View source for Biography:Wilder Penfield

{{Short description|Canadian neurosurgeon, college football player and coach (1891–1976)}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Wilder Penfield
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=CAN|OMt|CC|CMG|FRS|size=100%}}
| birth_name = Wilder Graves Penfield
|image = [[File:Wilder_Graves_Penfield.jpg]]
|image_size = 
|caption = Penfield in 1958
|birth_place = Spokane, Washington, United States
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1976|4|5|1891|1|6}}
|death_place = {{wipe|Montreal}}, Quebec, Canada
|nationality = <!-- please figure this out definitely before reinstating -->
|fields = [[Medicine:Neurosurgery|Neurosurgery]]
| notable_students  = Laurence Levy<ref>{{Cite web |title=Levy, Laurence Fraser (1921 - 2007) |url=https://livesonline.rcseng.ac.uk/client/en_GB/lives/search/detailnonmodal/ent:$002f$002fSD_ASSET$002f0$002fSD_ASSET:373316/one?qu=%22rcs:+E001133%22&rt=false%7C%7C%7CIDENTIFIER%7C%7C%7CResource+Identifier |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=livesonline.rcseng.ac.uk}}</ref> 
|workplaces = {{Plainlist|
* Montreal Neurological Institute
* McGill University}}
|alma_mater = {{Plainlist|
* [[Organization:Princeton University|Princeton University]]
* [[Organization:Merton College, Oxford|Merton College, Oxford]]
* Johns Hopkins School of Medicine}}
|known_for =
 {{unbulleted list
  | {{longitem|Prompting memory recall during surgery via [[Biology:Temporal lobe|temporal lobe]] stimulation}}
  | {{nowrap|Treatment of [[Medicine:Epilepsy|epilepsy]] by surgery}}
  | Montreal procedure
  | Penfield dissector
 }}
|awards = {{Plainlist|
* FRS {{small|(1943)}}<ref name=frs>{{Cite journal | last1 = Eccles | first1 = John |  last2 =Feindel | first2 = William | author-link2 = William Feindel | year = 1978 | title = Wilder Graves Penfield 26 January 1891-5 April 1976 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society | volume = 24 | pages =  472–513| doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1978.0015 | pmid = 11615742 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Flavelle Medal  {{small|(1951)}}
* Lister Medal {{small|(1960)}}}}
}}

'''Wilder Graves Penfield''' {{post-nominals|OMt|CC|CMG|FRS}}<ref name=frs/> (January 26, 1891{{spaced ndash}}April 5, 1976) was an American-Canadian neurosurgeon.<ref name=pbs>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpenf.html |title=Wilder Penfield |access-date=2010-02-07 |publisher=PBS}}</ref> He expanded brain surgery's methods and techniques, including mapping the functions of various regions of the brain such as the [[Cortical homunculus|cortical homunculus]]. His scientific contributions on neural stimulation expand across a variety of topics including [[Unsolved:Hallucination|hallucination]]s, [[Philosophy:Illusion|illusion]]s, [[Medicine:Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]] and ''[[Déjà vu|déjà vu]]''. Penfield devoted much of his thinking to mental processes, including contemplation of whether there was any scientific basis for the existence of the human [[Philosophy:Soul|soul]].<ref name=pbs/>

==Biography==

===Early life and education===
[[File:Penfield 2162928575 d9b28de2df o.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Penfield at Princeton University in 1913]]

