View source for Biology:Abalone

{{Short description|Common name for a group of sea snails}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Abalone
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range | Late Cretaceous | Recent | ref=<ref name="Geiger1999">{{harvnb|Geiger|Groves|1999|p=872}}</ref> }}
| image = LivingAbalone.JPG
| image_caption = Living abalone in tank showing epipodium and tentacles, anterior end to the right.
| parent_authority = [[Biography:Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1815
| taxon = Haliotis
| authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Biology:10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref>{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1758|p=779}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1767|p=1255}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 57, see species section
| synonyms_ref =<ref name="WoRMS">{{harvnb|Gofas|Tran|Bouchet|2014}}</ref>
| synonyms = * ''Euhaliotis'' <small>Wenz, 1938</small>
* ''Eurotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
* ''Exohaliotis'' <small>Cotton & Godfrey, 1933</small>
* ''Haliotis (Haliotis)'' <small>[[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758</small>
* ''Haliotis (Nordotis)'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
* ''Haliotis (Notohaliotis)'' <small>Cotton & Godfrey, 1933</small>
* ''Haliotis (Padollus)'' <small>[[Biography:Pierre Denys de Montfort|Montfort]], 1810</small>
* ''Haliotis (Paua)'' <small>C. Fleming, 1953</small>
* ''Haliotis (Sulculus)'' <small>H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854</small>
* ''Marinauris'' <small>Iredale, 1927</small>
* ''Neohaliotis'' <small>Cotton & Godfrey, 1933</small>
* ''Nordotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
* ''Notohaliotis'' <small>Cotton & Godfrey, 1933</small>
* ''Ovinotis'' <small>Cotton, 1943</small>
* ''Padollus''<small> [[Biography:Pierre Denys de Montfort|Montfort]], 1810</small>
* ''Paua'' <small>C. Fleming, 1953</small>
* ''Sanhaliotis'' <small>Iredale, 1929</small>
* ''Schismotis'' <small>Gray, 1856</small>
* ''Teinotis'' <small>H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854</small>
* ''Tinotis'' <small>P. Fischer, 1885</small> <small>(invalid: unjustified emendation of Teinotis)</small>
* ''Usahaliotis'' <small>Habe & Kosuge, 1964</small>
| type_species = ''[[Biology:Haliotis asinina|Haliotis asinina]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Biology:10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
}}

'''Abalone''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-abalone.ogg|ˈ|æ|b|ə|l|oʊ|n|i}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|n|i}}; via Spanish {{lang|es|abulón}}, from <!--{{etyl|css|en}}--> Rumsen ''aulón''<!--{{term|aulón}}-->) is a [[Biology:Common name|common name]] for any of a group of small to very large marine gastropod [[Biology:Mollusc|mollusc]]s in the family [[Biology:Haliotidae|Haliotidae]], which contains only one genus ''[[Biology:Haliotis|Haliotis]]'' (which once contained six subgenera).<ref name="WoRMS" /> Other [[Biology:Common name|common name]]s are '''ear shells''', '''sea ears''', and, rarely, '''muttonfish''' or '''muttonshells''' in parts of Australia, '''ormer''' in {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, '''perlemoen''' in South Africa, and '''pāua''' in New Zealand.<ref name="MtSS">{{harvnb|Beesley|Ross|Wells|1998}} </ref> The number of abalone species recognized worldwide ranges between 30<ref name="DCMD">{{harvnb|Dauphin|Cuif|Mutvei|Denis|1989|p=9}}</ref> and 130<ref name="Cox">{{harvnb|Cox|1962|p=8}}</ref> with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, with 18 additional subspecies.<ref name="GO">{{harvnb|Geiger|Owen|2012}}{{page needed|date=August 2014} 
The [[Biology:Gastropod shell|shells]] of abalones have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of [[Biology:Nacre|nacre]], which in many species is highly [[Physics:Iridescence|iridescent]], giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.

The flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a delicacy, and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of cultures.

