View source for Biography:Petrus Ramus

{{Short description|French philosopher (1515–1572)}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name              = Petrus Ramus
| image             = Petrus Ramus.jpg
| alt               = 
| birth_name        = Pierre de La Ramée
| birth_date        = 1515
| birth_place       = Cuts, Picardy
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1572|08|26|1515|df=y}}
| death_place       = Paris<ref>[https://academic-eb-com.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/Petrus-Ramus/62635 "Petrus Ramus" – Britannica Academic]</ref>
| nationality       = French
| education         = Collège de Navarre
| notable_works     = ''Aristotelicae Animadversiones''
| region            = [[Philosophy:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]]
| era               = [[Philosophy:Renaissance philosophy|Renaissance philosophy]]
| school_tradition  = [[Philosophy:Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanism]]<br>[[Philosophy:Ramism|Ramism]]
| institutions      = Collège de France
| thesis_title      = Quaecumque ab Aristotele dicta essent, commentitia esse (Everything that Aristotle has said is false)
| thesis_url        =
| thesis_year       = 1536
| doctoral_advisor  = 
| academic_advisors = Johannes Sturm
| doctoral_students = 
| notable_students  = Theodor Zwinger
| main_interests    = [[Logic]], educational reform
| notable_ideas     = [[Philosophy:Ramism|Ramism]]
| influences        =[[Biography:Ramon Llull|Ramon Llull]] · Johannes Sturm · Jean Calvin 
| influenced        = [[Biography:Jean Bodin|Jean Bodin]]
}}

'''Petrus Ramus''' ({{lang-fr|Pierre de La Ramée}}; Anglicized as '''Peter Ramus''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|eɪ|m|ə|s}}; 1515 – 26 August 1572) was a {{wipe|France}} [[Philosophy:Humanism|humanist]], logician, and educational reformer. A Protestant convert, he was a victim of the [[Religion:St. Bartholomew's Day massacre|St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]].

==Early life==
He was born at the village of Cuts, Picardy; his father was a farmer. He gained admission at age twelve (thus about 1527) to the Collège de Navarre, working as a servant. A reaction against [[Philosophy:Scholasticism|scholasticism]] was in full tide, at a transitional time for [[Philosophy:Aristotelianism|Aristotelianism]]. On the occasion of receiving his M.A. degree in 1536, Ramus allegedly took as his thesis ''Quaecumque ab Aristotele dicta essent, commentitia esse'' (''Everything that Aristotle has said is false''), which [[Biography:Walter J. Ong|Walter J. Ong]] paraphrases as follows:

{{quote|All the things that Aristotle has said are inconsistent because they are poorly systematized and can be called to mind only by the use of arbitrary mnemonic devices.<ref>See Ong's ''Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason'', 1958: 46-47.</ref>}}

According to Ong<ref>Ong, ''Ramus'', pp. 36-37.</ref> this kind of spectacular thesis was in fact routine at the time. Even so, Ong raises questions as to whether Ramus actually ever delivered this thesis.<ref>Ong, ''Ramus'', pp. 36-41.</ref>

==Early academic career==

Ramus, as graduate of the university, started courses of lectures. At this period he was engaged in numerous separate controversies. One opponent in 1543 was the Benedictine {{ill|Joachim Périon|fr}}.<ref>Kees Meerhoff, ''Bartholomew Keckerman and the Anti-Ramist Tradition'', in Christoph Strohm, Joseph S. Freedman, H. J. Selderhuis (editors), ''Späthumanismus und reformierte Konfession: Theologie, Jurisprudenz und Philosophie in Heidelberg an der Wende zum 17. Jahrhundert'' (2006), p. 188.</ref> He was accused, by Jacques Charpentier, professor of medicine, of undermining the foundations of philosophy and religion. Arnaud d'Ossat, a pupil and friend of Ramus, defended him against Charpentier.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11342a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Arnaud d'Ossat|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Ramus was made to debate Goveanus (Antonio de Gouveia), over two days.<ref>James J. Murphy, ''Peter Ramus's Attack on Cicero: Text and Translation of Ramus's Brutinae Quaestiones'' (1992), p. x.</ref> The matter was brought before the ''parlement'' of [[Place:Paris|Paris]], and finally before Francis I. By him it was referred to a commission of five, who found Ramus guilty of having "acted rashly, arrogantly and impudently," and interdicted his lectures (1544).