Born in Spokane, Washington, on January 26, 1891, Penfield spent most of his early life in Hudson, Wisconsin.<ref name=frs/><ref name=pbs/> He studied at [[Organization:Princeton University|Princeton University]], where he was a member of Cap and Gown Club<ref>{{cite journal |title=Princeton 1910–1914 |first=Allen Goodrich |last=Shenstone |journal=Princeton University Library Chronicle |volume=44 |number=1 |date=Autumn 1982 |pages=25–41 |url=http://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/pulc/pulc_v_44_n_1.pdf#page=15 |access-date=2013-11-26 |doi=10.2307/26402300 |jstor=26402300 |archive-date=18 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518145443/http://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/pulc/pulc_v_44_n_1.pdf#page=15 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and played on the football team. After graduation in 1913, he was hired briefly as the team coach. In 1915 he obtained a Rhodes Scholarship to [[Organization:Merton College, Oxford|Merton College, Oxford]],<ref name="MCreg">{{cite book|editor1-last=Levens|editor1-first=R.G.C.|title=Merton College Register 1900–1964|date=1964|publisher=Basil Blackwell|location=Oxford|pages=102–103}}</ref> where he studied [[Biology:Neuropathology|neuropathology]] under Sir [[Biography:Charles Scott Sherrington|Charles Scott Sherrington]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Feindel|first=William|date=1977-09-01|title=Wilder Penfield (1891–1976)The Man and His Work|journal=Neurosurgery|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=93–100|doi=10.1227/00006123-197709000-00001|pmid=355918|s2cid=44912089|issn=0148-396X|doi-access=free}}</ref> After one term at Merton, Penfield went to France where he served as a dresser in a military hospital in the suburbs of Paris.<ref name=MCreg /> He was wounded in 1916 when the ferry he was aboard, the SS ''Sussex'', was torpedoed.<ref name=MCreg /> The following year, he married Helen Kermott, and began studying at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, attaining his medical degree in 1918; this was followed by a short period as a house surgeon at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston.<ref name=MCreg /> Returning to Merton College in 1919,<ref name=MCreg /> Penfield spent the next two years completing his studies; during this time he met Sir William Osler. In 1924, he worked for five months with Pío del Río Hortega characterising the type of glial cells known as oligodendroglia.<ref name=gill>{{cite journal |last=Gill |first=AS |author2=DK Binder  |title=Wilder Penfield, Pío del Río-Hortega, and the discovery of oligodendroglia |journal=Neurosurgery |date=May 2007 |volume=60 |pages=discussion 940–948 |pmid=17460531 |doi=10.1227/01.NEU.0000255448.97730.34 |issue=5|s2cid=6282005 }}</ref>  He also studied in Germany with Fedor Krause and Otfrid Foerster, as well as in {{wipe|New York City}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/penfield_wilder.html |title=Wilder Penfield |access-date=2010-02-07 |publisher=[[Organization:Princeton University|Princeton University]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blum|first=Alan|date=2011-04-19|title=A bedside conversation with Wilder Penfield|journal=CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal|volume=183|issue=7|pages=745–746|doi=10.1503/cmaj.110202|issn=0820-3946|pmc=3080520|pmid=21482658}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Feindel|first1=William|last2=Preul|first2=Mark C.|date=1991-11-01|title=Origins of Wilder Penfield's surgical technique: The role of the "Cushing ritual" and influences from the European experience|journal=Journal of Neurosurgery|language=en-US|volume=75|issue=5|pages=812–820|doi=10.3171/jns.1991.75.5.0812|pmid=1919711}}</ref> In 1928, during the 6 months he spent in Germany with Foerster, he learned how to use local anesthesia to keep brain surgery patients awake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Compston|first=Alastair|date=February 2017|title=The structural basis of traumatic epilepsy and results of radical operation. By O. Foerster, Breslau, and Wilder Penfield, Montreal|journal=Brain|language=en|volume=140|issue=2|pages=508–513|doi=10.1093/brain/aww354|issn=0006-8950|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>''See his biography "No Man Alone" (references below) : Ch.8'' Interlude in Germany ''; p167-168 and p257''</ref><ref>"Impressions of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Neurohistology in Central Europe" unpublished report by Penfield to the Rockefeller Foundation – 1928 ([https://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfieldfonds/fullrecord.php?ID=9647&d=1 read online]).</ref>

===Medical career===
After taking a surgical apprenticeship under Harvey Cushing, he obtained a position at the Neurological Institute of New York, where he carried out his first solo operations to treat [[Medicine:Epilepsy|epilepsy]]. While in New York, he met David Rockefeller, who wished to endow an institute where Penfield could further study the surgical treatment of epilepsy. Academic politics amongst the New York neurologists, however, prevented its establishment in New York, so, in 1928, Penfield accepted an invitation from Sir Vincent Meredith to move to Montreal, Quebec, {{wipe|Canada}}. There, Penfield taught at McGill University and the Royal Victoria Hospital, becoming the city's first neurosurgeon.
[[File:Wilder Penfield.jpg|thumb|left|Penfield at Montreal Neurological Institute in 1934]]
In 1934, Penfield, along with William Cone,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Andrew-Gee |first1=Eric |title=Pioneering neurosurgeon explored the mind's mysteries – and left behind secrets |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-pioneering-neurosurgeon-explored-the-minds-mysteries-and-left-behind/ |website=The Globe and Mail |access-date=25 October 2022 |date=15 January 2022}}</ref> founded and became the first director of the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital<ref name=MCreg /> at McGill University, established with the Rockefeller funding. That year, he also became a British subject (as part of the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]], there was no distinct Canadian citizenship until 1947).<ref name=MCreg />

Penfield was unable to save his only sister, Ruth, who died from brain cancer, though complex surgery he performed added years to her life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/wilder-penfield-google-honours-today-180126071943388.html|title=Wilder Penfield: Why Google honours him today|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=2018-01-27}}</ref>

Penfield was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950<ref name="AAAS">{{cite web |title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter P |url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterP.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref> and retired ten years later in 1960. He was a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wilder Penfield |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001882.html |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Wilder+Penfield&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1953 New Year Honours list. He turned his attention to writing, producing a novel as well as his autobiography ''No Man Alone.'' A later biography, ''Something Hidden'', was written by his grandson Jefferson Lewis.<ref>Charles Godfrey, "With Bible reading, hard work and obeying the Golden Rule, Penfield could do anything". ''The Globe and Mail'', October 31, 1981.</ref>

In 1960, the year he retired, Penfield was awarded the Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science.<ref>{{cite journal|date=January 1961|title=Lister Medal|journal=Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England|volume=28|issue=1|page=15|pmc=2414022|pmid=19310274}}</ref> He delivered the corresponding Lister Oration, "Activation of the Record of Human Experience", at the Royal College of Surgeons of England on April 27, 1961.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Penfield|first=Wilder|date=August 1961|title=Activation of the Record of Human Experience|journal=Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England|volume=29|issue=2|pages=77–84|pmc=2414108|pmid=19310299}}</ref> In 1967, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada and, in 1994, was posthumously inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame. Much of his archival material is housed in the Osler Library at McGill University.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfield/|title=Wilder Penfield Archive|last=(see also "External links" below)|website=digital.library.mcgill.ca|access-date=2019-08-05}}</ref>

