, he generally regards himself as even more inviolable than handsome William I [a Prussian king]. Still, when it comes to bare-faced arrogance and presumptuousness vis-à-vis the 'lesser breeds,' the British and Dutch outdo the French."<ref name="alahram"/>

According to the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': "Marx's analysis of colonialism as a progressive force bringing modernization to a backward feudal society sounds like a transparent rationalization for foreign domination. His account of British domination, however, reflects the same ambivalence that he shows towards capitalism in Europe. In both cases, Marx recognizes the immense suffering brought about during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both necessary and ultimately progressive. He argues that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a social revolution in India."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Colonialism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2017 }}</ref>

Marx discussed [[Place:British Empire|British]] [[History:British Raj|colonial rule]] in India in the ''New York Herald Tribune'' in June 1853:

{{quote|There cannot remain any doubt but that the misery inflicted by the British on Hindostan [India] is of an essentially different and infinitely more intensive kind than all Hindostan had to suffer before. England has broken down the entire framework of Indian society, without any symptoms of reconstitution yet appearing... [however], we must not forget that these idyllic village communities, inoffensive though they may appear, had always been the solid foundation of Oriental despotism, that they restrained the human mind within the smallest possible compass, making it the unresisting tool of superstition.<ref name="alahram">{{cite news |title=Marx in Algiers |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/24784.aspx |work=Al-Ahram}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Marx on India under the British |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-bookreview/marx-on-india-under-the-british/article3209143.ece |work=The Hindu |date=13 June 2006}}</ref>|sign=|source=}}

==Legacy==
{{main|Philosophy:Marxism}}

[[File:Marx und Engels Denkmal, alter Platz - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels Forum, Berlin-Mitte, Germany]]
Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought.<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24"/><ref name="Manchester"/><ref>Wheen, Francis (17 July 2005). [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,1530250,00.html "Why Marx is man of the moment"]. ''The Observer''.</ref><ref name="Allan2010"/> Followers of Marx have often debated among themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world.<ref name="AndersenKaspersen2000"/> The legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most accurate interpreter. In the political realm, these tendencies include [[Social:Leninism|Leninism]], [[Social:Marxism–Leninism|Marxism–Leninism]], [[Social:Trotskyism|Trotskyism]], [[Philosophy:Maoism|Maoism]], Luxemburgism and [[Social:Libertarian Marxism|libertarian Marxism]].<ref name="AndersenKaspersen2000"/> Various currents have also developed in academic Marxism, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.<ref name="AndersenKaspersen2000"/>

From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology. He has been cited as one of the 19th century's three masters of the "school of suspicion" alongside [[Biography:Friedrich Nietzsche|Friedrich Nietzsche]] and [[Biography:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]<ref>Ricoeur, Paul. ''Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32</ref> and as one of the three principal architects of modern [[Social:Social science|social science]] along with [[Biography:Émile Durkheim|Émile Durkheim]] and [[Biography:Max Weber|Max Weber]].<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the [[Scientific method|scientific method]].<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24"/> Both Marx and [[Biography:Auguste Comte|Auguste Comte]] set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the [[Philosophy:Philosophy of history|philosophies of history]] and science. Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean [[History:Sociological positivism|sociological positivism]] in an attempt to develop a ''science of society''.<ref name="Calhoun2002-19"/> [[Biography:Karl Löwith|Karl Löwith]] considered Marx and [[Biography:Søren Kierkegaard|Søren Kierkegaard]] to be the two greatest Hegelian philosophical successors.<ref>Löwith, Karl. ''From Hegel to Nietzsche''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991, p. 49.</ref> In modern [[Social:Sociological theory|sociological theory]], Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. [[Biography:Isaiah Berlin|Isaiah Berlin]] considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology "in so far as anyone can claim the title".<ref>Berlin, Isaiah. 1967. ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment''. Time Inc Book Division, New York. pp130</ref> Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts and the humanities.<ref name="Singer 1980. p. 1"/><ref>Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) ''Marxist Approaches in Anthropology'', ''Annual Review of Anthropology'' Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013}}.<br />William Roseberry (1997) ''Marx and Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Becker | first1 = S.L. | year = 1984 | title = Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience | journal = Critical Studies in Mass Communication | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 66–80 | doi=10.1080/15295038409360014}}</ref><ref>See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987) ''Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching'', Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>

