View source for Biology:American mink

{{short description|Semiaquatic species of mustelid}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = American mink
| fossil_range = Recent
| image = MinkforWiki.jpg
| image_caption = Near Capisic Pond, Portland, Maine
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author1= Reid, F. |author2=Schiaffini, M. |author3=Schipper, J. |name-list-style=amp | title = ''Neovison vison'' | year = 2016 | page = e.T41661A45214988  |doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T41661A45214988.en}}</ref>
| genus = Neogale
| species = vison
| authority = (Schreber, 1777)<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Carnivora |id= 14001484 |page= 619}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 15, see text
* ''N. v. vison''
* ''N. v. aestuarina''
* ''N. v. aniakensis''
* ''N. v. energumenos''
* ''N. v. evagor''
* ''N. v. evergladensis''
* ''N. v. ingens''
* ''N. v. lacustris''
* ''N. v. letifera''
* ''N. v. lowii''
* ''N. v. lutensis''
* ''N. v. melampeplus''
* ''N. v. mink''
* ''N. v. nesolestes''
* ''N. v. vulgivaga''
| range_map = American Mink area.png
| range_map_caption = American mink range in North America
| range_map2 = Mapa Neovison vison.png
| range_map2_caption = Native (red) and introduced (pink) range of American mink
| synonyms = * ''Mustela vison''
* ''Vison vison''
* ''Neovison vison''
}}
The '''American mink''' ('''''Neogale vison''''') is a semiaquatic species of [[Biology:Mustelidae|mustelid]] native to [[Earth:North America|North America]], though human introduction has expanded its range to many parts of [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], [[Earth:Asia|Asia]], and [[Earth:South America|South America]]. Because of range expansion, the American mink is classed as a [[Biology:Least-concern species|least-concern species]] by the IUCN.<ref name=iucn/> The American mink was formerly thought to be the only extant member of the [[Biology:Genus|genus]] ''[[Biology:Neovison|Neovison]]'' following the extinction of the [[Biology:Sea mink|sea mink]] (''N.&nbsp;macrodon''), but recent studies, followed by taxonomic authorities, have reclassified it and the sea mink within the genus ''[[Biology:Neogale|Neogale]]'', which also contains a few [[Earth:New World|New World]] weasel species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=Bruce D. |last2=Ramírez-Chaves |first2=Héctor E. |last3=Vilela |first3=Júlio F. |last4=Soares |first4=André E. R. |last5=Grewe |first5=Felix |year=2021 |title=On the nomenclature of the American clade of weasels (Carnivora: Mustelidae) |journal=Journal of Animal Diversity |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.52547/JAD.2021.3.2.1 |doi-access=free |s2cid=236299740 |issn=2676-685X}}</ref> The American mink is a [[Biology:Carnivore|carnivore]] that feeds on rodents, fish, crustaceans, frogs, and birds. In its [[Earth:Introduced species|introduced]] range in Europe it has been classified as an [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]] linked to declines in [[Biology:European mink|European mink]], [[Biology:Pyrenean desman|Pyrenean desman]], and [[Biology:European water vole|water vole]] populations. It is the animal most frequently farmed for its fur, exceeding the [[Biology:Silver fox (animal)|silver fox]], sable, [[Biology:Marten|marten]], and [[Biology:Skunk|skunk]] in economic importance.<ref name=s745>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=745}}</ref>

==Evolution==
As a species, the American mink represents a more specialized form than the European mink in the direction of [[Biology:Carnivore|carnivory]], as indicated by the more developed structure of the skull.<ref name=s1397/> Fossil records of the American mink go back as far as the [[Biology:Irvingtonian|Irvingtonian]], though the species is uncommon among [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] animals. Its fossil range corresponds with the species' current natural range. The American minks of the Pleistocene did not differ much in size or morphology from modern populations, though a slight trend toward increased size is apparent from the Irvingtonian through to the Illinoian and Wisconsinan periods.<ref name=k151>{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1980|p=151}}</ref>

Although superficially similar to the European mink, studies indicate the European mink's closest relative is the Siberian weasel (''kolonok'') of Asia. The American mink has been recorded to [[Biology:Hybrid|hybrid]]ize with European minks and [[Biology:European polecat|polecat]]s in captivity, though the hybrid embryos of the American and European minks are usually reabsorbed.<ref name=h488>{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=488}}</ref>

===Subspecies===
{{As of|2005}},<ref>{{MSW3 Wozencraft | pages = | id =14001484}}</ref> 15 subspecies are recognised.