===Later life===
In his later years, Penfield dedicated himself to the public interest, particularly in support of university education. With his friends Governor-General Georges Vanier and Pauline Vanier, he co-founded the Vanier Institute of the Family "to promote and guide education in the home{{spaced ndash}}man's first classroom."<ref name="ArchivesCanada">{{cite web|url=https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/physicians/030002-2400-e.html|title=Famous Canadian Physicians: Dr. Wilder Penfield|website=Library and Archives Canada|access-date=25 January 2018}}</ref> He was also an early proponent of childhood bilingualism.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Lebrun, Yvan|date= 1971|title=The Neurology of Bilingualism= |journal=Word |volume=27 |issue=1–3 |pages=179–186 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1971.11435622 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Penfield died on April 5, 1976, of abdominal cancer at Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/04/06/archives/wg-penfield-neurologistdies-refined-techniques-to-treat-epilepsy.html|title=W. G. Penfield, Neurologist, Dies.|date=5 April 1976|work=New York Times|access-date=27 January 2018}}</ref> He and his wife, Helen, had their ashes buried on the family property in East Bolton (Bolton-Est), Quebec on Sargent's Bay, Lake Memphremagog.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.municipalite.austin.qc.ca/uploaddir/files/Penfield_Austin_EN-WEB.pdf|title=Wilder Graves Penfield|last1=Williams|first1=Kate|last2=Penfield|first2=Wilder G. III|website=Municipality of Austin, Québec, Canada|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223082823/http://www.municipalite.austin.qc.ca/uploaddir/files/Penfield_Austin_EN-WEB.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Scientific contributions==
[[File:Wilder Penfield Pavilion Montreal.jpg|thumb|left|The Wilder Penfield Pavilion at McGill University]]

===Neural stimulation===

Penfield was a groundbreaking researcher and original surgeon. His development of a neurosurgical technique using an instrument known as the Penfield dissector, which produced the least injurious [[Medicine:Meninges|meningo-cerebral]] scar, became widely accepted in the field of neurosurgery and remains in regular use. With his colleague [[Biography:Herbert Jasper|Herbert Jasper]], he invented the "Montréal Procedure" in which he treated patients with severe [[Medicine:Epilepsy|epilepsy]] by destroying nerve cells in the [[Biology:Brain|brain]] where the seizures originated.  Before operating, he stimulated the brain with electrical probes while the patients were conscious on the operating table (under only [[Medicine:Local anesthesia|local anesthesia]]), and observed their responses. In this way he could more accurately target the areas of the brain responsible, reducing the side-effects of the surgery.

This technique also allowed him to create maps of the [[Biology:Sensory cortex|sensory]] and [[Biology:Motor cortex|motor cortices]] of the brain (see [[Cortical homunculus|cortical homunculus]]) showing their connections to the various limbs and organs of the body. These maps are still used today, practically unaltered. Along with [[Biography:Herbert Jasper|Herbert Jasper]], he published this work in 1951 (2nd ed., 1954) as the landmark ''Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain''. This work contributed a great deal to understanding the [[Biology:Functional specialization (brain)|localization of brain function]]. Penfield's maps showed considerable overlap between regions (e.g. the motor region controlling muscles in the hand sometimes also controlled muscles in the upper arm and shoulder) a feature which he put down to individual variation in brain size and localisation: it has since been established that this is due to the fractured somatotopy of the motor cortex. From these results he developed his cortical homunculus map, which is how the brain sees the body from an inside perspective.

Penfield reported<ref>{{cite journal|title=Memory Mechanisms|journal=Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry|volume=67|issue=2|last=Penfield|first=Wilder|year=1952|pages=178–198|doi=10.1001/archneurpsyc.1952.02320140046005|pmid=14893992}}</ref> that stimulation of the [[Biology:Temporal lobe|temporal lobe]]s could lead to vivid recall of memories. Oversimplified in popular psychology publications, including the best-selling ''I'm OK&nbsp;– You're OK'', this seeded the common misconception that the brain continuously "records" experiences in perfect detail, although these memories are not available to conscious recall. Reported episodes of recall occurred in less than five percent of his patients, though these results have been replicated by modern surgeons.<ref name="Vignal_stimulation_meories">{{cite journal|last1=Maillard|first1=Louis|last2=McGonigal|first2=Aileen|last3=Chauvel|first3=Patrick|last4=Vignal|first4=Jean-Pierre|date=30 November 2006|title=The dreamy state: hallucinations of autobiographic memory evoked by temporal lobe stimulations and seizures|url=http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/1/88.article-info|journal=Brain|volume=130|issue=1|pages=88–89|doi=10.1093/brain/awl329|pmid=17142246|access-date=27 January 2018|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Electrical_stimulation_elicits_memories">{{cite journal|last1=Bartolomei|first1=F.|last2=Barbeau|first2=E.|last3=Gavaret|first3=M.|last4=Guye|first4=M.|last5=McGonigal|first5=J. Régis|last6=Chauvel|first6=P.|date=14 September 2004|title=Cortical stimulation study of the role of rhinal cortex in déjà vu and reminiscence of memories|journal=Neurology|volume=63|issue=5|pages=858–864|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000137037.56916.3f|pmid=15365137|s2cid=30995021}}</ref>  Penfield's hypothesis on this subject was revised in 1970.<ref name="Revision_of_Penfield_hypothesis">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wabwBwAAQBAJ|title=Origin and mechanism of Hallucinations|last1=Horowtiz|first1=M.J.|last2=Adams|first2=J.E.|publisher=Plenum Press|year=1970|isbn=978-1-4615-8647-0|pages=13–22|chapter=Hallucinations on Brain Stimulation: Evidence for Revision of The Penfield Hypothesis.|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-8645-6|access-date=27 January 2018}}</ref>