[[File:Communist countries.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|left|Map of countries that declared themselves to be socialist states under the [[Social:Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] or Maoist definition between 1979 and 1983, which marked the greatest territorial extent of socialist states]]

Social theorists of the 20th and 21st centuries have pursued two main strategies in response to Marx. One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core, known as analytical Marxism. Another, more common, move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx's social theory and emphasise the "relative autonomy" of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx's central narrative of interaction between the development of the "forces of production" and the succession of "modes of production". Such has been for example the neo-Marxist theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx's social theory, such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists like [[Biography:Antonio Gramsci|Antonio Gramsci]] who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social theory.<ref>Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism : the Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown. Translated by P.S. Falla. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005.</ref><ref>Aron, Raymond. Main Currents in Sociological Thought. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1965.</ref><ref>Anderson, Perry. Considerations on Western Marxism. London: NLB, 1976.</ref><ref>Hobsbawm, E. J. How to Change the World : Marx and Marxism, 1840–2011 (London: Little, Brown, 2011), 314–44.</ref> Marx's ideas would also have a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history, with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film and theatre.<ref>Hemingway, Andrew. ''Marxism and the History of Art: From William Morris to the New Left.'' Pluto Press, 2006.</ref>

Politically, Marx's legacy is more complex. Throughout the 20th century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves "Marxist"{{mdash}}most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]].<ref name="April Thesis">{{cite web|last1=Lenin|first1=VI|title=The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/apr/04.htm|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Major world leaders including [[Biography:Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]],<ref name="April Thesis" /> [[Biography:Mao Zedong|Mao Zedong]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Glossary of People – Ma|url=https://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/m/a.htm|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Fidel Castro,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Savioli|first1=Arminio|title=L'Unita Interview with Fidel Castro: The Nature of Cuban Socialism|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1961/02/01.htm|publisher=Marxists|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Salvador Allende,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Allende|first1=Salvador|title=First speech to the Chilean parliament after his election|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/allende/1970/september/20.htm|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Josip Broz Tito,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tito|first1=Josef|title=Historical Development in the World Will Move Towards the Strengthening of Socialism|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/tito/1959/04/19.htm|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Kwame Nkrumah,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nkrumah|first1=Kwame|title=African Socialism Revisited|url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/1967/african-socialism-revisited.htm|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> Jawaharlal Nehru,<ref>"[http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/nehrus-economic-philosophy/article18589548.ece Nehru's economic philosophy ]". ''The Hindu.'' 27 May 2017.</ref> [[Biography:Nelson Mandela|Nelson Mandela]],<ref>"[https://www.thesouthafrican.com/nelson-mandelas-living-legacy-embracing-communism-and-the-defiance-campaign-1949-1952/ Nelson Mandela's Living Legacy | Preparing for Defiance 1949–1952]". ''The South African''. 6 November 2013.</ref> [[Biography:Xi Jinping|Xi Jinping]],<ref name="euronews">{{cite news|url=http://www.euronews.com/2018/05/04/juncker-opens-exhibition-to-karl-marx|last=Churm|first=Philip Andrew|title=Juncker opens exhibition to Karl Marx|work=Euronews|date=4 May 2018|access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref> Jean-Claude Juncker<ref name="euronews"/><ref name="independent">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/karl-marx-jean-claude-juncker-defends-legacy-a8337176.html|last=Stone|first=Jon|title='Today he stands for things which is he not responsible for': EU president Juncker defends Karl Marx's legacy|work=The Independent|date=4 May 2018|access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref> and [[Biography:Thomas Sankara|Thomas Sankara]]{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} have all cited Marx as an influence. Beyond where Marxist revolutions took place, Marx's ideas have informed political parties worldwide.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jeffries|first1=Stuart|title=Why Marxism is on the rise again|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/04/the-return-of-marxism|newspaper=The Guardian|accessdate=8 January 2015|date=4 July 2012}}</ref> In countries associated with some Marxist claims, some events have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Stanley|first1=Tim|title=The Left is trying to rehabilitate Karl Marx. Let's remind them of the millions who died in his name|url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/timstanley/100244023/the-left-is-trying-to-rehabilitate-karl-marx-lets-remind-them-of-the-millions-who-died-in-his-name/|website=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> but the fidelity of these varied revolutionaries, leaders and parties to Marx's work is highly contested and has been rejected by many Marxists.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Phillips|first1=Ben|title=USSR: Capitalist or Socialist?|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/cpml-ussr.htm|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref> It is now common to distinguish between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically and the legacy and influence of those who have shaped his ideas for political purposes.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Elbe|first1=Indigo|title=Between Marx, Marxism, and Marxisms – Ways of Reading Marx's Theory|url=https://viewpointmag.com/2013/10/21/between-marx-marxism-and-marxisms-ways-of-reading-marxs-theory/|work=Viewpoint Magazine|accessdate=8 January 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108194200/https://viewpointmag.com/2013/10/21/between-marx-marxism-and-marxisms-ways-of-reading-marxs-theory/|archivedate=8 January 2015|date=21 October 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Karl-Marx-Statue in Trier.jpg|thumb|upright|Karl Marx statue in Trier, Germany]]
[[File:Karl-marx-trier-label.jpg|thumb|upright|Karl Marx statue inscription]]
Marx remains both relevant and controversial.  In May 2018, to mark the bicentenary of his birth, a 4.5m statue of him by leading Chinese sculptor Wu Weishan and donated by the Chinese government was unveiled in his birthplace of Trier. European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker defended Marx's memory, saying that today Marx "stands for things which he is not responsible for and which he didn't cause because many of the things he wrote down were redrafted into the opposite".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44009621|title=Karl Marx statue from China adds to German angst|work=BBC News|date=5 May 2018|access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="independent"/>
In 2017 a feature film, ''The Young Karl Marx'', featuring Marx, his wife Jenny Marx, and his collaborator [[Biography:Friedrich Engels|Friedrich Engels]], among other revolutionaries and intellectuals prior to the [[Social:Revolutions of 1848|Revolutions of 1848]], received good reviews for both its historical accuracy and its brio in dealing with intellectual life.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/22/movies/the-young-karl-marx-review.html |title=Review: In 'The Young Karl Marx,' a Scruffy Specter Haunts Europe |last=Scott |first=A. O. |date=22 February 2018 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