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;"
|- style="background:#115a6c;"
!Subspecies
!Trinomial authority
!Description
!Range
!Synonyms
|-
|'''Eastern''' or '''little black mink'''<br>''N. v. vison''
(Nominate subspecies)
[[File:Mink in the park (2).jpg|150 px]]
|Schreber, 1777
|The smallest subspecies<ref name="a109">{{Harvnb|Anthony|1928|pp=109–110}}</ref>
|Eastern {{wipe|Canada}}, west to Hudson Bay; south in the interior to the Catskill Mountains, New York and to northern Pennsylvania
|<small>''altaica'' (Ternovskii, 1958)</small><br>
<small>''borealis'' (Brass, 1911)</small><br>
<small>''nigrescens'' (Audubon and Bachman, 1854)</small><br>
<small>''tatarica'' (Popov, 1949)</small><br>
<small>''winingus'' (Baird, 1858)</small><br>
|-
|'''California lowland mink'''<br>''N. v. aestuarina''
|Ginnell, 1916
|Resembles ''N. v. energumenos'', but smaller and has paler, less dense fur<ref name="a109"/>
|The lowlands of west-central {{wipe|California}}; west to Petaluma and Marin Counties
|
|-
|''N. v. aniakensis''
|Burns, 1964
|
|
|
|-
|'''Western''' or '''Pacific mink'''<br>''N. v. energumenos''
|Bangs, 1896
|A small and dark-coloured subspecies with dark sooty-brown fur. Males measure {{convert|24|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|8.2|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|Western North America, from British Columbia south to the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and the Rocky Mountains in New Mexico
|
|-
|''N. v. evagor''
|Hall, 1932
|
|
|
|-
|'''Everglades mink'''<br>''N. v. evergladensis''
|Hamilton, 1948
|
|The southern tip of Florida
|
|-
|'''Alaskan mink'''<br>''N. v. ingens''
|Osgood, 1900
|The largest subspecies, it resembles ''N. v. energumenos'', but is lighter in colour. Males measure {{convert|28.8|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|7.2|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|Northern, western and central [[Earth:Alaska|Alaska]]; the northern [[Earth:Yukon|Yukon]] and the northwestern Mackenzie Mountains; south to the Alaska Peninsula and to Fort Good Hope
|
|-
|'''Hudson Bay mink'''<br>''N. v. lacustris''
|Preble, 1902
|It has dark chocolate-brown fur above with white on the chin and irregularly distributed on the breast and between the hind legs. Males measure {{convert|27|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|8|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|The interior of Canada from Great Bear Lake and the western shores of Hudson Bay south through Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba to southern North Dakota
|
|-
|'''Mississippi Valley mink'''<br>''N. v. letifera''
|Hollister, 1913
|It has a light brown coat with white spots on the chin, throat and breast. Males measure {{convert|26|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|9.4|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|Northern Wisconsin and northern South Dakota south to northern Illinois, northern Missouri and southern {{wipe|Kansas}}
|
|-
|''N. v. lowii''
|Anderson, 1945
|
|
|
|-
|'''Florida mink'''<br>''N. v. lutensis''
|Bangs, 1898
|A medium-sized subspecies, it has a pale russet to clay- or reddish-brown coat. Males measure {{convert|23|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|8|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|The coasts of the southeastern United States from South Carolina to Florida
|
|-
|'''Kenai mink'''<br>''N. v. melampeplus''
|Elliot, 1904
|Darker than ''energumenos'', it has dark chocolate-coloured fur with slightly paler underparts and a white spot on the chin. Males measure {{convert|28|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|7.2|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|The Kenai Peninsula and Cook Inlet
|
|-
|'''Common mink'''<br>''N. v. mink''
[[File:Largeiowamink.png|150 px]]
|Peale and Palisot de Beauvois, 1796
|A larger and more robust form than ''N. v. vison''; it has similar colouration. Males measure {{convert|25.5|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|8.5|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|The Eastern United States, from the coast of New England south to North Carolina and in the interior to central Georgia and Alabama; westward through southern Pennsylvania and Ohio to Missouri and northeastern {{wipe|Texas}}
|<small>''lutreocephala'' (Harlan, 1825)</small><br>
<small>''rufa'' (Hamilton-Smith, 1858)</small>
|-
|'''Island mink'''<br>''N. v. nesolestes''
|Heller, 1909
|Intermediate in size between ''N. v. ingens'' and ''N. v. energumenos'', it has rather dark fur. The fur is Van Dyke brown, lighter on the cheeks and sides and darker on the tail. The underparts are walnut brown and white on the chin, with irregular white spots or areas on the throat, chest, inner legs and abdomen. Males measure {{convert|24.5|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|7.3|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|Admiralty Island in the Alexander Archipelago
|
|-
|'''Southern mink'''<br>''N. v. vulgivaga''
[[File:Louisianamink.png|150 px]]
|Bangs, 1895
|It resembles ''N. v. mink'', but is paler and smaller, with rich and lustrous light brown fur which darkens at the end of the tail. Males measure {{convert|24.5|in|cm}} in total length and {{convert|7.5|in|cm}} in tail length.<ref name="a109"/>
|The coasts of Louisiana and Mississippi
|
|-
|}