===Hallucinations===
Penfield's scientific contributions go past the somatosensory and the [[Biology:Motor cortex|motor cortices]]; his extensive work of the functions of the brain also included charting the functions of the parietal and temporal cortices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/08/27/wilder-penfield-neural-cartographe|title=Wilder Penfield, Neural Cartographer|date=27 August 2008|website=Science Blogs|access-date=26 January 2018}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Of his 520 patients, 40 reported that while their temporal lobe was stimulated with an electrode they would recall dreams, smells, [[Unsolved:Hallucination|visual]] and [[Unsolved:Auditory hallucination|auditory hallucination]]s, as well as [[Unsolved:Out-of-body experience|out-of-body experience]]s.<ref name="Penfield_OBE">{{cite journal|last1=Tong|first1=Frank|date=March 2003|title=Out-of-body experiences: from Penfield to present.|pmid=12639686|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=7|issue=3|pages=104–106|doi=10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00027-5|s2cid=15800031}}</ref> In his studies, Penfield found that when the [[Biology:Temporal lobe|temporal lobe]] was stimulated it produced a combination of hallucinations, dream, and memory recollection.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJtQptBcZloC|title=A Dictionary of Hallucinations|last=Blom|first=Jan Dirk|date=8 December 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1223-7|access-date=27 January 2018|isbn=978-1-4419-1222-0}}</ref> These experiences would only last as long as the electrode stimulations were present on the cortex, and in some cases when patient experienced hallucinatory experiences that evoked certain smells, sensations of flashing light, stroking the back of their hand, and many others. Other stimulations had patients experiencing ''déjà vu'', fear, loneliness, and strangeness. Certain areas of patients' temporal lobes were stimulated with an electrode in order to experience memories. Penfield called these perceptual illusions (physical hallucinations) interpretive responses. According to Penfield, when the temporal lobe was stimulated there were two types of perceptions experienced by patients:<ref name="primal-page.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.primal-page.com/penfield.htm|title=The Role of the Temporal Cortex in Certain Psychical Phenomena: A Review|last=Speyrer|first=John A.|date=July 1955|website=The Primal Psychotherapy Page|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>

# Experential experience – where the patient recorded hearing a song, or seeing a flash of light.
# Strip experience – The recall seems familiar to the patient and comes from the patient's past even though the patient may not be able to pinpoint the exact occasion. The recall of a memory or memories could reinforce the emotion tied to the experience.

Penfield stressed that the "things that have been recorded are the things which once came within the spot-light of attention".<ref name="primal-page.com"/> Penfield had over 25 years of research using [[Biology:Electrical brain stimulation|electrical stimulation]] to produce experiential hallucinations. His conclusions show that patients experience a range of hallucinations from simple to complex. They also show that hallucinations can be stimulated.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Compston|first=Alastair|date=1 March 2005|title=From the Archives: The brain's record of auditory and visual experience. A final summary and discussion.|journal=Brain|volume=128|issue=3|pages=449–450|doi=10.1093/brain/awh435|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Déjà vu===