==Selected bibliography==

* ''The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law'', 1842
* ''Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right'', 1843
* "On the Jewish Question", 1843
* "Notes on James Mill", 1844
* ''[[Philosophy:Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844|Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844]]'', 1844
* ''The Holy Family'', 1845
* "Theses on Feuerbach", 1845
* ''The German Ideology'', 1845
* ''[[Philosophy:The Poverty of Philosophy|The Poverty of Philosophy]]'', 1847
* "Wage Labour and Capital", 1847
* ''Manifesto of the Communist Party'', 1848
* ''The Class Struggles in France'', 1850
* ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon'', 1852
* ''[[Philosophy:Grundrisse|Grundrisse]]'', 1857
* ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', 1859
* ''Writings on the U.S. Civil War'', 1861
* ''[[Finance:Theories of Surplus Value|Theories of Surplus Value]]'', 3 volumes, 1862
* "Value, Price and Profit", 1865
* ''Capital'', Volume&nbsp;I (''Das Kapital''), 1867
* "The Civil War in France", 1871
* "Critique of the Gotha Program", 1875
* "Notes on Adolph Wagner", 1883
* ''Capital'', Volume&nbsp;II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
* ''Capital'', Volume&nbsp;III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Criticisms of Marxism
* Karl Marx House
* Karl Marx Monument
* Karl Marx in film
* [[Social:Marxian class theory|Marxian class theory]]
* [[Finance:Marxian economics|Marxian economics]]
* [[Organization:Marx Memorial Library|Marx Memorial Library]]
* [[Finance:Marx's method|Marx's method]]
* ''Marx Reloaded''
* Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx
* Political Economy
* [[Social:Pre-Marx socialists|Pre-Marx socialists]]
* Timeline of Karl Marx
* [[Biography:Giovanni Gentile|Giovanni Gentile]]
* [[Biography:Adam Smith|Adam Smith]]
* [[Astronomy:2807 Karl Marx|2807 Karl Marx]]

{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx">{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm|title=1883: The death of Karl Marx|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=21 December 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="Allan2010">{{cite book|author=Kenneth Allan|title=The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68|accessdate=25 March 2011|year=2010|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-7834-7|page=68}}</ref>

<ref name="AndersenKaspersen2000">{{cite book|author1=Heine Andersen|author2=Lars Bo Kaspersen|title=Classical and modern social theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PeGtsC2Hp4C&pg=PA123|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21288-1|pages=123–}}</ref>