==Description==
[[Image:AbaloneInside.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Physics:Iridescence|iridescent]] surface inside a red abalone shell from Northern California. The US coin (quarter) is 24.257 mm or 0.955 inch in diameter]]

Most abalone vary in size from {{convert|20|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} (''[[Biology:Haliotis pulcherrima|Haliotis pulcherrima]]'') to {{convert|200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}. The largest species,  ''[[Biology:Haliotis rufescens|Haliotis rufescens]]'', reaches {{convert|300|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|1993|p=7}}</ref>

The shell of abalones is convex, rounded to oval in shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell of the majority of species has a small, flat [[Biology:Spire (mollusc)|spire]] and two to three whorls. The last whorl, known as the body whorl, is auriform, meaning that the shell resembles an ear, giving rise to the common name "ear shell". ''[[Biology:Haliotis asinina|Haliotis asinina]]'' has a somewhat different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of ''Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii'' is also unusual as it has an ovate form, is imperforate, shows an exserted spire, and has prickly ribs.

A [[Biology:Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column.<ref name=Anderson/> They make up what is known as the [[Biology:Selenizone|selenizone]], which forms as the shell grows. This series of eight to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number is generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and 10, in the selenizone. An abalone has no [[Biology:Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The [[Biology:Aperture (mollusc)|aperture]] of the shell is very wide and nacreous.<ref name=Anderson>{{cite web |url=http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/abintro.htm |title=Abalone Introduction |author=Anderson, Jenny |year=2003 |work=Marine Science |accessdate=10 March 2021 }}</ref>

The exterior of the shell is striated and dull. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, which may reflect the animal's diet.<ref name=MtSS /> The iridescent [[Biology:Nacre|nacre]] that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue, green to purple.

The animal has fimbriated head lobes and side lobes that are fimbriated and [[Biology:Cirrus|cirrated]]. The [[Biology:Radula|radula]] has small median teeth, and the lateral teeth are single and beam-like. They have about 70 uncini, with denticulated hooks, the first four very large. The rounded foot is very large in comparison to most molluscs. The soft body is coiled around the [[Biology:Columella (gastropod)|columellar muscle]], and its insertion, instead of being on the columella, is on the middle of the inner wall of the shell. The [[Biology:Gill|gill]]s are symmetrical and both well developed.<ref name="Tryon">{{harvnb|Tryon|1880|p=41}}</ref>

These snails cling solidly with their broad, muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as ''[[Biology:Haliotis cracherodii|Haliotis cracherodii]]'' used to be common in the [[Earth:Intertidal zone|intertidal zone]]. Abalones reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their [[Philosophy:Fecundity|fecundity]] is high and increases with their size, laying from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time. The spermatozoa are filiform and pointed at one end, and the anterior end is a rounded head.<ref name="Tryon1">{{harvnb|Tryon|1880|p=46}}</ref>

==Distribution==
[[File:Abalone Santo Andre Povoa de Varzim.jpg|thumb|Abalone with a live sponge on its shell in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal]]
The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Arctic, and [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014g}}</ref> The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrjwoUa9YBEC&q=National%20Geographic%20Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Water's%20Edge&pg=PP1|title=National Geographic Field Guide to the Water's Edge|last=Leatherman|first=Stephen|publisher=National Geographic|year=2012|isbn=978-1426208683|series=National Geographic Field Guides|pages=93}}</ref>

==Structure and properties of the shell==
The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is made of microscopic [[Chemistry:Calcium carbonate|calcium carbonate]] tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of tiles is a clingy protein substance. When the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists around the world are studying this tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products such as [[Engineering:Body armor|body armor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lin|Meyers|2005|p=27 & 38}}</ref> The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/pulmonary/hypersensitivity-pneumonitis/#table1|title=Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis|website=www.clevelandclinicmeded.com|access-date=17 January 2018}}</ref>

==Diseases and pests==
Abalones are subject to various diseases. The Victorian Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that ganglioneuritis killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone are also severe [[Medicine:Haemophilia|hemophiliacs]], as their fluids will not clot in the case of a laceration or puncture wound. Members of the [[Biology:Spionidae|Spionidae]] of the polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.<ref>{{harvnb|Simon|2011|p=39}}</ref>