Penfield's expansion of the interpretive cortex includes the phenomenon of ''[[Déjà vu|déjà vu]]''.<ref name="Penfield_dreamy_state">{{cite journal|last1=Bancaud|first1=J.|last2=Brunet-Bourgin|first2=F.|last3=Chauvel|first3=P.|last4=Halgren|first4=E.|date=February 1994|title=Anatomical origin of déjà vu and vivid 'memories' in human temporal lobe epilepsy.|journal=Brain|volume=117|issue=Pt 1|pages=71–90|doi=10.1093/brain/117.1.71|pmid=8149215}}</ref> ''Déjà vu'' is the sensation that an experience a person is having has previously been experienced. ''Déjà vu'' is typically experienced by people between the ages of 15 and 25, and affects approximately 60-70% of the population. It is thought to be a mismatch of the sensory input people receive and the system in which the brain recalls memory. Another thought on the cause of ''déjà vu'' is that there is a malfunction in the brain's short- and long-term memory systems where memories become stored in incorrect systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-babble/201208/the-neuroscience-d-j-vu|title=The Neuroscience of Déjà Vu|last=Lewis|first=Jordan Gaines|date=14 August 2012|website=Psychology Today|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> There are several ways one can recognize familiar experiences&nbsp;– by mentally retrieving memories of a previous experience, or by having a feeling that an experience has occurred when it actually has not. ''Déjà vu'' is having that feeling of familiarity in a situation that is completely new. Memory is good at being familiar with objects, however it does not do well with the configuration or organization of objects. ''Déjà vu'' is an extreme reaction to the mind telling an individual that they are having a familiar experience.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201001/what-is-d-j-vu|title=What Is Déjà Vu?|last=Markman|first=Art|date=5 January 2010|website=Psychology Today|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> ''Déjà vu'' is thought to be a consistent phenomenon. However, it has been associated with [[Medicine:Epilepsy|epilepsy]], and with multiple [[Biology:Psychiatry|psychiatric]] disorders such as [[Medicine:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] and [[Medicine:Anxiety|anxiety]],<ref name="en.wikipedia.org">[[Déjà vu]]</ref> but there has not been a clear, frequent diagnostic correlation between ''déjà vu'' and neurological or psychiatric disorders, except with patients that have a possibility of being epileptic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wild|first=Edward|date=January 2005|title=Déjà vu in neurology|journal=Journal of Neurology|volume=252|issue=1|pages=1–7|doi=10.1007/s00415-005-0677-3|pmid=15654548|s2cid=12098220}}</ref> Temporal lobe epilepsy affects the hippocampus. Patients that have this medical diagnosis are said to have a misfiring of the brain's neurons. The neurons transmit at random which results in the false sense of experiencing a familiar situation that had previously been experienced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/38280-what-is-deja-vu.html|title=What Is Déjà Vu?|last=Lallanilla|first=Marc|date=18 July 2013|website=LiveScience|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> Different types of ''déjà vu'' are difficult to pinpoint because researchers who have studied ''déjà vu'' have developed their own categories and differentiations. On a broad perspective of research that is available, ''déjà vu'' can be divided into two categories: associative ''déjà vu'' and biological déjà vu. Associative ''déjà vu'' is typically experienced by normal, healthy individuals who experience things with the senses that can be associated to other experiences or past events. Biological ''déjà vu'' occurs in individuals who have [[Medicine:Temporal lobe epilepsy|temporal lobe epilepsy]].<ref name="DejaVu_left_hippocampus">{{cite journal|last1=Labate|first1=Angelo|last2=Cerasa|first2=Antonio|last3=Mumoli|first3=Laura|last4=Ferlazzo|first4=Edoardo|last5=Aguglia|first5=Umberto|last6=Quattrone|first6=Aldo|last7=Gambardella|first7=Antonio|year=2015|title=Neuro-anatomical differences among epileptic and non-epileptic déjà-vu.|pmid=25461702|journal=Cortex|volume=64|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2014.09.020|s2cid=24507367}}</ref> Their experience of ''déjà vu'' occurs usually just before they experience a seizure.<ref name="science.howstuffworks.com">{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/deja-vu1.htm|title=How Déjà Vu Works|last=Obringer|first=Lee Ann|website=How Stuff Works|date=11 April 2006|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> Recent research is looking at the new occurrence of chronic ''déjà vu''. Chronic ''déjà vu'' is when an individual is experiencing a constant state of ''déjà vu''. Failure of the temporal lobe is thought to be the cause of this phenomenon because the circuits that connect to memories get stuck in an active state, and create memories that never happened.<ref name="science.howstuffworks.com"/>

== Global policy ==
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961 |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8 |access-date=2023-07-01 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6 |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref> As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the [[Social:Constitution for the Federation of Earth|Constitution for the Federation of Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preparing earth constitution {{!}} Global Strategies & Solutions {{!}} The Encyclopedia of World Problems |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |url-status= |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=The Encyclopedia of World Problems {{!}} Union of International Associations (UIA)}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:Wilder Penfield plaque Montreal.JPG|right|thumb|Federal marker to Penfield at the McGill University building that bears his name]]
Penfield was designated a National Historic Person in 1988 by the government of Canada. As such, a federal historical marker from the national Historic Sites & Monuments Board and Parks Canada was erected, located at a building that bears his name on University Street, part of the McGill University campus in Montreal.

A postage stamp honouring Penfield was issued by Canada Post on March 15, 1991.

''Avenue du Docteur-Penfield'' ({{coord|45.500342|-73.583103}}), on the slope of Mount Royal in Montreal, was named in Penfield's honour on October 5, 1978. Part of this avenue borders McGill University's campus and intersects with Promenade Sir-William-Osler{{spaced ndash}}meaning medical historians and the like may amuse themselves by arranging to "meet at Osler and Penfield". <!--Appropriate? Relevant?: Ironically, Randolph Evans November 25, 1976 (year of Wilder Penfield's death) shooting death by NYPD's Robert Torsney was named for the epileptic condition he named Automatism of Penfield that Officer Torsney was diagnosed with.-->

A portrait of Wilder Penfield hangs in Rhodes House at the [[Organization:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]], England.
Penfield was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) of the United Kingdom in 1943.<ref name=frs/>

In honour of Wilder Graves Penfield's contribution to the public sector in Montreal, notably alongside his interest in further developing education, Wilder Penfield Elementary School was also established as part of the Lester B. Pearson School Board.

Penfield building, one of John Abbott College's ten buildings, also bears the name of the famous neurosurgeon.