<ref name="Balibar1995">{{cite book|author=Étienne Balibar|title=The philosophy of Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=1995|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-85984-951-4|page=56}}</ref>

<ref name="Bannerji2001">{{cite book|author=Himani Bannerji|title=Inventing subjects: studies in hegemony, patriarchy and colonialism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQqos58kEPwC&pg=PA27|accessdate=2 May 2011|year=2001|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-072-3|page=27}}</ref>

<ref name="Beilharz1992">{{cite book|author=Peter Beilharz|title=Labour's Utopias: Bolshevism, Fabianism and Social Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-415-09680-5|page=4}}</ref>

<ref name="Bottomore1991">{{cite book |author=T.B. Bottomore|title=A Dictionary of Marxist thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108|accessdate=5 March 2011|year=1991|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-18082-1|pages=108–}}</ref>

<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15">{{cite book |author1=Anthony Brewer|author2=Karl Marx|title=A guide to Marx's Capital|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=1984|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-25730-5|page=15}}</ref>

<ref name="CGP P1">{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |title=Critique of the Gotha Program |year=1875 |chapter=Part I |chapterurl=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm|title-link=Critique of the Gotha Program }}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-19">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|p=19}}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-20">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|p=20}}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-20-23">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|pp=120–23}}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-22">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|p=22}}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-23">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|p=23}}</ref>

<ref name="Calhoun2002-23-24">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}</ref>

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<ref name="Clark1998">{{cite book |author=Barry Stewart Clark|title=Political economy: a comparative approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3bJHvA1H-2kC&pg=PA57|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1998|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-275-96370-5|pages=57–59}}</ref>

<ref name="Curtis1997">{{cite book |author=Michael Curtis|title=Marxism: the inner dialogues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=1997|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-56000-945-0|page=291}}</ref>

<ref name="DL-Marx">Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In {{cite book |author=Karl Marx|title=The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6|accessdate=9 March 2011|publisher=Resistance Books|isbn=978-1-876646-19-6|page=6}}</ref><ref name="Dispatches">{{Cite book  | last = Karl  | first = Marx  | editor = James Ledbetter  | title = Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx  | publisher=Penguin Books  | year = 2007  | isbn = 978-0-14-144192-4}}</ref>

<ref name="DusselMoseley2001">{{cite book |author1=Enrique D. Dussel|author2=Fred Moseley|title=Towards an unknown Marx: a commentary on the manuscripts of 1861–63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ld9fM0DOYQC&pg=PR33|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-21545-9|pages=33–}}</ref>

<ref name="Elster1985">{{cite book |author=Jon Elster|title=Making sense of Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217|accessdate=23 April 2011|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29705-9|page=217}}</ref>

<ref name="Engels1999">Doug Lorimer, in {{cite book |author=Friedrich Engels|title=Socialism: utopian and scientific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1999|publisher=Resistance Books|isbn=978-0-909196-86-8|pages=34–36}}</ref>

<ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975">{{cite book |author1=Richard T. De George|author2=James Patrick Scanlan|title=Marxism and religion in Eastern Europe: papers presented at the Banff International Slavic Conference, September&nbsp;4–7, 1974|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20|accessdate=16 March 2011|year=1975|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-277-0636-2|page=20}}</ref>

<ref name="Gilbert2010">{{cite book |author=Dennis Gilbert|title=The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6|accessdate=8 March 2011|year= 2010|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-7965-8|pages=6–}}</ref>

<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007">{{cite book |author1=Stephen Jay Gould|author2=Paul McGarr|author3=Steven Peter Russell Rose|title=The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould|url=https://archive.org/details/richnessoflifees0000goul|url-access=registration|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2007|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-06498-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/richnessoflifees0000goul/page/167 167]–68}}</ref>

<ref name="Harriss2006">{{cite book |author=Phil Harriss|title=London Markets, 4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20|accessdate=23 April 2011|year=2006|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-86011-306-2|page=20}}</ref>

<ref name="Hernadi1989">{{cite book |author=Paul Hernadi|title=The Rhetoric of interpretation and the interpretation of rhetoric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=1989|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-0934-5|page=137}}</ref>

<ref name="Hook1994">{{cite book |author=Sidney Hook|title=From Hegel to Marx: studies in the intellectual development of Karl Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24|accessdate=16 March 2011|year=1994|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-09665-2|pages=24–25}}</ref>