==Human use==
Abalone has been harvested worldwide for centuries as a source of food and decorative items. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like pearls and nacre, have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Loosanoff|1997|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What are abalone pearls?|url=https://pearlwise.pro/what-are-abalone-pearls}}</ref>  These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |display-authors=et al.|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at [[Earth:Blombos Cave|Blombos Cave]], South Africa|journal=Science|date=October 2011|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Braje, Erlandson & Rick|title=An Historic Chinese Abalone Fishery on California's Northern Channel Islands|journal=Historical Archaeology|date=2007|volume=41|issue=4|pages=117–128|doi=10.1007/BF03377298|s2cid=164710632}}</ref>  For at least 12,000 years, abalones were harvested to such an extent around the Channel Islands that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref>

===Farming===
[[Image:Abalone-farm1web.jpg|thumb|right|An abalone farm]]
[[File:Alaminosjf384.JPG|thumb|right|125px|Abalone hatchery]]
[[File:Alaminosjf385.JPG|thumb|right|125px|Part of the Multi-Species Fish and Invertebrate Breeding and Hatchery, (Oceanographic Marine Laboratory, Lucap, Alaminos, Pangasinan, {{wipe|Philippines}}, 2011)]]
Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2012}}</ref> Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption.<ref>{{harvnb|Taggart|2002}}</ref> Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan,<ref>{{harvnb|Westaway|Norriss|1997|p=1}}</ref> Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, France,<ref>{{harvnb|Simons|2010}}</ref> Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain,<ref name="ElPais">{{cite web
 | url =http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2016/07/27/actualidad/1469637381_879215.html
 | title =El marisco más exclusivo del mundo se cría en Galicia
 | date =28 July 2016
| website =El Pais
 | publisher =PRISA
 | access-date =28 July 2016
}}</ref> Thailand, and the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2001|p=1}}</ref>

After trials in 2012,<ref name="oceangrown.com.au-2013">{{cite web
 |url          = http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf
 |title        = Information Memorandum, 2013 Ranching of Greenlip Abalone, Flinders Bay – Western Australia
 |website      = Ocean Grown Abalone
 |access-date  = 23 April 2016
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215256/http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf
 |archive-date = 10 October 2016
|url-status     = dead
 |df           = dmy-all
}}</ref> a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5,000 separate concrete abalone habitat units, which can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.

The abalone feed on seaweed that grows naturally on the habitats; the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also results in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, [[Biology:Wrasse|wrasse]], and [[Biology:Samson fish|Samson fish]] among other species.<ref name="abc.net.au-2014-08-15">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-15/nrn-abalone-wild-farm/5673010
 | title =First wild abalone farm in Australia built on artificial reef 
 | last =Fitzgerald
 | first =Bridget
 | date =28 August 2014
| website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation Rural
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2016-04-23">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-23/world-first-abalone-sea-ranch-creating-opportunity/7345448
 | title =Abalone grown in world-first sea ranch in WA 'as good as wild catch'
 | last =Murphy
 | first =Sean
 | date =23 April 2016
| website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016}}</ref>

===Consumption===
Abalones have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant. The meat of this mollusc is considered a delicacy in certain parts of Latin America (particularly Chile), France, New Zealand, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Greater China region and among Overseas Chinese communities, abalone is commonly known as ''bao yu'', and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. In the same way as shark fin soup or bird's nest soup, abalone is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for special occasions such as weddings and other celebrations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hossain |first1=Mobarak |last2=Chowdhury |first2=Niaz Murshed |title=Econometric Ways to Estimate the Age and Price of Abalone |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/91210/ |website=MPRA |date=3 January 2019 |access-date=7 September 2023}}</ref>