==Royal support==

He withdrew from Paris, but soon afterwards returned, the decree against him being canceled by [[Biography:Henry II of France|Henry II]], who came to the throne in 1547, through the influence of Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. He obtained a position at the Collège de Navarre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12638b.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Peter Ramus|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>Robert Mandrou, ''From Humanism to Science 1480-1700'' (1978), p. 122.</ref>

In 1551 Henry II appointed him a regius professor at the Collège de France, but at his request he was given the unique and at the time controversial title of Professor of Philosophy and eloquence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=French renaissance studies : 1540-70 : humanism and the Encyclopedia|last=Peter|first=Sharratt|date=1976-01-01|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=085224276X|pages=10, 15|oclc=892245076}}</ref> For a considerable time he lectured before audiences numbering as many as 2,000. {{ill|Pierre Galland|fr}}, another professor there, published ''Contra novam academiam Petri Rami oratio'' (1551), and called him a "parricide" for his attitude to Aristotle. The more serious charge was that he was a ''nouveau academicien'', in other words a sceptic. Audomarus Talaeus (Omer Talon c.1510–1581), a close ally of Ramus, had indeed published a work in 1548 derived from [[Biography:Cicero|Cicero]]'s description of Academic scepticism, the school of [[Philosophy:Arcesilaus|Arcesilaus]] and [[Philosophy:Carneades|Carneades]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inrp.fr/edition-electronique/lodel/dictionnaire-ferdinand-buisson/document.php?id=3490|title=Ramus|first=Gabriel|last=Compayré|website=www.inrp.fr/edition-electronique/lodel/dictionnaire-ferdinand-buisson}}</ref><ref>Richard H. Popkin, ''The History of Scepticim from Erasmus to Spinoza'' (1979), pp. 28-30.</ref>

==After conversion==
[[File:Salon de 1840. Ramus attendant ses assassins, par Robert Fleury.jpg|thumb|Ramus awaiting his murderers: wood engraving by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, 1840]]
In 1561 he faced significant enmity following his adoption of [[Religion:Protestantism|Protestantism]]. He had to flee from Paris; and, though he found asylum in the palace of Fontainebleau, his house was pillaged and his library burned in his absence. He resumed his chair after this for a time, but he was summoned on 30 June 1568 before the King's Attorney General to be heard with Simon Baudichon and other professors:<ref>{{cite book|language=fr |author=Michel Félibien |title=Histoire de la ville de Paris |publisher=Guillaume Desprez et Jean Desessartz |location=Paris |year=1725 |page=824 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pl6d4BPuLuEC&q=%22Simon+Baudichon%22 |access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref> the position of affairs was again so threatening that he found it advisable to ask permission to travel.

He spent around two years, in Germany and Switzerland.<ref>Edward Craig, ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (1998), p. 52.</ref> The La Rochelle Confession of Faith earned his disapproval, in 1571, rupturing his relationship with [[Biography:Theodore Beza|Theodore Beza]] and leading Ramus to write angrily to Heinrich Bullinger.<ref>John D. Woodbridge, Kenneth S. Kantzer, ''Biblical Authority: A Critique of the Rogers/McKim Proposal'' (1982), p. 185, with caveats.</ref>