Penfield was the subject of a Google doodle on January 26, 2018, marking the 127th anniversary of his birth. The doodle appeared on the Google homepage in selected countries on five continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/doodles/wilder-penfields-127th-birthday|title=Wilder Penfield's 127th Birthday|date=26 January 2018|website=Google Doodles|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Smith|first1=K.N.|title=Friday's Google Doodle Honors Neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/2018/01/26/fridays-google-doodle-honors-neurosurgeon-wilder-penfield/#204443ce7f9e|access-date=26 January 2018|magazine=Forbes|date=26 January 2018|language=en}}</ref>

Penfield Children's Center In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is named for Dr. Penfield for his advocacy of early intervention for children with developmental delays and disabilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penfieldchildren.org/about-penfield/|title=About Penfield Children's Center|website=Penfield Children's Center|access-date=26 January 2018|archive-date=24 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024032525/http://penfieldchildren.org/about-penfield/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Eponyms==

*Penfield's homunculus ([[Biology:Neuroanatomy|neuroanatomic]] feature first characterized by Penfield in 1937)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schott |first1=GD |date=1993 |title=Penfield's homunculus: a note on cerebral cartography |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=329–333 |doi= 10.1136/jnnp.56.4.329|pmid=8482950 |pmc=1014945 }}</ref>
*Penfield syndrome (a form of autonomic [[Medicine:Epilepsy|epileptic seizure]])<ref>{{cite book |last=Pryse-Phillips |first=William |date=2009 |title=Companion to Clinical Neurology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlZnDAAAQBAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=790 |isbn=9780195367720 |access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref>
*Penfield dissector (a type of [[Engineering:Surgical instrument|surgical instrument]] used in neurosurgery and other disciplines)

==Honorary degrees==
Penfield was awarded many [[Social:Honorary degree|honorary degree]]s in recognition of his medical career. These include:

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
! style="width:20%;"| State/Province
! style="width:20%;"| Date
! style="width:40%;"| School
! style="width:20%;"| Degree
|-
| {{Flagu|New Jersey}} || '''1939''' || [[Organization:Princeton University|Princeton University]] || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rbsc.princeton.edu/mudd-dbs/honoraries?qname=honorary&LNAME=Penfield&FNAME=Wilder&YEAR=|title=Honorary Degree Recipients, 1748-2001|website=Princeton University|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|British Columbia}} || '''30 October 1946''' || University of British Columbia || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.library.ubc.ca/archives/hdcites/hdcites2.html|title=Honorary Degree Citations|website=University of British Columbia|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Saskatchewan}} || '''29 September 1959''' || [[Organization:University of Saskatchewan|University of Saskatchewan]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.usask.ca/archives/campus-history/honorary-degrees.php?id=118&view=detail&keyword=&campuses=|title=Honorary Degrees|website=University of Saskatchewan|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''1953''' || [[Organization:University of Toronto|University of Toronto]] || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/Assets/Governing+Council+Digital+Assets/Boards+and+Committees/Committee+for+Honorary+Degrees/degreerecipients1850tillnow.pdf|title=University of Toronto Honorary Degree Recipients 1850 - 2016|date=14 September 2016|website=University of Toronto|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|England}} || '''1953''' || [[Organization:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/about/rhodes-scholars/rhodes-scholars-awarded-honorary-degree-from-oxford|title=Rhodes Scholars Awarded Honorary Degrees From Oxford|website=The Rhodes Trust|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426095423/http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/about/rhodes-scholars/rhodes-scholars-awarded-honorary-degree-from-oxford|archive-date=26 April 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> ||---
|-
| {{Flagu|Manitoba}} || '''1955''' || [[Organization:University of Manitoba|University of Manitoba]] || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://umanitoba.ca/admin/governance/senate/hdr/834.html|title=University of Manitoba Honorary Degree Recipients|date=2017|website=University of Manitoba|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''1957''' || Queen's University || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://queensu.ca/registrar/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.uregwww/files/files/HDrecipients.pdf|title=Honorary Degree Recipients|date=14 September 2011|website=Queen's University|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Quebec}} || '''6 October 1960''' || McGill University || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/senate/files/senate/honorary_degree_recipients_alpha_list_updated_nov._2016.pdf|title=List of McGill Honorary Degree Recipients from 1935 to Fall 2016|website=McGill University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317144411/https://www.mcgill.ca/senate/files/senate/honorary_degree_recipients_alpha_list_updated_nov._2016.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Quebec}} || '''/''' || Bishop's University || Honorary Graduate <ref>[https://www.ubishops.ca/wp-content/uploads/alumni/1967_final.pdf Bishop's University] Retrieved 12 March 2023</ref>
|-

| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''May 1962''' || McMaster University || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mcmaster.ca/univsec/reports_lists/S_HD_Recipients.pdf|title=McMaster University Honorary Degree Recipients (Chronological) 1892-Present|date=20 July 2017|website=McMaster University|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Alberta}} || '''29 March 1967''' || University of Calgary<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/senate/files/senate/all-recipients-by-last-name-2014-2015-september-2.docx.xlsx|title=All Recipients 2014-2015|date=12 June 2015|website=University of Calgary|access-date=26 January 2018|archive-date=27 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127004752/http://www.ucalgary.ca/senate/files/senate/all-recipients-by-last-name-2014-2015-september-2.docx.xlsx|url-status=dead}}</ref> || ---
|-
| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''16 May 1970''' || Royal Military College of Canada || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmcc-cmrc.ca/en/royal-military-college-canada-honorary-degree-recipients|title=Royal Military College of Canada Honorary Degree Recipients|date=16 August 2017|website=Royal Military College of Canada|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''21 September 1972''' || University of Western Ontario || [[Social:Doctor of Science|Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uwo.ca/univsec/pdf/senate/honorary/honorary_degrees_by_year.pdf|title=The University of Western Ontario, Honorary Degrees Awarded, 1881-Present|date=15 Jun 2017|website=Western University of Canada|access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref>
|}