As abalone became more popular and less common, the prices adjusted accordingly. In the 1920s, a restaurant-served portion of abalone, about 4 ounces, would cost (in inflation adjusted dollars) about US$7; by 2004, the price had risen to US$75.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=65}}</ref> In the United States, prior to this time, abalone was predominantly eaten, gathered, and prepared by Chinese immigrants.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=66}}</ref> Before that, abalone were collected to be eaten, and used for other purposes by Native American tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Seaweed, Salmon, and Manzanita Cider: A California Indian Feast|last=Dubin|first=Margaret|publisher=Heyday Books|year=2008|editor-last=Tolley|editor-first=Sara-Larus}}</ref> By 1900, laws were passed in California to outlaw the taking of abalone above the [[Earth:Intertidal zone|intertidal zone]]. This forced the Chinese out of the market and the Japanese perfected diving, with or without gear, to enter the market. Abalone started to become popular in the US after the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915, which exhibited 365 varieties of fish with cooking demonstrations, and a 1,300-seat dining hall.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=70}}</ref>

In Japan, live and raw abalones are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of ''tottsuru'', a local dish from Honshū. ''Tottsuru'' is mainly enjoyed with sake.<ref>{{harvnb|Akimichi|1999}}</ref>

In South Korea, abalone is called ''Jeonbok'' (/juhn-bok/) and used in various recipes. ''Jeonbok'' porridge and pan-fried abalone steak with butter are popular but also commonly used in soups or ramyeon.

In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango, or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.<ref>{{harvnb|Gayot|2010}}</ref>

===Sport harvesting===

====Australia====
Tasmania supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014}}</ref> Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for [[Biology:Haliotis rubra|blacklip]] and [[Biology:Haliotis laevigata|greenlip]] abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between {{convert|138|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the southern end of the state and {{convert|127|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the northern end of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014a}}</ref> Greenlip abalones have a minimum size of {{convert|145|mm|in|abbr=on}}, except for an area around Perkins Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is {{convert|132|mm|in}}. With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales and Western Australia is illegal; a free-diving catch limit of two is allowed).<ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC blacklip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909021551/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC greenlip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904073427/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Victoria has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year, due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus ganglioneuritis, which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.

====United States====
[[File:Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California (CHS-1399).jpg|thumb|Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California, ''circa'' 1900]]
[[File:Japanese Abalone Diver.jpg|thumb|A young Japanese abalone diver in California in 1905]]
[[Image:White abalone Haliotis sorenseni.jpg|thumb|right|Two highly endangered white abalone: Prohibitions on commercial and recreational harvest of this species have been 
in place since 1996.]]
Sport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. In 2008, the abalone card also came with a set of 24 tags. This was reduced to 18 abalone per year in 2014, and as of 2017 the limit has been reduced to 12, only nine of which may be taken south of Mendocino County. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately.<ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2008|loc=§29.16(a)}}</ref> Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(e)}}</ref> Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of San Francisco Bay.<ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(a)}}</ref> A size minimum of {{convert|7|in|mm|abbr=on}} measured across the shell is in place.  A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.<ref name=cal15c>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(c)}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(d)}}</ref>

As of 2017, abalone season is May to October, excluding July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken, as black, white, [[Biology:Haliotis corrugata|pink]], [[Biology:Haliotis walallensis|flat]], green, and pinto abalone are protected by law.<ref name=cal15c/> In 2018, the California Fish and Game Commission closed recreational abalone season due to dramatically declining populations. That year, they extended the moratorium to last through April 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last=Duggan |first=Tara |date=13 December 2018 |title=California abalone season sunk until 2021 to give stressed population time to rebuild |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/food/article/No-abalone-diving-allowed-in-California-until-2021-13460882.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |location=San Francisco, California |access-date=26 March 2018 }}</ref>

An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick [[Engineering:Wetsuit|wetsuit]], including a hood, bootees, and gloves, and usually also a mask, [[Engineering:Snorkeling|snorkel]], weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}; less common are freedivers who can work deeper than {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources such as [[Biology:Kelp|kelp]]. An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it has time to fully clamp down. Divers dive from boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The largest abalone recorded in California is {{convert|12.34|in|cm|abbr=on}}, caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of San Mateo County in September 1993.<ref name="Smookler2005p76">{{harvnb|Smookler|2005|p=76}}</ref>

The mollusc ''[[Biology:Concholepas concholepas|Concholepas concholepas]]'' is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a [[Biology:Muricidae|muricid]].