Returning to France, he fell a victim in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572). Hiding for a while in a bookshop off the Rue St Jacques, he returned to his lodgings, on 26 August, the third day of the violence. There he was stabbed while at prayer.<ref>Katherine Duncan-Jones, ''Sir Philip Sidney: Courter Poet'' (1991), p. 60.</ref> Suspicions against Charpentier have been voiced ever since.<ref>''[http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/person_glossaryR.html John Foxe's Book of Martyrs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927014206/http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/johnfoxe/apparatus/person_glossaryR.html |date=2007-09-27 }}'', under Pierre de la Ramée.</ref> His death was compared by one of his first biographers, his friend and colleague {{ill|Nicolas de Nancel|fr}}, to the murder of Cicero.<ref name="ReidWilson2011">{{cite book|author1=Steven J. Reid|author2=Emma Annette Wilson|title=Ramus, Pedagogy and the Liberal Arts: Ramism in Britain and the Wider World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Op_asqpt94IC&pg=PA1|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-9408-3|page=1}}</ref>

==Pedagogue==

A central issue is that Ramus's anti-Aristotelianism arose out of a concern for [[Social:Pedagogy|pedagogy]]. Aristotelian philosophy, in its Early Modern form as [[Philosophy:Scholasticism|scholasticism]] showing its age, was in a confused and disordered state. Ramus sought to infuse order and simplicity into philosophical and scholastic education by reinvigorating a sense of [[Philosophy:Dialectic|dialectic]] as the overriding logical and [[Methodology|methodological]] basis for the various disciplines.

He published in 1543 the ''Aristotelicae Animadversiones'' and ''Dialecticae Partitiones'', the former a criticism on the old [[Logic|logic]] and the latter a new textbook of the science. What are substantially fresh editions of the ''Partitiones'' appeared in 1547 as ''Institutiones Dialecticae'', and in 1548 as ''Scholae Dialecticae''; his ''Dialectique'' (1555), a French version of his system, is the earliest work on the subject in the [[Social:French language|French language]].

In the ''Dialecticae partitiones'' Ramus recommends the use of summaries, headings, citations and examples. Ong calls Ramus's use of outlines, "a reorganization of the whole of knowledge and indeed of the whole human lifeworld."<ref>"Ramus, method, and the decay of dialogue: From the art of discourse to the art of reason," 1958. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.</ref>

After studying Ramus's work, Ong concluded that the results of his "methodizing" of the arts "are the amateurish works of a desperate man who is not a thinker but merely an erudite pedagogue".<ref>''The Barbarian Within'', 1962: 79-80.</ref> On the other hand, his work had an immediate impact on the issue of disciplinary boundaries, where educators largely accepted his arguments, by the end of the century.<ref>Michelle Ballif, Michael G. Moran, ''Classical Rhetorics and Rhetoricians: Critical Studies and Sources'' (2005), p. 92.</ref>

==Logician==
The logic of Ramus enjoyed a great celebrity for a time, and there existed a school of Ramists boasting numerous adherents in {{wipe|France}}, {{wipe|Germany}}, {{wipe|Switzerland}}, and the Netherlands. It cannot be said, however, that Ramus's innovations mark any epoch in the history of logic, and there is little ground for his claim to supersede Aristotle by an independent system of logic. The distinction between natural and artificial logic, i.e., between the implicit logic of daily speech and the same logic made explicit in a system, passed over into the logical handbooks.

He amends the [[Philosophy:Syllogism|syllogism]]. He admits only the first three figures, as in the original Aristotelian scheme, and in his later works he also attacks the validity of the third figure, following in this the precedent of Laurentius Valla. Ramus also set the modern fashion of deducing the figures from the position of the [[Philosophy:Middle term|middle term]] in the premises, instead of basing them, as Aristotle does, upon the different relation of the middle to the major term and minor term.