== In popular culture ==
* Wilder Penfield was the subject of a ''Heritage Minute'', dramatizing his development of the Montreal procedure. When Dr. Penfield stimulates the seizure-producing part of her brain, an epileptic patient exclaims: "I can smell burnt toast!" This ''Heritage Minute'' was widely shown and again made Penfield a household name in Canada.<ref name="Heritage Minutes: Wilder Penfield">{{cite web |url=https://www.historicacanada.ca/content/heritage-minutes/wilder-penfield-0|title=Heritage Minutes: Wilder Penfield|access-date=12 January 2019 }}</ref>
* In Robert J. Sawyer's 2012 novel ''Triggers'', it is revealed that the major character of Dr. Ranjip Singh, a Canadian, was inspired to pursue his career in neuroscience by having seen the "I can smell burnt toast" Heritage Minute about Penfield.<ref name="Heritage Minutes: Wilder Penfield"/>
* In science fiction author [[Biography:Philip K. Dick|Philip K. Dick]]'s ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', characters use a household device called a Penfield Mood Organ to dial up emotions on demand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://law.stanford.edu/2012/11/01/lawandbiosciences-2012-11-01-biosci-fi-do-androids-dream-of-electric-sheep-philip-k-dick-1968/|title=Stanford Law BioSci-Fi: Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?|date=November 2012 |access-date=12 January 2019 }}</ref>
* Shirow Masamune's anime series ''[[Unsolved:Ghost Hound|Ghost Hound]]'' makes several references to Penfield and his studies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://randomc.net/2007/12/01/ghost-hound-07/|title=Ghost Hound 07|date=December 2007 |access-date=12 January 2019 }}</ref>
* The song "Wilder Penfield" by the Dead Sea Apes, a UK-based psychedelic rock group, from ''The Sun Behind The Sun'', a collaboration with Black Tempest released in February 2013 on Cardinal Fuzz records.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://soundcloud.com/dead-sea-apes/wilder-penfield|title=Wilder Penfield (Penfield's Mood Organ mix)|last1=Dead Sea Apes|last2=Black Tempest|website=SoundCloud|access-date=12 January 2019}}</ref>
* In Ray Loriga's 1999 novel ''Tokio ya no nos quiere'', Penfield's method of stimulating the temporal lobes is described and modified to treat the main character who has issues with memory recollection.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Marshall |first=Richard |date=30 January 2004 |title=Freedom and Memory: The Ray Loriga Interview|url=http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/2004/jan/interview_ray_loriga.html |magazine=3:AM Magazine |access-date=12 January 2019 }}</ref>
* In the video game ''Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht'', "Penfield Mapping" is seemingly the process of drawing a [[Cortical homunculus|cortical homunculus]], necessary for one to enter a virtual environment.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://gamefaqs.gamespot.com/ps2/519264-xenosaga-episode-i-der-wille-zur-macht/faqs/24989 |date=2 August 2003 |title=Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille Zur Macht References Guidedate=30 January 2004|access-date=12 January 2019}}</ref> 
* Wilder Penfield's, Sensory & Motor Homunculus 3D figures have been on permanent exhibition in the [[Biology:Natural History Museum, London|National History Museum, London]]. Penfield's Homunculi have become popular exhibits.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Resnick |first=Brian |date=26 January 2018 |title=Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain - by opening the heads of living patients|url=https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/1/26/16932476/wilder-penfield-brain-surgery-epilepsy-google-doodle |magazine=Vox |access-date=12 January 2019 }}</ref>

==College football coaching record==
Between his graduation from Princeton and his studies at Oxford, Penfield served as Princeton's head football coach for one season.

{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
 | name      = Princeton Tigers
 | conf      = Independent
 | startyear = 1914
 | endyear   = single
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
 | championship =
 | year         = 1914
 | name         = Princeton
 | overall      = 5–2–1
 | conference   =
 | confstanding =
 | bowlname     =
 | bowloutcome  =
 | bcsbowl      =
 | ranking      = no
 | ranking2     = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
 | name       = Princeton
 | overall    = 5–2–1
 | confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record End
 | overall  = 5–2–1
 | bowls    = no
 | poll     = no
 | polltype =
 | legend   = no
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Selected books and publications ==