<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526">{{cite book |author1=Bob Jessop|author2=Russell Wheatley|title=Karl Marx's social and political thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=1999|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|isbn=978-0-415-19327-6|page=526}}</ref>

<ref name="Johnston2000">{{cite book |author=Ronald John Johnston|title=The dictionary of human geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=PA795%7Caccessdate%3D16+March+2011%7Cyear%3D2000%7Cpublisher%3DWiley-Blackwell%7Cisbn%3D978-0-631-20561-6%7Cpages%3D795%E2%80%93%7D%7D%3C%2Fref%3E|accessdate=16 March 2011|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-20561-6|page=795}}</ref>

<ref name="Karl Marx">{{cite book |author=Francis Wheen|title=Karl Marx|publisher=W.W. Norton and Company|year=2000|page=173}}</ref>

<ref name="Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme">{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm|title=Critique of the Gotha Programme-- IV|website=marxists.org}}</ref>

<ref name="MaltsevN.-93">{{cite book |author1=Maltsev|author2=Yuri N.|title=Requiem for Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93|accessdate=9 March 2011|publisher=Ludwig von Mises Institute|isbn=978-1-61016-116-9|pages=93–94|year=1993}}</ref>

<ref name="Manchester">{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm|title=Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker' |publisher=BBC News World Online |date=1 October 1999 | accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Marx2008">{{cite book |author=Karl Marx|title=The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2008|publisher=Wildside Press LLC|isbn=978-1-4344-6374-6|page=141}}</ref>

<ref name="MarxO'Malley1977">{{cite book |author1=Karl Marx|author2=Joseph O'Malley|title=Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of right'|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131|accessdate=23 April 2011|year=1977|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-29211-5|page=131}}</ref>

<ref name="Mehring2003">{{cite book |author=Franz Mehring|title=Karl Marx: The Story of His Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-31333-9|pages=19–20}}</ref>

<ref name="Mészáros2006">{{cite book |author=István Mészáros|title=Marx's Theory of Alienation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lckAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=2006|publisher=Merlin Press|isbn=978-0-85036-554-2|page=96}}</ref>

<ref name="Nicolaievsky2007">{{cite book |author=Boris Nicolaievsky|title=Karl Marx – Man and Fighter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2007|publisher=Read Books|isbn=978-1-4067-2703-6|pages=192–}}</ref>

<ref name="Nicolaievsky2007-267">{{cite book |author=Boris Nicolaievsky|title=Karl Marx – Man and Fighter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2007|publisher=Read Books|isbn=978-1-4067-2703-6|pages=269–}}</ref>

<ref name="Ollman1973">{{cite book |author=Bertell Ollman|title=Alienation: Marx's conception of man in capitalist society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=1973|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-1-001-33135-5|page=81}}</ref>

<ref name="ReferenceA">Wheen 2001. pp. 126–27.</ref>

<ref name="ReferenceB">Wheen 2001. pp. 136–37.</ref>

<ref name="Rockmore2002">{{cite book |author=Tom Rockmore|title=Marx after Marxism: the philosophy of Karl Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-631-23189-9|page=128}}</ref>

<ref name="Segrest2002">{{cite book |author=Mab Segrest|title=Born to belonging: writings on spirit and justice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3101-4|page=232}}</ref>

<ref name="Sherman1995">{{cite book |author=Howard J. Sherman|title=Reinventing marxism|url=https://archive.org/details/reinventingmarxi0000sher|url-access=registration|accessdate=7 March 2011|year=1995|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5077-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/reinventingmarxi0000sher/page/5 5]}}</ref>

<ref name="Singer 1980. p. 1">{{Harvnb|Singer|1980|p=1}}</ref>

<ref name="Splichal2002">{{cite book |author=Slavko Splichal|title=Principles of publicity and press freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8fO_b0lxDAC&pg=PA115|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-1615-1|page=115}}</ref>

<ref name="SwatosKivisto1998">{{cite book |author1=William H. Swatos|author2=Peter Kivisto|title=Encyclopedia of religion and society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=1998|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1|pages=499–}}</ref>

<ref name="Thompson1990">{{cite book |author=John B. Thompson|title=Ideology and modern culture: critical social theory in the era of mass communication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37|accessdate=8 March 2011|year=1990|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1846-2|pages=37–38}}</ref>

