View source for Biography:Marie Curie

{{Short description|Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)}}
{{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Marie Skłodowska-Curie
| native_name       = 
| image             = Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg
| alt               = 
| caption           = Curie, {{circa|1920}}
| birth_name        = Maria Salomea Skłodowska
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1867|11|7|df=y}}
| birth_place       = [[Place:Warsaw|Warsaw]], [[History:Congress Poland|Congress Poland]], [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]]<ref name="nobelprize" />
| death_date        = {{death date and age|df=yes|1934|7|4|1867|11|7}}
| death_place       = Passy, Haute-Savoie, France
| death_cause       = [[Medicine:Aplastic anemia|Aplastic anemia]]<ref>[https://nationalstemcellfoundation.org/glossary/aplastic-anemia/#:~:text=Marie%20Curie%2C%20famous%20for%20her,radiation%20were%20not%20then%20known Marie Curie profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527215049/https://nationalstemcellfoundation.org/glossary/aplastic-anemia/#:~:text=Marie%20Curie%2C%20famous%20for%20her,radiation%20were%20not%20then%20known |date=27 May 2022 }}, National Stem Cell Foundation. Accessed 16 July 2022.</ref>
| citizenship       = {{ubl|Poland (by birth)|France (by marriage)}}
| alma_mater        = {{ubl|University of Paris|ESPCI<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espci.fr/en/espci-paris/prestige-82/|title=ESPCI Paris : Prestige|website=www.espci.fr|access-date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926100024/https://www.espci.fr/en/espci-paris/prestige-82/|archive-date=26 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
| thesis_title      = {{lang|fr|Recherches sur les substances radioactives|italic=unset|nocat=y}} (Research on Radioactive Substances)
| thesis_url        = http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1013413307
| thesis_year       = 1903
| doctoral_advisor  = [[Biography:Gabriel Lippmann|Gabriel Lippmann]]
| doctoral_students = {{hlist|[[Biography:André-Louis Debierne|André-Louis Debierne]]|[[Biography:Gioacchino Failla|Gioacchino Failla]]|[[Biography:Ladislas Goldstein|Ladislas Goldstein]]|Émile Henriot|[[Biography:Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène Joliot-Curie]]|Óscar Moreno|[[Biography:Marguerite Perey|Marguerite Perey]]|[[Biography:Francis Perrin (physicist)|Francis Perrin]]}}
| known_for         = {{ubl|Pioneering research on radioactivity|Discovering [[Chemistry:Polonium|polonium]] and [[Chemistry:Radium|radium]]}}
| awards            = {{ubl|Nobel Prize in Physics (1903)|Davy Medal (1903)|[[Physics:Matteucci Medal|Matteucci Medal]] (1904)|Actonian Prize (1907)|Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)|Albert Medal (1910)|Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)|Willard Gibbs Award (1921)|John Scott Medal (1921)|Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh (1931)}}
| signature         = Marie Curie Skłodowska Signature Polish.svg
| footnotes         = She is the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two sciences.
| spouse            = {{marriage|[[Biography:Pierre Curie|Pierre Curie]]|1895|1906|end=died}}
| children          = {{hlist|[[Biography:Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]]|Ève}}
| field             = {{hlist|[[Physics:Physics|Physics]]|[[Chemistry:Chemistry|chemistry]]}}
| work_institutions = {{Tree list}}
* [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]]
** Institut du Radium
* {{Lang|fr|École Normale Supérieure|italic=no}}
* French Academy of Medicine
* [[Organization:International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation|International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
[[File:Warszawa, ul. Freta 16 20170516 002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.18|Birthplace of Marie Curie, at 16 Freta Street, in Warsaw, {{wipe|Poland}}.]]

'''Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie''' ({{IPA-pl|ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska kʲiˈri|lang|Pl-Maria Skłodowska-Curie.ogg}}; {{née|'''Skłodowska'''}}; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as '''Marie Curie''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|j|ʊər|i}} {{respell|KURE|ee}},<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|editor1-last=Roach|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=Setter|editor2-first=Jane|editor2-link=Jane Setter|editor3-last=Esling|editor3-first=John|year=2011|title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition=18th|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15253-2|title-link=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary}}</ref> {{IPA-fr|maʁi kyʁi|lang}}), was a Polish and naturalised-French<!--Note: Per 1 November 2013 talk-page Request for Comment consensus, please do not change the nationality description without consulting the discussion page. This formulation ("Polish and naturalized-French") has been found to be the best way to reflect Curie's connections to both of these countries.--> [[Physicist|physicist]] and [[Chemist|chemist]] who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her husband, [[Biography:Pierre Curie|Pierre Curie]], was a co-winner of her first Nobel Prize, making them the first-ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]].<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion" />

She was born in [[Place:Warsaw|Warsaw]], in what was then the [[History:Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], part of the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]]. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. In 1895 she married the French physicist [[Biography:Pierre Curie|Pierre Curie]], and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist [[Biography:Henri Becquerel|Henri Becquerel]] for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html|title = The Discovery of Radioactivity|website = Berkeley Lab|quote = The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie&nbsp;...|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151101075508/http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html|archive-date = 1 November 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/nobelprize_info/curie-edu.html|title = Marie Curie and the radioactivity, The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics|website = nobelprize.org|quote = Marie called this radiation radioactivity—'radio' means radiation.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730115737/https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/nobelprize_info/curie-edu.html|archive-date=30 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1906 Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements [[Chemistry:Polonium|polonium]] and [[Chemistry:Radium|radium]], using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive [[Physics:Isotope|isotope]]s. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of [[Medicine:Neoplasm|neoplasm]]s by the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Paris in 1920, and the Curie Institute in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres. During [[Social:World War I|World War I]] she developed mobile radiography units to provide [[Physics:X-ray|X-ray]] services to field hospitals.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,<ref>See her signature, "M. Skłodowska Curie", in the infobox.</ref><ref>Her 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was granted to "Marie Sklodowska Curie" [[:File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg]].</ref> never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.<ref name="goldsmith" /> She named the first [[Chemistry:Chemical element|chemical element]] she discovered ''[[Chemistry:Polonium|polonium]]'', after her native country.{{efn|Poland had been partitioned in the 18th century among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and it was Maria Skłodowska Curie's hope that naming the element after her native country would bring world attention to Poland's lack of independence as a sovereign state. [[Chemistry:Polonium|Polonium]] may have been the first chemical element named to highlight a political question.<ref name="independence" />}} Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the {{lang|fr|Sancellemoz|italic=no}} sanatorium in Passy ({{lang|fr|Haute-Savoie|italic=no}}), France, of [[Medicine:Aplastic anemia|aplastic anemia]] likely from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during [[Social:World War I|World War I]].<ref>{{YouTube|Zz7Q-zZ4onc|"The Genius of Marie Curie: The Woman Who Lit Up the World"}} (a 2013 BBC documentary)</ref> In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Paris {{lang|fr|Panthéon|italic=no}},<ref name="nytimes" /> and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographical works.