==Rhetorician==

As James Jasinski explains, "the range of rhetoric began to be narrowed during the 16th century, thanks in part to the works of Peter Ramus."<ref>Sourcebook on Rhetoric, 2001, pp. xvii-iii</ref> In using the word "narrowed," Jasinski is referring to Ramus argument for divorcing rhetoric from dialectic (logic), a move that had far reaching implications for rhetorical studies and for popular conceptions of public persuasion. Contemporary rhetoricians have tended to reject Ramus's view in favor of a more wide ranging (and in many respects, Aristotelian) understanding of the rhetorical arts as encompassing "a [broad] range of ordinary language practices."<ref>Jasinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric, 2001, pp. xviii</ref> Rhetoric, traditionally, had had five parts, of which ''inventio'' (invention) was the first. Ramus insisted on rhetoric to be studied alongside dialectic through two main manuals: invention and judgement under the dialectic manual, and style and delivery in the rhetoric manual. Memory, one of the five skills of traditional rhetoric, was regarded by Ramus as being part of psychology, as opposed to being part of rhetoric, and thus dispensed from his idea of rhetoric and dialectic.<ref>Steven Reid, ''Ramus, Pedagogy and the Liberal Arts: Ramism in Britain and the Wider World''(2013), p. 13.</ref> Brian Vickers said that the Ramist influence here did add to rhetoric: it concentrated more on the remaining aspect of ''elocutio'' or effective use of language, and emphasised the role of vernacular European languages (rather than Latin). Ramist reforms strengthened the rhetoricians' tendency to focus on style.<ref>Peter Dixon, ''Rhetoric'' (1971), p. 65.</ref> The effect was that rhetoric was applied in literature.<ref>Brian Vickers, ''In Defence of Rhetoric'' (1988), p. 206.</ref>

Invention involves fourteen topics, including definition, cause, effect, subject, adjunct, difference, contrary, comparison, similarity, and testimony. Style encompasses four tropes: metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, and irony. It also includes rules for poetic meter and rhythmical prose, figures corresponding to attitudes a speaker may take, and of repetition. Delivery covers the use of voice and gestures.<ref>Steven Reid, ''Ramus, Pedagogy and the Liberal Arts: Ramism in Britain and the Wider World''(2013), p. 8.</ref>

His [[Philosophy:Rhetoric|rhetoric]]al leaning is seen in the definition of logic as the ''ars disserendi''; he maintains that the rules of logic may be better learned from observation of the way in which Cicero persuaded his hearers than from a study of Aristotle's works on logic (the ''[[Philosophy:Organon|Organon]]'').

Logic falls, according to Ramus, into two parts: invention (treating of the notion and definition) and judgment (comprising the judgment proper, syllogism and method). Here he was influenced by [[Biography:Rodolphus Agricola|Rodolphus Agricola]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/ramus/|title=Petrus Ramus|first=Sellberg|last=Erland|date=9 May 2006| journal=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> This division gave rise to the jocular designation of judgment or mother-wit as the "secunda Petri". But what Ramus does here in fact redefines rhetoric. There is a new configuration, with logic and rhetoric each having two parts: rhetoric was to cover ''elocutio'' and ''pronuntiatio''. In general, Ramism liked to deal with [[Binary tree|binary tree]]s as method for organising knowledge.<ref>Michael Losonsky, ''Language and Logic'', in Donald Rutherford (editor), ''The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy'' (2006), p. 176.</ref>

==Mathematician==

He was also known as a mathematician, a student of Johannes Sturm. It has been suggested that Sturm was an influence in another way, by his lectures given in 1529 on Hermogenes of Tarsus: the Ramist method of [[Dichotomy|dichotomy]] is to be found in Hermogenes.<ref>Thomas M. Conley, ''Rhetoric in the European Tradition'' (1994), p. 131.</ref>

He had students of his own.<ref>{{MathGenealogy|125047}}</ref> He corresponded with [[Biography:John Dee|John Dee]] on mathematics, and at one point recommended to Elizabeth I that she appoint him to a university chair.<ref>Peter French, ''John Dee'' (1972), p. 143.</ref>