=== Books ===

*''Cytology and Cellular Pathology of the Nervous System''. By various authors. Edited by W. Penfield. Three volumes, 1280 pages, 1932 ([https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001553054 read online])
*"''Epilepsy and Cerebral Localization: A Study of the Mechanism, Treatment and Prevention of Epileptic Seizures''". By Wilder Penfield and Theodore C. Erickson. Chapter XIV by Herbert H. Jasper. Chapter XX by M. R. Harrower-Erickson. Charles C. Thomas, 1941. {{OCLC|716544137}}
*Penfield, Wilder (1941). ''Canadian Army of Military Neurosurgery''. Ottawa: Government Distribution Office. ([https://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfieldfonds/fullrecord.php?ID=10461&d=1 read online])
*{{Cite book|title=The Cerebral Cortex of Man|last=Penfield, W. with Rasmussen, T. B.|year=1950|oclc=645750713}}
*Penfield, Wilder; Kristiansen, Kristian (1951). ''Epileptic seizure patterns; a study of the localizing value of initial phenomena in focal cortical seizures,''. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas. {{OCLC|3385089}}.
*''Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain.''  2nd edition. Jasper, H., and Penfield, W. Little, Brown and Co., 1954. {{ISBN|0-316-69833-4}}
*{{Cite book|title=The Excitable Cortex in Conscious Man|last=Penfield,W.|year=1958|oclc=1055881925}} ([https://openlibrary.org/works/OL5295194W read online])
*''Speech and Brain Mechanisms'', Penfield, Wilder and Roberts, Lamar, Princeton University Press, 1959. ([https://openlibrary.org/works/OL5295191W read online])
*''The Torch, a story of Hippocrates.'' Penfield, W. Little, Brown and Co.; 1960. {{ISBN|1-299-80119-6}}. (Historical novel) "A story of love, treachery, and the battle for truth in ancient Greece." ([https://openlibrary.org/works/OL5295197W read online])
*''The Mystery of the Mind : A Critical Study of Consciousness and the Human Brain''. Penfield, Wilder. Princeton University Press, 1975. {{ISBN|0-691-02360-3}} ([https://openlibrary.org/works/OL5295187W read online])
*''No Man Alone: A Neurosurgeon's Life'', Little, Brown and Co., 1977. {{ISBN|0-316-69839-3}}. Penfield's autobiography. ([https://openlibrary.org/works/OL17999424W read online])
*''Something hidden : a biography of Wilder Penfield.'' Jefferson Lewis, Doubleday and Co., 1981. {{ISBN|0-385-17696-1}}. ([https://openlibrary.org/books/OL21541784M/Something_hidden read online])

=== Articles ===

* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1093/brain/53.2.99 | volume=53 | year=1930 | journal=Brain | pages=99–119 | author=Foerster O., Penfield Wilder| title=The Structural Basis of Traumatic Epilepsy and Results of Radical Operation | issue=2 | hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002B-0D28-A | hdl-access=free }}
*{{cite journal | pmid = 20317931 | volume=23 | pmc=381999 | year=1930 | author=Penfield W | title=The Radical Treatment of Traumatic Epilepsy and ITS Rationale | journal=Can Med Assoc J | issue=2 | pages=189–197 }}

==External links==
{{Commons|Wilder Penfield}}
{{Archival records
| title                 = Wilder Penfield fonds
| location              = Osler Library of the History of Medicine
| description_URL       = https://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/wilder-penfield-fonds
}}
* 1958 ''Gateways To The Mind'' - Note: Starting at 46 minutes there is a 3 minutes video talk by Wilder Penfield ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pX4mlgwSKd4 watch online])
*1981 ''Something Hidden : A Portrait of Wilder Penfield'' by Bob Lower and Jefferson Lewis, National Film Board of Canada and Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39355175 VHS and DVD] ([http://images.nfb.ca/images/pages/en/search.html?clipIndex=27&resultsClipId=35482&nbpage=50&pageStr=1&newSearch=true&limitSearch=501&keyword=Something+Hidden%3A+A+Portrait+of+Wilder+Penfield&termsList=&geo=&year_from=&year_until=&collection=&duration_from=&duration_until=&number=&__son=&highDef=&clipAvailable=true&aspectRatio=&resolution=&sourceFormat=&uvcount=&avcount=&parentTopic=&searchTopic= watch video dailies online])
*[http://archive.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?lang=e&TypeID=orc&id=2239 Penfield's Order of Canada citation]
* [https://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/wilder-penfield-fonds Wilder Penfield Fonds] at the Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University.
** [http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfield/ Searchable database of the Penfield Fonds] from the Osler Library of the History of Medicine
** A selection of items from the fonds have been digitized: [http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/penfieldfonds/ Wilder Penfield Digital Collection]
* [https://archivalcollections.library.mcgill.ca/index.php/jefferson-lewis-collection Jefferson Lewis Fonds] at the Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University, contains materials assembled by Jefferson Lewis for the purpose of writing his biography of Penfield, Something Hidden
* [http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~gcpws/Penfield/Penfield.html Penfield biography] at the "Great Canadian Psychology" website (University of Alberta).
* [http://www.municipalite.austin.qc.ca/uploaddir/files/Penfield_Austin_EN-WEB.pdf Wilder Graves Penfield, MD, OM, CC, FRS, 1891-1976 / text by Kate Williams and Wilder G. Penfield III ] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20151223082823/http://www.municipalite.austin.qc.ca/uploaddir/files/Penfield_Austin_EN-WEB.pdf archive])


{{DEFAULTSORT:Penfield, Wilder}}
[[Category:Neuropsychologists]]

{{Sourceattribution|Wilder Penfield}}