== Life and career ==
=== Early years ===
[[File:Sklodowski Family Wladyslaw and his daughters Maria Bronislawa Helena.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Władysław Skłodowski and daughters (from left) Maria, Bronisława, and Helena, 1890]]
Maria Skłodowska was born in [[Place:Warsaw|Warsaw]], in [[History:Congress Poland|Congress Poland]] in the [[Place:Russian Empire|Russian Empire]], on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, ''née'' Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.<ref name="psb111" /> The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed ''Mania'') were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed ''Zosia''), {{ill|Józef Skłodowski|pl|Józef Skłodowski (lekarz)|lt=Józef}} (born 1863, nicknamed ''Józio''), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed ''Bronia'') and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed ''Hela'').<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Age of Radiance: The Epic Rise and Dramatic Fall of the Atomic Era|last=Nelson|first=Craig|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4516-6045-6|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTcGAQAAQBAJ&q=bronislawa%20bronya&pg=PA18|access-date=24 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423082643/https://books.google.com/books?id=vTcGAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA18&dq=bronislawa%20bronya&pg=PA18|archive-date=23 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65).<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> Maria's paternal grandfather, {{ill|Józef Skłodowski (1804–1882)|pl|Józef Skłodowski|lt=Józef Skłodowski}}<!---Józef Skłodowski links to her brother, not her grandfather--->, had been principal of the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus,<ref>Monika Piątkowska, ''Prus:  Śledztwo biograficzne'' (Prus:  A Biographical Investigation), Kraków, Wydawnictwo Znak, 2017, {{ISBN|978-83-240-4543-3}}, pp. 49–50.</ref> who became a leading figure in Polish literature.<ref name="undoubtedly" />

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw ''gymnasia'' (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> She died of [[Medicine:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]] in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of [[Medicine:Typhus|typhus]] contracted from a boarder.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Maria's father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic.<ref name="Barker2011" /> The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.<ref name="Marie Curie" />
[[File:Maria Sklodowska et sa sœur Bronislawa en 1886.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Maria (left) and sister Bronisława, {{circa|1886}}]]
When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a ''gymnasium'' for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.<ref name="psb111" /> After a collapse, possibly due to depression,<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.<ref name="psb111" /> Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as ''Floating University''), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" />
[[File:Krakowskie Przedmiescie, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|upright|''Krakowskie Przedmiescie'' 66, Warsaw, where Maria did her first scientific work, 1890–91]]
Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> In connection with this, Maria took a position first as a home tutor in Warsaw, then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and [[Social:Rector (academia)|rector]] of [[Organization:Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]]. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute, which she had founded in 1932.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /><ref name="robert2" />

At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds.<ref name="psb111" /> She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> All that time she continued to [[Social:Autodidacticism|educate herself]], reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw.<ref name="psb111" /> She continued working as a governess and remained there until late 1891.<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemistry laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at ''Krakowskie Przedmieście'' 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /> The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist [[Biography:Dmitri Mendeleev|Dmitri Mendeleyev]].<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1" /><ref name="teachers" />

=== Life in Paris ===
In late 1891, she left Poland for France.<ref name="psb112" /> In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]], where she enrolled in late 1891.<ref name="robert3" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had. She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of [[Biography:Gabriel Lippmann|Gabriel Lippmann]]. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" />{{efn|Sources vary concerning the field of her second degree. Tadeusz Estreicher, in the 1938 ''Polski słownik biograficzny'' entry, writes that, while many sources state she earned a degree in mathematics, this is incorrect, and that her second degree was in chemistry.<ref name="psb111" />}}

Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> That same year, [[Biography:Pierre Curie|Pierre Curie]] entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.<ref name="Williams331" /> Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).<ref name="psb111" /> They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" />
[[File:Pierre Curie et Marie Sklodowska Curie 1895.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Pierre Curie and Marie Skłodowska-Curie, 1895]]
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French.<ref name="psb111" /> Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at [[Organization:Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]] because of sexism in academia.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a PhD.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on [[Physics:Magnetism|magnetism]] and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" />

On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://janinetissot.fdaf.org/jt_curie_marie.htm|title=Marie Curie|author=les Actus DN|access-date=24 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102102143/http://janinetissot.fdaf.org/jt_curie_marie.htm|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> neither wanted a religious service.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit.<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris" /> They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" />

=== New elements ===
[[File:Pierre and Marie Curie.jpg|thumb|Pierre and Marie Curie in the laboratory, {{circa}} 1904]]
In 1895, [[Biography:Wilhelm Röntgen|Wilhelm Röntgen]] discovered the existence of [[Physics:X-ray|X-ray]]s, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> In 1896, [[Biography:Henri Becquerel|Henri Becquerel]] discovered that [[Chemistry:Uranium|uranium]] salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike [[Physics:Phosphorescence|phosphorescence]], did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" />

She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the [[Physics:Electrometer|electrometer]], a sensitive device for measuring electric charge.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> She [[Hypothesis|hypothesized]] that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of [[Physics:Molecule|molecule]]s but must come from the [[Physics:Atom|atom]] itself.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /><ref name="robert4" />

In 1897, her daughter [[Biography:Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]] was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the {{Lang|fr|École Normale Supérieure|italic=no}}.<ref name="psb112" /> The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI.<ref name="psb112" /> The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /> They were unaware of the deleterious effects of [[Physics:Radioactive contamination|radiation exposure]] attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris 2" />

Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and [[Chemistry:Torbernite|torbernite]] (also known as chalcolite).<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /> Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /><ref name="robert5" /> She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element [[Chemistry:Thorium|thorium]] was also radioactive.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity" /> Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" />

{{blockquote|The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already at this early stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved.<ref name="robert6" />}}
[[File:Marie Pierre Irene Curie.jpg|thumb|Pierre, Irène, and Marie Curie, ca. 1902]]
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her [[Scientific priority|priority]]. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the ''Académie des Sciences'' the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the ''Académie'' on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, [[Biography:Gabriel Lippmann|Gabriel Lippmann]].<ref name="robert7" /> Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65" />

At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible."<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65" /> On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore.<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65" />

In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named "[[Chemistry:Polonium|polonium]]", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires ([[Place:Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Place:Austrian Empire|Austrian]], and [[Place:German Empire|Prussian]]).<ref name="psb111" /> On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "[[Chemistry:Radium|radium]]", from the [[Social:Latin|Latin]] word for "ray".<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /><ref name="The Discovery of Radioactivity" /> In the course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".<ref name="psb111" />

[[File:Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934), c. 1903 (4405627519).jpg|thumb|Pierre and Marie Curie, {{circa}}{{nbsp}}1903]]
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /> Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element [[Chemistry:Bismuth|bismuth]], and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /> Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to [[Chemistry:Barium|barium]], and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.<ref name="williams" /> The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential [[Physics:Crystallization|crystallization]]. From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of [[Chemistry:Radium chloride|radium chloride]] was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /><ref name="Williams332" /> She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a [[Physics:Half-life|half-life]] of only 138 days.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" />

Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to [[Chemistry:Radium|radium]], diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.<ref>"Marie Sklodowska Curie", ''Encyclopedia of World Biography'', 2nd ed., vol. 4, Detroit, Gale, 2004, pp. 339–41. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June 2013.</ref>

In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3" /><ref name="Quinn1996" /> In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.<ref name="psb112" />

In June 1903, supervised by [[Biography:Gabriel Lippmann|Gabriel Lippmann]], Curie was awarded her doctorate from the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]].<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times" /> That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis" /> Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3" /> The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3" />

=== Nobel Prizes ===
[[File:Marie Curie 1903.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Polnische Frauen, Polnische Frau, Polish women, Polish Woman|1903 Nobel Prize portrait]]
[[File:Nobel Pierre et Marie Curie 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|1903 Nobel Prize diploma]]
[[File:Mme P Curie P1300452 corrected2.jpg|thumb|right|Marie Curie's business card as professor at the Faculty of Sciences]]
In December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the [[Physics:Ionizing radiation|radiation]] phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."<ref name="psb112" /> At first the committee had intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.<ref name="psb112" />

Curie and her husband declined to go to [[Place:Stockholm|Stockholm]] to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis" /><ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the [[Organization:University of Geneva|University of Geneva]], which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3" /><ref name="Quinn1996" /> Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" />

[[File:Pierre and Marie Curie Vanity Fair 1904-12-22.jpg|thumb|upright|Caricature of Marie and Pierre Curie, captioned "Radium", in the London magazine ''Vanity Fair'', December 1904]]
In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.<ref name="goldsmith" />

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name=obit /> Curie was devastated by her husband's death.<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad" /> On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre.<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad" /><ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2" /> She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.<ref name="psb112" />

Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (''Institut du radium'', now Curie Institute, ''Institut Curie''), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the [[Organization:Pasteur Institute|Pasteur Institute]] and the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]].<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2" /> The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="psb113" /> Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.<ref name="psb113" />

[[File:1911 Solvay conference.jpg|thumb|left|At the first Solvay Conference (1911), Curie (seated, second from right) confers with Henri Poincaré; standing nearby are Rutherford (fourth from right), Einstein (second from right), and Paul Langevin (far right).]]

In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the [[Physics:Curie (unit)|curie]].<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2" /> Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one<ref name="psb112" /> or two votes,<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec" /> to elect her to membership in the academy. Elected instead was [[Biography:Édouard Branly|Édouard Branly]], an inventor who had helped [[Biography:Guglielmo Marconi|Guglielmo Marconi]] develop the wireless telegraph.<ref name="goldsmith9" /> It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, [[Biography:Marguerite Perey|Marguerite Perey]], became the first woman elected to membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward [[Social:Xenophobia|xenophobia]]—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec" /> During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec" /> Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes.<ref name="psb112" />

In 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist [[Biography:Paul Langevin|Paul Langevin]], a former student of Pierre Curie's,<ref name="robert10" /> a married man who was estranged from his wife.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec" /> This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.<ref name="goldsmith11" /> When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec" />

[[File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg|thumb|1911 Nobel Prize diploma]]

International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2" /> Because of the negative publicity due to her affair with Langevin, the chair of the Nobel committee, [[Biography:Svante Arrhenius|Svante Arrhenius]], attempted to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing her questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because "the prize has been given to her for her discovery of polonium and radium" and that "there is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life".

She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with [[Biography:Linus Pauling|Linus Pauling]] as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government to support the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine.<ref name="psb113" /> A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2" />

In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).<ref name="psb113" /><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2" /> She was appointed director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/biographical/|title=Marie Curie-biographical|date=2014|website=Nobel Prize.org|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317165237/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio.html|archive-date=17 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.<ref name="psb113" /><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2" /><ref name="Marie Curie War" />

=== World War I ===
[[File:Marie Curie - Mobile X-Ray-Unit.jpg|thumb|Curie in a mobile X-ray vehicle, {{circa|1915}}|alt=]]