The views of Ramus on mathematics implied a limitation to the practical: he considered [[Biography:Euclid|Euclid]]'s theory on [[Irrational number|irrational number]]s to be useless.<ref>Peter French, ''John Dee'' (1972), p. 169.</ref> The emphasis on technological applications and engineering mathematics was coupled to an appeal to nationalism (France was well behind Italy, and needed to catch up with Germany).<ref>A. G. Keller, ''Mathematicians, Mechanics, and Experimental Machines in Northern Italy in the Sixteenth Century'', p. 16, in Maurice Crosland (editor), ''The Emergence of Technology in Western Europe'' (1975).</ref>

==Ramism==
{{Main|Philosophy:Ramism}}

The teachings of Ramus had a broadly based reception well into the seventeenth century. Later movements, such as [[History:Baconian method|Baconianism]], pansophism, and [[Philosophy:Cartesianism|Cartesianism]], in different ways built on Ramism, and took advantage of the space cleared by some of the simplifications (and oversimplifications) it had effected. The longest-lasting strand of Ramism was in systematic Calvinist theology, where textbook treatments with a Ramist framework were still used into the eighteenth century, particularly in New England.

The first writings on Ramism, after the death of Ramus, included biographies, and were by disciples of sorts: Freigius (1574 or 1575),<ref>Thomas Johannes Freigius (1543–1583) was a Swiss scholar; {{cite web |url=http://www.sfb-frueheneuzeit.uni-muenchen.de/projekte/zusatz/HistorischeTabellenwerke/Freigius.html |title=Historische Tabellenwerke - Freigius |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505104303/http://www.sfb-frueheneuzeit.uni-muenchen.de/projekte/zusatz/HistorischeTabellenwerke/Freigius.html |archive-date=2011-05-05 |language=de}}.</ref> Banosius (1576),<ref>Théophile de Banos (died c. 1595) was a Huguenot pastor and author, originally from [[Earth:Bordeaux|Bordeaux]]. ''Commentariorum de religione Christiana libri quatuor, nunquam antea editi'' (Frankfurt, 1576) included a biography of Ramus; Banosius was preacher in Frankfurt 1572 to 1578. Note in [https://archive.org/stream/lesfranaisital02picouoft#page/108/mode/2up].</ref> {{Interlanguage link multi|Nancelius|fr|3=Nicolas de Nancel}} (1599), of whom only Nancelius was closely acquainted with the man.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/ramus/|title=Petrus Ramus|first=Sellberg|last=Erland|date=9 May 2006}}</ref> Followers of Ramus in different fields included [[Social:Johannes Althusius|Johannes Althusius]], Caspar Olevianus, [[Biography:John Milton|John Milton]], Johannes Piscator, Rudolph Snellius and Hieronymus Treutler.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc09/htm/iv.vii.xxxiv.htm|title=Ramus, Petrus|website=www.ccel.org}}</ref>

==Works==
[[Image:La Ramée - Arithmeticae libri tres, 1557 - 106004.jpg|thumb|''Arithmeticae libri tres'', 1557]]
He published fifty works in his lifetime and nine appeared after his death. Ong undertook the complex bibliographical task of tracing his books through their editions.

*''Aristotelicae Animadversiones'' (1543)
*''Brutinae questiones'' (1547)
*''Rhetoricae distinctiones in Quintilianum'' (1549)
*''Dialectique'' (1555)
*''Arithmétique'' (1555)
*''De moribus veterum Gallorum'' (Paris, 1559; second edition, Basel, 1572)
*''Liber de Cæsaris Militia'' Paris, 1584
*''{{lang|fr|Advertissement sur la réformation de l'université de Paris}}'', au Roy, Paris, (1562)
*Three grammars: ''{{lang|la|Grammatica latina}}'' (1548), ''Grammatica Graeca'' (1560), ''{{lang|fr|Grammaire Française}}'' (1562)
*''{{lang|la|Scolae physicae, metaphysicae, mathematicae}}'' (1565, 1566, 1578)
*''Prooemium mathematicum'' (Paris, 1567)
*''Scholarum mathematicarum libri unus et triginta'' (Basel, 1569) (his most famous work)
*''Commentariorum de religione christiana'' (Frankfurt, 1576)