<ref name="Turner2005">{{cite book |author=Jonathan H. Turner|title=Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ|accessdate=9 March 2011|year= 2005|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-113496-6|pages=17–18}}</ref>

<ref name="Watson2010">{{cite book |author=Peter Watson|title=The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250|accessdate=9 March 2011|year=2010|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-076022-9|pages=250–}}</ref>

<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 125">Wheen 2001. p. 125.</ref>

<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 152">Wheen 2001. p. 152.</ref>

<ref name="Wheen 2001. p. 90">Wheen 2001. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C&pg=PA90 p. 90].</ref>

<ref name="Wood">{{cite book |author=John Cunningham Wood| title=Karl Marx's economics : critical assessments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346|accessdate=16 March 2011|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-06558-0|page=346|year=1987}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood1993">{{cite book |author=John Cunningham Wood|title=Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments : second series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232|accessdate=16 March 2011|year=1993|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-08711-7|page=232}}</ref>

<ref name="egsbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=Egs.edu |accessdate=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archivedate=1 September 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="et">Several authors elucidated this long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in ''The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx'', New York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account see [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html Max Stirner, a durable dissident]</ref>

<ref name="k72">Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 72.</ref>

<ref name="manifesto">Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm ''The Communist Manifesto'']</ref>

<ref name="plato.stanford.edu">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/|title=Max Weber – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy|chapter=Max Weber|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2017}}</ref>

<ref name="sep">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/|title=Karl Marx – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy|chapter=Karl Marx|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2017}}. First published Tue 26 August 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011.</ref>

<ref name="stateless">McLellan 1973, p.541</ref>

<ref name="wh1">{{Cite book | last = Wheen | first = Francis |  title = Karl Marx: A Life | publisher=New York: Norton |year=2002 | pages = Introduction | nopp = true }}</ref>

<ref name="wk">{{Cite book | last = Baird | first = Forrest E. | author2=Walter Kaufmann | title = From Plato to Derrida | publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2008 | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey| url = | isbn = 978-0-13-158591-1 }}</ref>
}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
: {{Cite book |title=Classical Sociological Theory |last=Calhoun |first=Craig J. |year= 2002 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-631-21348-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C|ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=How to Change the World: Tales of Marx and Marxism |last=Hobsbawm |first=Eric |year= 2011 |publisher=Little, Brown |location= London |isbn=978-1-4087-0287-1 |ref=Hob11}}
: {{Cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Biography ''(fourth edition)''|last=McLellan |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |location=Hampshire |isbn=978-1-4039-9730-2 |ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=Karl Marx: Man and Fighter |last1=Nicolaievsky |first1=Boris |last2=Maenchen-Helfen |first2=Otto |year=1976 |origyear=1936 |publisher=Pelican |location=Harmondsworth and New York |isbn=978-1-4067-2703-6|others=trans. Gwenda David and Eric Mosbacher| ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=The Red Prussian: Life and Legend of Karl Marx|last1=Schwarzschild |first1=Leopold |year=1986 |origyear=1948 |publisher=Pickwick Books Ltd |isbn=978-0-948859-00-7 }}
: {{Cite book |title=Marx |last=Singer |first=Peter |year= 1980 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-287510-5 |ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life |last=Sperber |first=Jonathan |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |location= |isbn=978-0-87140-467-1 |ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |last1=Stedman Jones|first1=Gareth|title=Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion|date=2016|publisher=Allen Lane|location=London|isbn=978-0-7139-9904-4}}
: {{Cite book |title=Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers |last=Stokes |first=Philip |year=2004 |publisher=Index Books |location= Kettering |isbn=978-0-572-02935-7 |ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=The Story of a Great Discovery: How Karl Marx wrote "Capital" |last=Vygodsky |first=Vitaly |year= 1973 |publisher=Verlag Die Wirtschaft |isbn= |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygodsky/1965/discovery.htm |ref=harv}}
: {{Cite book |title=Karl Marx |last=Wheen |first=Francis |year=2001 |publisher=Fourth Estate |location= London |isbn=978-1-85702-637-5 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}