====New Zealand====
{{Main|Biology:Pāua}}

In New Zealand, abalone is called ''pāua'' ({{IPAc-en|'|p|aʊ|ə}}, from the Māori language). ''[[Biology:Haliotis iris|Haliotis iris]]'' (or blackfoot ''pāua'') is the ubiquitous New Zealand ''pāua'', the highly polished nacre of which is extremely popular as souvenirs with its striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. ''[[Biology:Haliotis australis|Haliotis australis]]'' and ''[[Biology:Haliotis virginea|Haliotis virginea]]'' are also found in New Zealand waters, but are less popular than ''H. iris''.

Like all New Zealand shellfish, recreational harvesting of ''paua'' does not require a permit provided catch limits, size restrictions, and seasonal and local restrictions set by the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) are followed. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 per diver, with a minimum shell length of {{convert|125|mm|abbr=on}} for ''H. iris'' and {{convert|80|mm|abbr=on}} for ''H. australis''. In addition, no person may be in possession, even on land, of more than 20 ''paua'' or more than {{convert|2.5|kg|abbr=on}} of ''paua'' meat at any one time. ''Paua'' can only be caught by free-diving; it is illegal to catch them using scuba gear.

An extensive global black market exists in collecting and exporting abalone meat. This can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest ''paua'' can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry for Primary Industries fishery officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police.  [[Biology:Poaching|Poaching]] is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles and fines and in rare cases, imprisonment.

====South Africa====
There are five species endemic to South Africa, namely ''[[Biology:Haliotis parva|H. parva]]'', ''[[Biology:Haliotis spadicea|H. spadicea]]'', ''[[Biology:Haliotis queketti|H. queketti]]'' and ''[[Biology:Haliotis speciosa|H. speciosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-20 |title=South African abalone - SANBI |url=https://www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/south-african-abalone/,%20https://www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/south-african-abalone/ |access-date=2023-08-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The largest abalone in South Africa, ''[[Biology:Haliotis midae|Haliotis midae]]'', occurs along roughly two-thirds of the country's coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Plagányi|first1=Éva|last2=Butterworth|first2=Doug|last3=Burgener|first3=Markus|date=1 January 2011|title=Illegal and unreported fishing on abalone—Quantifying the extent using a fully integrated assessment model|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=107|issue=1–3|pages=221–232|doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2010.11.005}}</ref> In South Africa, all persons harvesting this shellfish need permits that are issued annually, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear.

For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone, but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2007}}</ref>
In 2007, because of widespread [[Biology:Poaching|poaching]] of abalone, the South African government listed abalone as an endangered species according to the [[Biology:CITES|CITES]] section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however.
The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per [[Tonne|tonne]].

==== Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy ====
Ormers (''[[Biology:Green ormer|Haliotis tuberculata]]'') are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |title=Ormers « Jersey Evening Post |access-date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131323/http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |archive-date=18 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under {{convert|80|mm|in}} in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014b}}</ref> The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|1969|p=16}}</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:AbaloneMeat.jpg|The raw meat of abalone
File:Seeohr-Sashimi.jpg|Abalone sashimi
File:Chineseabalonecuisine.jpg|Braised abalones
File:Abalone & Asparagus, Stir-Fried with Black Bean Sauce (207804042).jpg|Abalones with [[Biology:Asparagus|asparagus]]
File:Cantoneseabalone.jpg|Abalone ''bao yu''
File:Korean grilled abalone-Jeonbok gui-01.jpg|Grilled abalones
File:Korean cuisine-Jeju Island-Obunjagi ttukbaegi-01.jpg|A Korean abalone stew
File:Korean cuisine-Jeonbok hoe-01.jpg|Abalone ''Hoe''
File:HK Food Chinese Seafood Dinner 鮑魚仔 Steamed Abalone with Mandarin orange peels.JPG|Abalone with [[Biology:Mandarin orange|mandarin orange]] peels.
File:Abalone (dish) - in Macau.jpg|Abalone (dish) - in [[Place:Macau|Macau]]
</gallery>