During [[Social:World War I|World War I]], Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible.<ref name="Coppes-Zantinga, A. R 1998">{{cite journal | title = Marie Curie's contributions to radiology during World War I| year = 1998| last1 = Coppes-Zantinga| first1 = Arty R.| last2 = Coppes| first2 = Max J.| journal = Medical and Pediatric Oncology| volume = 31| issue = 6| pages = 541–543| pmid = 9835914| doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-911X(199812)31:6<541::AID-MPO19>3.0.CO;2-0}}</ref> She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons,<ref name="Marie Curie War" /> including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could be saved.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-film-radioactive-shows-how-marie-curie-was-a-woman-of-the-future/ |title=The Film ''Radioactive'' Shows How Marie Curie Was a 'Woman of the Future' |last=Russell|first=Cristine |date=9 August 2020 |magazine=Scientific American |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211003554/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-film-radioactive-shows-how-marie-curie-was-a-woman-of-the-future/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>''Radioactive'', the movie</ref> After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and auxiliary generators, and she developed mobile [[Physics:Radiography|radiography]] units, which came to be popularly known as ''petites Curies'' ("Little Curies").<ref name="Marie Curie War" /> She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914.<ref name="Marie Curie War" /> Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter [[Biography:Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]], Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war.<ref name="psb113" /><ref name="Marie Curie War" /> Later, she began training other women as aides.<ref name="Marie Curie War2" />

In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as [[Chemistry:Radon|radon]], to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply.<ref name="Marie Curie War2" /> It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.<ref name="Marie Curie" /><ref name="psb113" /> Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period.<ref name="psb113" /> In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.<ref name="Marie Curie War" />

Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them.<ref name="Marie Curie War2" />  She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money.<ref name="Marie Curie War2" /> She said:

{{blockquote|I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost.<ref name="Coppes-Zantinga, A. R 1998" /> }}

She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause.<ref name="emigracja" /> After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, ''Radiology in War'' (1919).<ref name="Marie Curie War2" />

=== Postwar years ===
In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur, who had died in 1895.<!--Don't give his year of birth here – irrelevant and in this context it absurdly suggests he had the stipend since birth--><ref name="psb113" /> In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Curie, created a ''Marie Curie Radium Fund'' and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.<ref name="psb113" /><ref name="Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921" />{{efn|Marie Skłodowska Curie was escorted to the United States by the American author and social activist Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg.<ref>Charlotte Kellogg (Carmel, California), ''An intimate picture of Madame Curie, from diary notes covering a friendship of fifteen years''. In the&nbsp;[https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.SCHAFFNER Joseph Halle Schaffner Collection in the History of Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013140329/https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.SCHAFFNER |date=13 October 2022 }}, 1642–1961, Special Collections, University of Chicago Library.</ref>}}

In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1&nbsp;gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife.<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion" /><ref name="The Radium Institute" /> Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused.<ref name="The Radium Institute" /><ref name="Pasachoff1996" /> In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine.<ref name="psb113" /> She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.<ref name=amudeu />

[[File:Irene and Marie Curie 1925.jpg|thumb|upright|Marie and daughter Irène, 1925]]

Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter [[Biography:Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène Joliot-Curie]] and her son-in-law, [[Biography:Frédéric Joliot-Curie|Frédéric Joliot-Curie]].<ref name="The Radium Institute 2" /> Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the [[Organization:Cavendish Laboratory|Cavendish Laboratory]], with [[Biography:Ernest Rutherford|Ernest Rutherford]]; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with [[Biography:Otto Hahn|Otto Hahn]] and [[Biography:Lise Meitner|Lise Meitner]].<ref name="The Radium Institute 2" /><ref name="Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC" />

In August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the League of Nations' newly created [[Organization:International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation|International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]].<ref>{{Cite journal| issue = 2| last = Grandjean| first = Martin| title = Analisi e visualizzazioni delle reti in storia. L'esempio della cooperazione intellettuale della Società delle Nazioni|language=it| journal = Memoria e Ricerca| date = 2017| pages = 371–393| doi = 10.14647/87204}} See also: [https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01610098v2 French version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107004313/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01610098v2 |date=7 November 2017 }} (PDF) and [http://www.martingrandjean.ch/complex-structures-and-international-organizations/ English summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102034717/http://www.martingrandjean.ch/complex-structures-and-international-organizations/ |date=2 November 2017 }}.</ref><ref name="nytimes" /> She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as [[Biography:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]], [[Biography:Hendrik Lorentz|Hendrik Lorentz]], and [[Biography:Henri Bergson|Henri Bergson]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Grandjean |first=Martin |date=2018 |title=Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres |trans-title=The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903/document |language=fr |location=Lausanne |publisher=University of Lausanne |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912022034/https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903/document |archive-date=12 September 2018 |url-status=live |pages=303–305}}</ref> In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled ''Pierre Curie''.<ref name="leg" /> In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute.<ref name="psb113" /> Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director.<ref name="psb113" /><ref name="The Radium Institute" /> These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work.<ref name="The Radium Institute" /> In 1930 she was elected to the [[Organization:Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|International Atomic Weights Committee]], on which she served until her death.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html|title=Atomic Weights and the International Committee: A Historical Review|first=Norman E. |last=Holden|journal=Chemistry International|year=2004|access-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219161333/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html|archive-date=19 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1931, Curie was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/pioneers/maria-sklodowska-curie|title=Maria Skłodowska-Curie|website=Europeana Exhibitions|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607004649/https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/pioneers/maria-sklodowska-curie|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Death ===
[[File:Sklodowska-Curie statue, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|upright|1935 statue, facing the Radium Institute, Warsaw]]
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /><ref name="The Radium Institute 3" /> A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died aged 66 at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from [[Medicine:Aplastic anemia|aplastic anemia]] believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, causing damage to her bone marrow.<ref name="psb113" />

The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed.<ref name="The Radium Institute 3" /> She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket,<ref name="ShipmanWilson2012" /> and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the [[Physics:Radioluminescence|faint light]] that the substances gave off in the dark.<ref name="The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914" /> Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the First World War.<ref name="Marie Curie War2" />  When Curie's body was exhumed in 1995, the French ''Office de Protection contre les Rayonnements Ionisants'' (''OPRI'') "concluded that she could not have been exposed to lethal levels of radium while she was alive". They pointed out that radium poses a risk only if it is ingested, and speculated that her illness was more likely to have been due to her use of radiography during the First World War.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/377096b0| title = X-rays, not radium, may have killed Curie| date = 14 September 1995| last = Butler| first = D.| journal = Nature| volume = 377| issue = 6545| page = 96| pmid = 7675094| bibcode = 1995Natur.377...96.| s2cid = 186242763| doi-access = free}}</ref>