===Biographies===
* Barnett, Vincent. ''Marx'' (Routledge, 2009)
* [[Biography:Isaiah Berlin|Berlin, Isaiah]]. ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' (Oxford University Press, 1963) {{ISBN|0-19-520052-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Blumenberg|first=Werner|others=trans. Douglas Scott|title=Karl Marx: An Illustrated Biography|publisher=Verso|location=London; New York|year=2000|isbn=978-1-85984-254-6}}
* Gemkow, Heinrich. ''Karl Marx: A Biography''. Dresden: Verlag Zeit im Bild. 1968.
* {{cite book|last=Heinrich|first=Michael|title=Karl Marx and the Birth of Modern Society: the Life of Marx and the Development of His Work. Volume I: 1818–1841|location=New York|publisher=Monthly Review P.|year=2019|isbn=978-1-58367-735-3}}
* {{cite ODNB|id=39021|title=Marx, Karl Heinrich|year=2004|last=Hobsbawm|first=E.J.|ref=no}}
* {{Cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |year= 1967| origyear=1913|publisher=Foreign Languages Press |location= Peking |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm}}
* Liedman, Sven-Eric. ''A World to Win: The Life and Works of Karl Marx.'' [2015] Jeffrey N. Skinner, trans. London: Verso, 2018.
* McLellan, David. ''Karl Marx: his Life and Thought'' Harper & Row, 1973 {{ISBN|978-0-06-012829-6}}
* Mehring, Franz. ''Karl Marx: The Story of His Life'' (Routledge, 2003)
* McLellan, David. ''Marx before Marxism'' (1980), Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-333-27882-6}}
* [[Biography:Maximilien Rubel|Rubel, Maximilien]]. ''Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work'' (Blackwell, 1975) {{ISBN|0-631-15780-8}}
* Segrillo, Angelo. ''Two Centuries of Karl Marx Biographies: An Overview'' (LEA Working Paper Series, nº 4, March 2019).
* Sperber, Jonathan. ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2013.
* Stedman Jones, Gareth. ''Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion'' (Allen Lane, 2016). {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9904-4}}.
* Walker, Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography''. (bj.publications), 2009.
* Wheen, Francis. ''Karl Marx: A Life'', (Fourth Estate, 1999), {{ISBN|1-85702-637-3}}

===Commentaries on Marx===
* Althusser, Louis. ''[[Philosophy:For Marx|For Marx]]''. London: Verso, 2005.
* Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. ''Reading Capital''. London: Verso, 2009.
* Attali, Jacques. ''Karl Marx or the thought of the world''. 2005
* Avineri, Shlomo. ''The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx'' (Cambridge University Press, 1968) {{ISBN|0-521-09619-7}}
* Axelos, Kostas. ''Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx'' (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
* Blackledge, Paul. ''Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History'' (Manchester University Press, 2006)
* Blackledge, Paul. ''Marxism and Ethics'' (SUNY Press, 2012)
* Bottomore, Tom, ed. ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
* {{Cite book |title= The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx |last=Callinicos |first=Alex |year= 2010 |origyear=1983 |publisher=Bookmarks |location=Bloomsbury, London |isbn=978-1-905192-68-7 }}
* [[Biography:Harry Cleaver|Cleaver, Harry]]. ''Reading Capital Politically'' (AK Press, 2000)
* [[Biography:Gerald Cohen|G.A. Cohen]]. ''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'' (Princeton University Press, 1978) {{ISBN|0-691-07068-7}}
* Collier, Andrew. ''Marx'' (Oneworld, 2004)
* [[Biography:Hal Draper|Draper, Hal]], ''Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution'' (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press
* Duncan, Ronald and [[Biography:Colin Wilson|Wilson, Colin]]. (editors) ''Marx Refuted'', (Bath, UK, 1987) {{ISBN|0-906798-71-X}}
* Eagleton, Terry.  ''Why Marx Was Right''  (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011).
* Fine, Ben. ''Marx's Capital.'' 5th ed. London: Pluto, 2010.
* [[Biography:John Bellamy Foster|Foster, John Bellamy]]. ''Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.
* [[Biography:Stephen Jay Gould|Gould, Stephen Jay]]. ''A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester'', p. 1, Find Articles.com{{cbignore}} (1999)
* [[Biography:David Harvey|Harvey, David]]. ''A Companion to Marx's Capital.'' London: Verso, 2010.
* Harvey, David. ''The Limits of Capital''. London: Verso, 2006.
{{Clear}}
* [[Biography:Michel Henry|Henry, Michel]]. ''Marx I'' and ''Marx II''. 1976
* Holt, Justin P. ''The Social Thought of Karl Marx''. Sage, 2015.
* Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
* [[Biography:Leszek Kołakowski|Kołakowski, Leszek]]. ''Main Currents of Marxism'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
* Little, Daniel. ''The Scientific Marx'', (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) {{ISBN|0-8166-1505-5}}
* [[Biography:Ernest Mandel|Mandel, Ernest]]. ''Marxist Economic Theory''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
* Mandel, Ernest. ''The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.
* Mészáros, István. ''Marx's Theory of Alienation'' (The Merlin Press, 1970)
* Miller, Richard W. ''Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History''. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984.
* Postone, Moishe. ''Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory.'' Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
* [[Biography:Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]. ''An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume&nbsp;II: Classical Economics'' (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) {{ISBN|0-945466-48-X}}
* Saad-Filho, Alfredo. ''The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism''. London: Routledge, 2002.
* Schmidt, Alfred. ''The Concept of Nature in Marx''. London: NLB, 1971.
* {{cite journal|last=Seigel|first=J.E.|title=Marx's Early Development: Vocation, Rebellion and Realism|journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History|volume=3|issue=3|year=1973|pages=475–508|jstor=202551|doi=10.2307/202551}}
* Seigel, Jerrold. ''Marx's fate: the shape of a life'' (Princeton University Press, 1978) {{ISBN|0-271-00935-7}}
* Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
* Thomas, Paul. ''Karl Marx and the Anarchists''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
* [[Biography:Kozo Uno|Uno, Kozo]]. ''Principles of Political Economy. Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society'', Brighton, Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980.
* [[Biography:Fernando Vianello|Vianello]], F. [1989], "Effective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx, [[Biography:Michał Kalecki|Kalecki]] and [[Biography:Piero Sraffa|Sraffa]]", in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), ''Kalecki's Relevance Today'', London, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-312-02411-6}}.
* Wendling, Amy. ''Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
* Wheen, Francis. ''Marx's Das Kapital'', (Atlantic Books, 2006) {{ISBN|1-84354-400-8}}
* Wilson, Edmund. ''[[Social:To the Finland Station|To the Finland Station]]: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940