=== Decorative items ===
[[File:Carving of chief (detail), Haida, c. 1890, wood, paint, abalone shell - Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium - DSC04327.JPG|thumb|Haida carving with rectangular abalone shell accents]]
The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry,<ref name=MtSS /> buttons, and as inlay in furniture and musical instruments, such as on fret boards and binding of guitars.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fretboardjournal.com/features/guitar-lovers-guide-cites-conservation-treaty/|title=A Guitar Lover's Guide to the CITES Conservation Treaty {{!}} Fretboard Journal|date=2 September 2008|work=Fretboard Journal|access-date=27 October 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> See article Najeonchilgi regarding Korean handicraft. 

=== Indigenous use ===
Abalone has been an important staple in a number of Indigenous cultures around the world, specifically in Africa and on the Northwest American coast. The meat is a traditional food, and the shell is used to make ornaments; historically, the shells were also used as currency in some communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Abalone Tales|last=Field|first=Les|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008}}</ref>

==Threat of extinction==
Abalones are one of the many classes of organism threatened with extinction due to overfishing and the [[Biology:Ocean acidification|acidification of oceans]] from recent higher levels of [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]],<ref>{{harvnb|Byrne|Ho|Wong|Soars|2011}}</ref> as reduced pH erodes their shells. In the 21st century, white, pink, and green abalone are on the United States federal endangered species list, and possible restoration sites have been proposed for the San Clemente Island and Santa Barbara Island areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rogers-Bennett|first1=Laura|last2=Haaker|first2=Peter|last3=Karpov|first3=Konstantin|last4=Kushner|first4=David|display-authors=1|date=1 October 2002|title=Using Spatially Explicit Data to Evaluate Marine Protected Areas for Abalone in Southern California|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1308–1317|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01002.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16.1308R |s2cid=84134835 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> The possibility of farming abalone to be reintroduced into the wild has also been proposed, with these abalone having special tags to help track the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/abhist.htm|title=Abalone: History and Future|website=www.marinebio.net|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref>

==Species==
{{Main|Biology:Haliotis}}

The number of species that are recognized within the genus ''Haliotis'' has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30<ref name=DCMD/> to 130.<ref name=Cox/> This list finds a compromise using the WoRMS database, plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57.<ref name="WoRMS"/><ref>{{harvnb|Abbott|Dance|2000}}</ref> The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.

<gallery class="center">
File:Ass’s ear abalone (Haliotis asinina) S01.jpg|A dorsal view of a live ass's ear abalone, ''[[Biology:Haliotis asinina|Haliotis asinina]]''
File:Pinkabalone 300.jpg|The pink abalone, ''[[Biology:Haliotis corrugata|Haliotis corrugata]]''
File:Haliotis cracherodii.JPG|The black abalone, ''[[Biology:Haliotis cracherodii|Haliotis cracherodii]]''
File:Blacklip abalone.jpg|Dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views of the blacklip abalone, ''[[Biology:Haliotis rubra|Haliotis rubra]]''
File:Whiteabalone 300.jpg|The white abalone, ''[[Biology:Haliotis sorenseni|Haliotis sorenseni]]''
File:Haliotis varia f. dohrniana 001.jpg|A shell of ''[[Biology:Haliotis varia|Haliotis varia]]'' form ''dohrniana''
</gallery>