She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre.<ref name="psb113" /> Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon. Their remains were sealed in a lead lining because of the radioactivity.<ref name="bi-2015">{{cite web |last1=Tasch |first1=Barbera |title=These personal effects of 'the mother of modern physics' will be radioactive for another 1500 years |url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/marie-curie-radioactive-papers-2015-8 |website=Business Insider Australia |access-date=15 November 2021 |date=24 August 2015 |archive-date=15 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115213929/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/marie-curie-radioactive-papers-2015-8 |url-status=live }}</ref> She became the second woman to be interred at the Panthéon (after Sophie Berthelot) and the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits.<ref name="nytimes" />

Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/marie-curies-100-year-old-notebook-is-still-too-radioac-1615847891|title=Marie Curie's century-old radioactive notebook still requires lead box|first=Adam Clark|last=Estes|date=4 August 2014 |access-date=9 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913230200/http://gizmodo.com/marie-curies-100-year-old-notebook-is-still-too-radioac-1615847891|archive-date=13 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Even her cookbooks are highly radioactive.<ref name="everything" /> Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing.<ref name="everything" /> In her last year, she worked on a book, ''Radioactivity'', which was published posthumously in 1935.<ref name="The Radium Institute 3" />

== Legacy ==
[[File:Lublin UMCS Pomnik Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.jpg|thumb|upright|Marie Curie Monument in Lublin]]

The physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.<ref name="psb114" /> [[Organization:Cornell University|Cornell University]] professor L. Pearce Williams observes:

{{blockquote|The result of the Curies' work was epoch-making. Radium's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored. It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics. On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom. As a result of Rutherford's experiments with alpha radiation, the nuclear atom was first postulated. In medicine, the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked.<ref name="Williams332" />}}

In addition to helping to overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, Curie's work has had a profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" />

She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle.<ref name="psb112" /><ref name="psb114" /> Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris 2" /> She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" /> In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered.<ref name="robert8" /> {{efn|However, [[Organization:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]] [[History:History of science|historian of science]] [[Biography:Patricia Fara|Patricia Fara]] writes: "Marie Skłodowska Curie's reputation as a scientific martyr is often supported by quoting her denial (carefully crafted by her American publicist, Marie Meloney) that she derived any personal gain from her research: 'There were no patents. We were working in the interests of science. Radium was not to enrich anyone. Radium... belongs to all people.' As Eva Hemmungs Wirtén pointed out in ''Making Marie Curie'', this claim takes on a different hue once you learn that, under French law, Curie was banned from taking out a patent in her own name, so that any profits from her research would automatically have gone to her husband, [[Biography:Pierre Curie|Pierre]]." [[Biography:Patricia Fara|Patricia Fara]], "It leads to everything" (review of Paul Sen, ''Einstein's Fridge: The Science of Fire, Ice and the Universe'', William Collins, April 2021, {{ISBN|978 0 00 826279 2}}, 305 pp.), ''London Review of Books'', vol. 43, no. 18 (23 September 2021), pp. 20–21 (quotation, p. 21).}} She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her.<ref name="psb114" /> She and her husband often refused awards and medals.<ref name="psb112" /> [[Biography:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]] reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" />

== Commemoration and cultural depictions ==
[[File:CERN, Marie Curie, Ginebra, Suiza, 2015 19.JPG|thumb|upright| Bust of "Maria Skłodowska-Curie", CERN Museum, {{wipe|Switzerland}}, 2015]]

As one of the most famous scientists in history, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of [[Social:Popular culture|pop culture]].<ref name="Borzendowski2009-36" /> She  also received many honorary degrees from universities across the world.<ref name="The Radium Institute" />

Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences.<ref name="Nobel Prize Facts" /> Awards and honours that she received include:
* Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)<ref name="psb112" />
* Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre)<ref name="amudeu" /><ref name="CurieSheean1999" />
* [[Physics:Matteucci Medal|Matteucci Medal]] (1904, with Pierre)<ref name="CurieSheean1999" />
* Actonian Prize (1907)<ref>{{cite journal|title=Scientific Notes and News|journal=Science|volume=25|issue=647|year=1907|pages=839–840|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.25.647.839|bibcode=1907Sci....25..839.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1974994|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426190212/https://zenodo.org/record/1974994/files/article.pdf|archive-date=26 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)<ref name="winners" />
* Legion of Honour (1909, rejected)<ref>{{cite book |last=Opfell |first=Olga S. |date=1978 |title= The lady Laureates. Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize |url= |location=London |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=161 |isbn=}}</ref>
* Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)<ref name="gwiazdapolarna" />
* Civil Order of Alfonso XII (1919)<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.revistalaocaloca.com/2011/12/marie-curie-cientifica-universal/ |title=Marie Curie, científica universal |trans-title=Marie Curie, Universal Scientist |first=Miguel |last=Carreras Ezquerra |magazine=La Oca Loca |language=es |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>
* Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)<ref name="Minutes" />
* Order of the White Eagle (2018, posthumously)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/ordery-i-odznaczenia/ordery-orla-bialego-przyznane-posmiertnie-25-wybitnym-polakom,7125 |language=pl |title=Ordery Orła Białego przyznane pośmiertnie 25 wybitnym Polakom |website=prezydent.pl |date=11 November 2018 |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>