===Fiction works===
* [[Biography:Jason Barker|Barker, Jason]]. ''Marx Returns'', Winchester, UK: Zero Books, 2018, {{ISBN|978-1-78535-660-5}}.

===Medical articles===
* {{cite journal|last=Shuster|first=Sam|title=The nature and consequence of Karl Marx's skin disease|journal=British Journal of Dermatology|volume=158|issue=1|pages=071106220718011––|date=January 2008|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08282.x|pmid=17986303}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Gutenberg author|id=Marx,+Karl|name=Karl Marx}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Karl Marx}}
* {{Librivox author|id=2426}}
* {{Britannica|367265}}
* {{cite SEP|url-id=marx|title=Karl Marx}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/selectedcorrespondencemarxengels|title=Selected Correspondence|author=Marx and Engels|location=Moscow|publisher=Progress Publishers|edition=third revised|year=1982}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/KarlMarxABiography|title=Karl Marx: a Biography|author=Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|location=Moscow|publisher=Progress Publishers|edition=4|year=1989}}
* {{cite book|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1881/ethnographical-notebooks/notebooks.pdf|title=The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx|editor-last=Krader|editor-first=Lawrence|location=Assen|publisher=Van Gorcum|edition=2|year=1974}}
* Archive of [https://search.socialhistory.org/Record/ARCH00860 Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels Papers] at the International Institute of Social History
* The ''Collected Works'' of Marx and Engels, in English translation and in 50 volumes, are published in London by Lawrence & Wishart and in New York by International Publishers. (These volumes were at one time put online by the Marxists Internet Archive, until the original publishers objected on copyright grounds: {{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/index.htm|title=Marx/Engels Collected Works|website=Marxists Internet Archive|accessdate=3 March 2018}}) They are available online and searchable, for purchase or through subscribing libraries, in the "[https://alexanderstreet.com/products/social-theory Social Theory]" collection published by [https://alexanderstreet-com.simsrad.net.ocs.mq.edu.au/page/history-imprints Alexander Street Press] in collaboration with the [[Organization:University of Chicago|University of Chicago]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9jg Marx], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anthony Grayling, Francis Wheen & Gareth Stedman Jones (''In Our Time'', 14 July 2005)
* [http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/das-kapital-book-review#.XtAB0mhKizk The 1887 NY <i>Times</i> review of <i>Das Kapital</i>]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/011971}}

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