==Synonyms==
{{Main|Biology:List of abalone synonyms}}

==See also==
* Delicacy

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
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* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Glenn A. | editor1-last = Starkey | editor1-first = David J. | editor2-last = Holm | editor2-first = Poul | editor3-last = Barnard | editor3-first = Michaela | title = Oceans Past: Management Insights from the History of Marine Animal Populations | chapter = "Quite the Choicest Protein Dish": The Costs of Consuming Seafood in American Restaurants, 1850–2006 | location = London, UK | publisher = Earthscan | isbn = 978-1-84407-527-0 | year = 2008  }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Lin | first1 = Albert | last2 = Meyers | first2 = Marc André | doi = 10.1016/j.msea.2004.06.072 | title = Growth and Structure in Abalone Shell | date = 15 January 2005 | journal = Materials Science and Engineering: A | volume = 390 | issue = 1–2 | issn = 0921-5093 | pages = 27–41  }}
* {{cite book | last = Linnaeus | first = Carl |  year = 1758 | title = Systema Naturæ per Regna Tria Naturæ, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis | trans-title = The System of Nature Through the Three Kingdoms of Nature, According to Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, With the Characteristics, Differences, Synonyms, and Locations | edition = Decima [10th] | volume = 1 | publisher = Laurentii Salvii | location = Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/5/mode/1up | language = la }}
* {{cite book | last = Linnaeus | first = Carl |  year = 1767 | title = Systema Naturæ | trans-title = The System of Nature | edition = Duodecima [12th] | volume = 1, Part 2 | publisher = Laurentii Salvii | location = Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden | url = http://dfg-viewer.de/show/?tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=http%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fmets_export.php%3FPPN%3DPPN362053723&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=1&tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&cHash=0d2840d4a6a1753fdcc8095dba46df58 | language = la }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Loosanoff | first1 = Victor L. | editor-last = Johnston | editor-first = Bernard | encyclopedia = Collier's Encyclopedia | title = Abalone | edition = 1st | year = 1997 | publisher = P. F. Collier | volume = I: A to Ameland | location = New York, NY  }}
* {{cite iucn |author=McDougall, P.T. |author2=Ploss, J. |author3=Tuthill, J. |date=2006 |title=''Haliotis kamtschatkana'' |volume=2006 |page=e.T61743A12552981 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61743A12552981.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
* {{cite web |last=Neuman |first=Melissa |date=10 June 2009 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/greenabalone_detailed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111523/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/greenabalone_detailed.pdf |title=Species of Concern: Green Abalone ''Haliotis fulgens'' |website=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last=Neuman |first=Melissa |date=2 November 2007 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pinkabalone_detailed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050111/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/pinkabalone_detailed.pdf |title=Species of Concern: Pink Abalone ''Haliotis corrugata'' |website=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal | last = Simon | first = Carol A. | year = 2011 | title = Polydora and Dipolydora (Polychaeta: Spionidae) Associated With Molluscs on the South Coast of South Africa, With Descriptions of Two New Species | journal = African Invertebrates | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–50 | issn = 1681-5556  | doi=10.5733/afin.052.0104| bibcode = 2011AfrIn..52...39S | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite news |last=Simons |first=Stefan |date=14 April 2010 |url=http://www.spiegel.de/reise/europa/0,1518,688155,00.html |title=Abalone-Zucht in der Bretagne: Sylvains Meerestrüffel |trans-title=Abalone Farming in Brittany: Sylvain Sea Truffles |access-date=16 August 2014 |language=de |newspaper=Spiegel Online |archive-date=4 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204012756/http://www.spiegel.de/reise/europa/abalone-zucht-in-der-bretagne-sylvains-meerestrueffel-a-688155.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite iucn |author=Smith, G. |author2=Stamm, C. |author3=Petrovic, F. |collaboration=McGill University |date=2003 |title=''Haliotis cracherodii'' |volume=2003 |page=e.T41880A10566196 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T41880A10566196.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
* {{cite book | last = Smookler | first = Michael | title = San Mateo County Coast | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KWtomVo9nekC | year = 2005 | publisher = Arcadia Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7385-3061-1 }}