==See also==
*Mnemonics
*[[Philosophy:Ramism|Ramism]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==

==Further reading==
*Nelly Bruyère, ''Méthode et dialectique dans l'oeuvre de La Ramée: Renaissance et Age classique'', Paris, Vrin 1984
*Desmaze, Charles. ''Petrus Ramus, professeur au Collège de France, sa vie, ses ecrits, sa mort'' (Paris, 1864).
*Feingold, Mordechai; Freedman, Joseph S.; Rother, Wolfgang (eds.). ''The Influence of Petrus Ramus. Studies in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Philosophy and Sciences''. Schwabe, Basel 2001, {{ISBN|978-3-7965-1560-6}}.
*Freedman, Joseph S. ''Philosophy and the Arts in Central Europe, 1500-1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities'' (Ashgate, 1999).
*Graves, Frank Pierrepont. ''Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation of the Sixteenth Century'' (Macmillan, 1912).
*Høffding, Harald. ''History of Modern Philosophy'' (English translation, 1900), vol. i.185.
* Howard Hotson, ''Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications, 1543–1630'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
*Lobstein, Paul. ''Petrus Ramus als Theolog'' (Strassburg, 1878).
*Miller, Perry. ''The New England Mind'' (Harvard University Press, 1939).
*[[Biography:John Milton|Milton, John]]. ''A Fuller Course in the Art of Logic Conformed to the Method of Peter Ramus'' (London, 1672). Ed. and trans. Walter J. Ong and Charles J. Ermatinger. ''Complete Prose Works of John Milton: Volume 8.'' Ed. Maurice Kelley. New Haven: Yale UP, 1982. p.&nbsp;206-407.
*[[Biography:Walter J. Ong|Ong, Walter J.]]  (1982). ''Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word.'' New York: Methuen.(p. viii).
**---.''Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason'' (Harvard University Press, 1958; reissued with a new foreword by Adrian Johns, [[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]], 2004.[https://web.archive.org/web/20051228164528/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/16506.ctl Ong, S.J., Walter J.: Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue] {{ISBN|0-226-62976-7}}).
**---. ''Ramus and Talon Inventory'' (Harvard University Press, 1958).
*Owen, John. ''The Skeptics of the French Renaissance'' (London, 1893).
*Pranti, K. "Uber P. Ramus" in ''Munchener Sitzungs berichte'' (1878).
*Saisset, Émile. ''Les précurseurs de Descartes'' (Paris, 1862).
*Sharratt, Peter. "The Present State of Studies on Ramus," ''Studi francesi'' 47-48 (1972) 201-13.
**—. "Recent Work on Peter Ramus (1970–1986)," ''Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric'' 5 (1987): 7-58.
**—. "Ramus 2000," ''Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric'' 18 (2000): 399-455.
*Voigt. ''Uber den Ramismus der Universität Leipzig'' (Leipzig, 1888).
*Waddington, Charles ''De Petri Rami vita, scriptis, philosophia'' (Paris, 1848).

==External links==
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Ramus,+Petrus | name=Petrus Ramus}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Petrus Ramus}}
* [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaGenText/tei/DicHist4.xml;chunk.id=dv4-06 'Ramism' entry in ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas'']
* {{cite SEP |url-id=ramus |title=Petrus Ramus |last=Sellberg |first=Erland}}
* {{MathGenealogy|id=125047}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12638b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
* [https://archive.org/details/ramuspierredelar00wadduoft Charles Waddington, ''Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée) sa vie, ses écrits et ses opinions'' (1855)]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramus, Petrus}}
[[Category:16th-century philosophers]]

{{Sourceattribution|Petrus Ramus|1}}