Entities that have been named after Marie Curie include:
* The [[Physics:Curie (unit)|curie]] (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie, or both).<ref name="How the Curie Came to Be" />
* The element with atomic number 96 was named [[Chemistry:Curium|curium]] (symbol Cm).<ref name="Curium" />
* Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: [[Chemistry:Curite|curite]], [[Chemistry:Sklodowskite|sklodowskite]], and [[Chemistry:Cuprosklodowskite|cuprosklodowskite]].<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37" />
* The Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the [[Social:European Union|European Union]] for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country<ref>{{cite web|title=Marie Curie Actions |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/mariecurieactions/documents/documentation/publications/eu-marie-curie-actions-fellowships-innovative-science-becomes-success-publication_en.pdf |publisher=European Commission |access-date=10 September 2012 |page=5 |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604030857/http://ec.europa.eu/research/mariecurieactions/documents/documentation/publications/eu-marie-curie-actions-fellowships-innovative-science-becomes-success-publication_en.pdf |archive-date=4 June 2013 }}</ref>
* In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies.<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37" />
* The sole Polish nuclear reactor in operation, the research [[Physics:Maria reactor|reactor Maria]]<ref name="IEA – reaktor Maria" />
* The [[Astronomy:7000 Curie|7000 Curie]] asteroid<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37" />
* Marie Curie, a registered [[Organization:Charitable organization|charitable organisation]] in the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regId=207994&subId=0 |title=MARIE CURIE |website=charitycommission.gov.uk |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>
* The IEEE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award, an international award presented for outstanding contributions to the field of nuclear and plasma sciences and engineering, was established by the [[Organization:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://corporate-awards.ieee.org/award/ieee-marie-sklodowska-curie-award/ |title=IEEE Marie Skłodowska-Curie Award |website=corporate-awards.ieee.org |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref>
* The Marie Curie Medal, an annual science award established in 1996 and conferred by the Polish Chemical Society<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/11180774/100_Years_Polish_Chemical_Society/#:~:text=During%20the%20anniversary%20celebrations%2C%20Professor%20Roald%20Hoffmann%20was,Adam%20Mickiewicz%20University%20%28AMU%29%2C%20Poznan%2C%20Poland.%20Figure%206. |title=100 Years Polish Chemical Society |website=chemistryviews.org |author=Vera Koester |date=7 September 2019|access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>
* The Marie Curie-Sklodowska Medal and Prize, an annual award conferred by the London-based [[Organization:Institute of Physics|Institute of Physics]] for distinguished contributions to physics education<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iop.org/about/awards/silver-subject-medals |title=Silver Subject Medals and Prizes |website=iop.org |access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>
*Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.umcs.pl/en/biography-of-maria-curie-sklodowska,24559.htm |title=Biography of Maria Curie-Skłodowska |website=umcs.pl |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>
*Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris
*Maria Skłodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Poland
*École élémentaire Marie-Curie in London, Ontario, Canada; Curie Metropolitan High School in Chicago, United States; Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Lycée français Marie Curie de Zurich, Switzerland; see Lycée Marie Curie for a list of other schools named after her

Numerous biographies are devoted to her, including:
* Ève Curie (Marie Curie's daughter), ''Madame Curie'', 1938.
* Françoise Giroud, ''Marie Curie: A Life'', 1987.
* Barbara Goldsmith, ''Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie'', 2005.<ref name=cosm />
* Lauren Redniss, ''Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout'', 2011,<ref name="Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout" /> adapted into the 2019 British film.

Marie Curie has been the subject of a number of films:
* 1943: ''Madame Curie'', a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson.<ref name="leg" />
* 1997: ''Les Palmes de M. Schutz'', a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau. Marie Curie is played by Isabelle Huppert.<ref name="Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes – NYTimes.com" />
* 2014: ''[[Medicine:Marie Curie, une femme sur le front|Marie Curie, une femme sur le front]]'', a French-Belgian film, directed by {{Interlanguage link|Alain Brunard|lt=Alain Brunard|fr}} and starring Dominique Reymond.
* 2016: ''Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge'', a European co-production by Marie Noëlle starring Karolina Gruszka.
* 2016: ''Super Science Friends'', an American Internet animated series created by Brett Jubinville featuring Hedy Gregor as Marie Curie.
* 2019: ''Radioactive'', a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike.

Curie is the subject of the 2013 play ''False Assumptions'' by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life.<ref>[http://www.ottawasun.com/2013/03/26/mixing-science-with-theatre Mixing Science With Theatre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223248/http://www.ottawasun.com/2013/03/26/mixing-science-with-theatre |date=12 May 2014 }}, ''Ottawa Sun'', March 2013</ref> Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play, ''Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie'', a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries.<ref name="Main, Douglas">{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/article/science/famous-image-marie-curie-isnt-marie-curie|title=This Famous Image Of Marie Curie Isn't Marie Curie|publisher=Popular Science www.popsci.com|date=7 March 2014|access-date=15 November 2014|author=Main, Douglas|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110231415/http://www.popsci.com/article/science/famous-image-marie-curie-isnt-marie-curie|archive-date=10 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Lauren Gunderson's 2019 play ''The Half-Life of Marie Curie'' portrays Curie during the summer after her 1911 Nobel Prize victory, when she was grappling with depression and facing public scorn over the revelation of her affair with Paul Langevin.

== See also ==
* Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored Marie Curie's visit to the US
* [[Biography:Eusapia Palladino#France|Eusapia Palladino]]: [[Unsolved:Spiritualism|Spiritualist]] medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical Marie Curie
* List of female Nobel laureates
* List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
* List of Poles in Chemistry
* List of Poles in Physics
* List of Polish Nobel laureates
* Timeline of women in science
* ''[[Physics:Treatise on Radioactivity|Treatise on Radioactivity]]'', by Marie Curie
* [[Chemistry:Women in chemistry|Women in chemistry]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="How the Curie Came to Be">{{cite web|author=Paul W. Frame|title=How the Curie Came to Be|url=https://orau.org/health-physics-museum/articles/how-the-curie-came-to-be.html|publisher=Oak Ridge Associated Universities|date=October–November 1996|access-date=16 November 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=8 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008084612/https://orau.org/health-physics-museum/articles/how-the-curie-came-to-be.html}}</ref>

<ref name="Williams331">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=Danbury, Connecticut|page=331|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="williams">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=Danbury, Connecticut|pages=331–332|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="Williams332">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=Danbury, Connecticut|page=332|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3G9gMNCpowC&pg=PA76 | first=Philipp | last=Blom | title=The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914 | chapter=1903: A Strange Luminescence | page=[https://archive.org/details/vertigoyearseuro00blom/page/76 76] | quote=The glowing tubes looked like faint, fairy lights. | year=2008 | publisher=Basic Books | isbn=978-0-465-01116-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/vertigoyearseuro00blom/page/76 }}</ref>

<ref name="The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times">{{cite journal | title = The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times | last = Mould | first = R. F. | journal=The British Journal of Radiology | volume = 71 | year = 1998 | pages = 1229–54 | pmid = 10318996 | issue = 852 | doi=10.1259/bjr.71.852.10318996}}</ref>