* {{cite web |author=State of California |year=2014 |url=https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I1F5125905A1D11E39E99E44D51D26567?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |title=Title 14, Division 1, Subdivision 1, Chapter 4, Article 1, §29.15 Abalone |website=Westlaw |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055236/https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I1F5125905A1D11E39E99E44D51D26567?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |author=State of California |date=January 2011 |url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf |title=Special Animals (898 Taxa) |website=State of California: Division of Fish and Game |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124164328/http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/spanimals.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |author=State of California |year=2008 |url=https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I07609D1057DC11E29076D3281F28AB91?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=StatuteNavigator&contextData=(sc.Default) |title=Title 14, Division 1, Subdivision 1, Chapter 4, Article 1, §29.16 Abalone Report Card and Tagging Requirements (FG 2915, See Section 701) |website=Westlaw |access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225013830/https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/I07609D1057DC11E29076D3281F28AB91?viewType=FullText&originationContext=documenttoc&transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default) |url-status=live }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Taggart |first=Stewart |date=25 January 2002 |url=https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,49847,00.html |title=Abalone Farming on a Boat |access-date=16 August 2014 |magazine=Wired |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612200225/http://archive.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/01/49847 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last1=Tran |first1=Bastien |last2=Bouchet |first2=Phillippe |year=2009 |url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=445309 |website=WoRMS: World Register of Marine Species |title=WoRMS Taxon Details: ''Haliotis corrugata oweni'' Talmadge, 1966 |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017054534/http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=445309 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last = Tryon | first = George W. Jr. |  year = 1880 | title = Manual of Conchology; Structural and Systematic With Illustrations of the Species | volume = II: Muricinæ, Purpurinæ | publisher = Academy of Natural Sciences | location = Philadelphia, PA | url = https://archive.org/details/manualofconcholo2tryo | format = PDF }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=Cameron |last2=Norriss |first2=Jeff |date=October 1997 |url=http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |title=Abalone Aquaculture in Western Australia |journal=Fisheries Management Paper |volume=109 |issn=0819-4327 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084356/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/fmp109.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2014 }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Field | first = Les | editor-last = Lomawaima | editor-first = K. Tsianina | title = Abalone Tales: Collaborative Explorations of Sovereignty and Identity in Native California | location = Durham, NC | publisher = Duke University Press | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-8223-4233-5 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Geiger | first1 = Daniel L. | last2 = Poppe | first2 = G. T. | year = 2000 | title = A Conchological Iconography: The family Haliotidae | publisher = Conchbooks | location = Hackenheim Germany  }}
* {{cite journal | last = Pollard | first = Graham | title = Abalone Fishing in South Australia | year = 2001 | journal = South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/7735/SPUMS_V31N3_7.pdf?sequence=1 | access-date = 16 August 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085734/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/7735/SPUMS_V31N3_7.pdf?sequence=1 | archive-date = 19 August 2014 | url-status = usurped }}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061005124250/http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/marinesci/06future/abspdiv.htm Abalone: Species Diversity]
* [http://www.vetigastropoda.com/ABMAP/text/index.html ABMAP: The Abalone Mapping Project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160924102441/http://www.underwateraudio.com/blog/facts-about-the-abalone/ Abalone biology]
* [http://www.conchology.be/en/availableshells/searchresultsgallery.php?family=HALIOTIDAE Conchology]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630065302/http://www.gastropods.com/Taxon_pages/Group_Abalone.html Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods : Shell Catalog]
* [http://www.pauamana.com book on crafting with Abalone Shell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309181433/http://www.pauamana.com/ |date=9 March 2021 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130423151728/http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/recreational_fishing/fact_sheets/fact_sheet_abalone.pdf Fisheries Western Australia – Abalone Fact Sheet]
* [https://archive.today/20060315181535/http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/zoology/abnet/species.html Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412044614/http://www.omanholiday.co.uk/Abalone-in-Dhofar-by-Tony-Walsh-for-Emirates-Open-Skies-Magazine.pdf Oman’s Abalone Harvest ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717004848/http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00001521.htm] Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081120222458/http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00000954.htm] Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)
* [https://fathom4a.blogspot.com.au/2016/05/fathom-four-pages-38-to-48-ablalone.html Fathom magazine "The Abalone Divers" Pages 43,44,45  (1972)]{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://www.gemexi.com/gemstones/abalone Abalone Healing Properties]

{{commercial molluscs}}
{{Commercial fish topics}}
{{Edible molluscs}}
{{Jewellery}}

[[Category:Haliotidae| ]]
[[Category:Commercial molluscs]]
[[Category:Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances]]
[[Category:Mollusc common names]]

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{{Sourceattribution|Abalone}}