<ref name="emigracja">{{cite book|first=Wiesław|last=Śladkowski|title=Emigracja polska we Francji 1871–1918|language=pl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwaAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Wydawnictwo Lubelskie|page=274|isbn=978-83-222-0147-3|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617100730/https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwaAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=17 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="everything">{{cite book|first=Bill|last=Bryson|title=A Short History of Nearly Everything|date=2004|publisher=Broadway Books|isbn=978-0-7679-0818-4|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YjAnfhsAQ8wC&q=cookbooks 111]}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|page=149|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith11">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|pages=165–76|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith9">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|pages=170–71|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="gwiazdapolarna">{{cite journal|title=Mazowieckie korzenie Marii |journal=Gwiazda Polarna |date=21 June 2008 |volume=100 |issue=13 |pages=16–17 |url=http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |access-date=10 September 2012 |author=Wojciech A. Wierzewski |trans-title=Maria's Mazowsze Roots |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321193811/http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |archive-date=21 March 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="independence">{{cite journal|last=Kabzińska|first=Krystyna|title=''Chemiczne i polskie aspekty odkrycia polonu i radu''|journal=Przemysł Chemiczny (The Chemical Industry)|year=1998|volume=77|pages=104–107|trans-title=Chemical and Polish Aspects of Polonium and Radium Discovery|language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name="obit">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1906/04/20/archives/prof-curie-killed-in-a-paris-street-the-discoverer-of-radium-run.html |title=Prof. Curie killed in a Paris street |format=PDF |date=20 April 1906 |access-date=8 February 2011 |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725215446/https://www.nytimes.com/1906/04/20/archives/prof-curie-killed-in-a-paris-street-the-discoverer-of-radium-run.html |archive-date=25 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="robert10">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=44, 90|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie">{{Cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=6|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|quote=Unusually at such an early age, she became what T.H. Huxley had just invented a word for: agnostic.|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=65|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert2">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=24|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert3">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=32|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert4">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=61–63|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert5">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=63–64|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert6">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=64|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert7">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=64–65|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert8">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=265|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="teachers">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=23|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|access-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion">{{cite web| url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Madame-Curies-Passion.html| title=Madame Curie's Passion| work=Smithsonian Magazine| author=Julie Des Jardins| date=October 2011| access-date=11 September 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127184144/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Madame-Curies-Passion.html| archive-date=27 November 2012| url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/polgirl1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102131239/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie – Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/polgirl2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102134102/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl2.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/stud1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris (1891–1897) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028155638/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie – Student in Paris 2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/stud2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris (1891–1897) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912012411/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/resbr1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904)Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083750/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/resbr2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904)Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118025917/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr2.htm |archive-date=18 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/resbr3.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904) Part 3 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118025922/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr3.htm |archive-date=18 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/recdis1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Recognition and Disappointment (1903–1905) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028155633/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/trag2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Recognition and Disappointment (1903–1905) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912055708/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/recdis2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Tragedy and Adjustment (1906–1910) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026022331/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis2.htm |archive-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/trag1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Tragedy and Adjustment (1906–1910) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102133949/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/scandal1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Scandal and Recovery (1910–1913) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218035026/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/scandal1.htm |archive-date=18 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/trag2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Scandal and Recovery (1910–1913) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912055708/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie War">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/war1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– War Duty (1914–1919) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102230854/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie War2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/war2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– War Duty (1914–1919) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912173614/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/radinst1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083629/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute 2">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/radinst2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083745/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst2.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute 3">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/radinst3.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 3 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928120440/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst3.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="leg">{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/curie/romleg.htm |title=Marie Curie and Her Legend |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101142723/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/romleg.htm |archive-date=1 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921">{{cite journal|author=Ann M. Lewicki |title=Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921 |volume= 223 | issue =2 |year=2002 |pages=299–303 |journal=Radiology |doi=10.1148/radiol.2232011319|pmid=11997527}}</ref>

<ref name="Minutes">{{cite journal|title=Minutes |journal=Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=iii–xxiv |year=1921 |jstor=984523}}</ref>

<ref name="nobelprize">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/facts/ |title=Marie Curie Facts |publisher=Nobelprize.org |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042916/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/facts/ |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/21/world/marie-curie-enshrined-in-pantheon.html |title=Marie Curie Enshrined in Pantheon |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |date=21 April 1995 |access-date=2 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122093842/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/21/world/marie-curie-enshrined-in-pantheon.html |archive-date=22 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Discovery of Radioactivity">{{cite web |url=http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html |title=The Discovery of Radioactivity |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |date=9 August 2000 |access-date=2 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814105054/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html |archive-date=14 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="amudeu">{{cite web|url=http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/ph/sci/msc.htm|first=Zbigniew|last=Zwoliński|title=Science in Poland – Maria Sklodowska-Curie|publisher=Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu|access-date=27 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911201944/http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/ph/sci/msc.htm|archive-date=11 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Barker2011">{{cite book|first=Dan|last=Barker|title=The Good Atheist: Living a Purpose-Filled Life Without God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ruzL8ogol2sC&pg=PA171|date=2011|publisher=Ulysses Press|isbn=978-1-56975-846-5|page=171|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102033101/https://books.google.com/books?id=ruzL8ogol2sC&pg=PA171|archive-date=2 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Borzendowski2009-36">{{cite book|first=Janice|last=Borzendowski|title=Sterling Biographies: Marie Curie: Mother of Modern Physics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|date=2009|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4027-5318-3|page=36|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130091338/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|archive-date=30 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37">{{cite book|first=Janice|last=Borzendowski|title=Sterling Biographies: Marie Curie: Mother of Modern Physics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|date=2009|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4027-5318-3|page=37|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130091338/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|archive-date=30 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC">{{cite web |url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/3_boudia.html |title=Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry |date=5 January 2011 |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107222809/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/3_boudia.html |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="cosm">{{cite web|url=http://www.cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/40-musings/342-2011-the-year-of-marie-sklodowska-curie |title=2011 – The Year of Marie Skłodowska-Curie |work=Cosmopolitanreview.com |date=3 July 2011 |access-date=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814005026/http://cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/40-musings/342-2011-the-year-of-marie-sklodowska-curie |archive-date=14 August 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="CurieSheean1999">{{cite book|author1=Eve Curie|author2=Vincent Sheean|title=Madame Curie: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOUMbHWaPr8C|date=1999|publisher=Turtleback Books|isbn=978-0-613-18127-3|page=389|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126114144/https://books.google.com/books?id=YOUMbHWaPr8C|archive-date=26 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Curium">{{cite web |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/interactive_periodic_table_transcripts/curium.asp |title=Curium |work=Chemistry in its element |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |access-date=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809004547/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/Interactive_Periodic_Table_Transcripts/Curium.asp |archive-date=9 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="IEA – reaktor Maria">{{cite web|url=http://www.cyf.gov.pl/historia_ang.html |title=IEA – reaktor Maria |publisher=Institute of Atomic Energy, Poland |access-date=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319074606/http://www.cyf.gov.pl/historia_ang.html |archive-date=19 March 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes – NYTimes.com">{{cite web |url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/154828/Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz/overview |title=Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz (1997) |access-date=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102151603/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/154828/Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz/overview |archive-date=2 November 2012 |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |author=Sandra Brennan |date=2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="psb111">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=111|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|language=pl|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb112">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=112|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|language=pl|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb113">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=113|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|language=pl|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb114">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=114|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|language=pl|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="Quinn1996">{{cite book|first=Susan|last=Quinn|title=Marie Curie: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA176|date=1996|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-201-88794-5|pages=176, 203|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031071144/https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA176|archive-date=31 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout">{{cite web|url=http://www.cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/41-reviews/341-radioactive-a-review |title=Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout |work=Cosmopolitanreview.com |date=3 July 2011 |access-date=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814005116/http://cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/41-reviews/341-radioactive-a-review |archive-date=14 August 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="ShipmanWilson2012">{{cite book|author1=James Shipman|author2=Jerry D. Wilson|author3=Aaron Todd|title=An Introduction to Physical Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxoM93eNPVEC&pg=PA263|date=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-10409-4|page=263|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127120120/https://books.google.com/books?id=dxoM93eNPVEC&pg=PA263|archive-date=27 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Nobel Prize Facts">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html |title=Nobel Prize Facts |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=22 April 2011 |access-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901134144/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html |archive-date=1 September 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Pasachoff1996">{{cite book|first=Naomi|last=Pasachoff|title=Marie Curie:And the Science of Radioactivity: And the Science of Radioactivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC&pg=PA93|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509214-1|page=93|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128164641/https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC&pg=PA93|archive-date=28 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="undoubtedly">{{cite book |title=The History of Polish Literature  |last=Miłosz |first=Czesław |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |page=291 |isbn=978-0-520-04477-7|quote=Undoubtedly the most important novelist of [[Philosophy:Positivism in Poland|the period]] was Bolesław Prus...}}</ref>

<ref name="winners">{{cite web|url=http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?award=CRESS|title=Franklin Laureate Database|work=The Franklin Institute Awards|publisher=The Franklin Institute|access-date=11 September 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212165125/http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?award=CRESS|archive-date=12 December 2012}}</ref>

}}
<!--
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016}}
* Wojciech A. Wierzewski, "''Mazowieckie korzenie Marii''" ("Maria's Mazowsze Roots"), ''Gwiazda Polarna'' (Pole Star), a Polish-American biweekly, vol. 100, no. 13 (21 June 2008), pp.&nbsp;16–17. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321193811/http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |date=21 March 2009 }}
* L. Pearce Williams, "Curie, Pierre and Marie", ''Encyclopedia Americana'', Danbury, Connecticut, [[Grolier]], Inc., 1986, vol. 8, pp.&nbsp;331–332.
* {{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016|access-date=15 March 2016}}
{{refend}}
-->

== Further reading ==
=== Nonfiction ===
* {{cite book |last=Curie |first=Eve |title=Madame Curie: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abHJGxj8ZRwC |date=2001 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81038-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Curie |first=Marie |year=1921 |title=The Discovery of Radium |title-link=s:The Discovery of Radium |location=Poughkeepsie |publisher=Vassar College}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dzienkiewicz |first=Marta |year=2017 |title=Polish Pioneers: Book of Prominent Poles |translator=Monod-Gayraud, Agnes |others=Illustrations: Rzezak, Joanna; Karski, Piotr |location=Warsaw |publisher=Wydawnictwo Dwie Siostry |isbn=9788365341686 |oclc=1060750234}}
* {{cite book |last=Giroud |first=Françoise |date=1986 |title=Marie Curie: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UqPuAAAAMAAJ |translator=Lydia Davis |location=New York |publisher=Holmes & Meier |isbn=978-0-8419-0977-9 |oclc=12946269}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaczorowska |first=Teresa |title=Córka mazowieckich równin, czyli, Maria Skłodowska-Curie z Mazowsza |trans-title=Daughter of the Mazovian Plains: Maria Skłodowska–Curie of Mazowsze |language=pl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTCkXwAACAAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Związek Literatów Polskich, Oddział w Ciechanowie |access-date=15 March 2016 |isbn=978-83-89408-36-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Opfell |first=Olga S. |title=The Lady Laureates : Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize |url=https://archive.org/details/ladylaureateswom0000opfe |url-access=registration |year=1978 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, N.J.& London |isbn=978-0-8108-1161-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ladylaureateswom0000opfe/page/147 147–164]}}
* {{cite book |last=Pasachoff |first=Naomi |title=Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509214-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Quinn |first=Susan |title=Marie Curie: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA330 |date=1996 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-201-88794-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Redniss |first=Lauren |title=Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie: A Tale of Love and Fallout |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVL4QwAACAAJ |date=2010 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-135132-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Wirten |first=Eva Hemmungs |title=Making Marie Curie: Intellectual Property and Celebrity Culture in an Age of Information |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-bIoAEACAAJ&q=Making+Marie+Curie |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-23584-4 |access-date=15 March 2016}}

=== Fiction ===
* {{Cite book |title=The Book about Blanche and Marie |first=Per |last=Olov Enquist |isbn=978-1-58567-668-2 |year=2006 |publisher=Overlook |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/bookaboutblanche00enqu }} A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his ''Salpêtrière'' patient "Blanche" (Marie Wittman). The English translation was published in 2006.

== External links ==

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{{1903 Nobel Prize winners}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Curie, Marie}}
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{{Sourceattribution|Marie Curie}}