==Description==

===Build===
[[File:Minkskeleton.jpg|Skeleton of an American mink from the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle|thumb]]
[[File:Neovison_vison_quills.jpg|American mink with porcupine quills in its face. Yarmouth, NS|thumb]]
[[File:Mink (Neovison vison) Ystad-2017.jpg|thumb|A juvenile American mink.]]
The American mink differs from members of the genus ''[[Biology:Mustela|Mustela]]'' ([[Biology:Stoat|stoat]]s and [[Biology:Least weasel|weasel]]s), as well as the other members of ''[[Biology:Neogale|Neogale]]'', by its larger size and stouter form, which closely approach those of [[Biology:Marten|marten]]s. It shares with martens a uniformly enlarged, bushy and somewhat tapering tail, rather than a slender, cylindrical tail with an enlarged bushy tip, as is the case in stoats.<ref name=c161>{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|pp=161–162}}</ref> The American mink is similar in build to the [[Biology:European mink|European mink]], but the tail is longer (constituting 38–51% of its body length).<ref name=s1392>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1392–1394}}</ref>

The American mink has a long body, which allows the species to enter the burrows of prey. Its streamlined shape helps it to reduce water resistance whilst swimming.<ref name=f663>{{Harvnb|Feldhamer|Thompson|Chapman|2003|pp=663–664}}</ref> The skull is similar to that of the European mink, but is more massive, narrower, and less elongated, with more strongly developed projections and a wider, shorter [[Medicine:Neurocranium|cranium]]. The upper molars are larger and more massive than those of the European mink.<ref name=s1394>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1394–1395}}</ref> The dental formula is {{dentalFormula|upper=3.1.3.1|lower=3.1.3.2}}.

Domestic mink, which are bred in fur farms and are substandard genetically, have 19.6% smaller brains, 8.1% smaller hearts, and 28.2% smaller spleens than wild mink.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kruska |first1 = D. |year = 1996 |title = The effect of domestication on brain size and composition in the mink (''Mustela vison'') |journal = Journal of Zoology |volume = 239 |issue = 4 |pages = 645–661 |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05468.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kruska |first1 = D. |last2 = Schreiber |first2 = A. |year = 1999 |title = Comparative morphometrical and biochemical-genetic investigations in wild and ranch mink (''Mustela vison'': Carnivora: Mammalia) |journal = Acta Theriologica |volume = 44 |pages = 377–392 |doi = 10.4098/AT.arch.99-37 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267513721 |doi-access = free }}</ref> The feet are broad, with webbed digits.<ref name=c161/> They generally have eight [[Biology:Nipple|nipple]]s, with one pair of inguinal teats and three pairs of abdominal teats.<ref name=s1392/> The adult male's penis is {{convert|5.6|cm|in|abbr=on|order=flip}} long, and is covered by a sheath. The [[Biology:Baculum|baculum]] is well-developed, being triangular in [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] and curved at the tip.<ref name=f663/>

Males measure {{convert|34|–|45|cm|in|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} in body length, while females measure {{convert|31|-|37.5|cm|in|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}. The tail measures {{convert|15.6|-|24.7|cm|0|order=flip}} in males and {{convert|14.8|-|21.5|cm|in|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} in females. Weights vary with sex and season, with males being heavier than females. In winter, males weigh {{convert|500|-|1580|g|lb|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} and females {{convert|400|-|780|g|lb|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}. Maximum heaviness occurs in autumn.<ref name=s1397>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1397–1399}}</ref>
[[File:Minkpaws.png|thumb|upright|American mink paws, as illustrated by Ernest Thompson Seton]]

===Fur===
The American mink's winter fur is denser, longer, softer, and more close-fitting than that of the European mink. The winter fur's tone is generally very dark blackish-tawny to light-tawny. Colour is evenly distributed over all the body, with the under side being only slightly lighter than the back. The [[Biology:Guard hair|guard hair]]s are bright and dark-tawny, often approaching black on the spine. The underfur on the back is very wavy and greyish-tawny with a bluish tint. The tail is darker than the trunk and sometimes becomes pure black on the tip. The chin and lower lip are white. Captive individuals tend to develop irregular white patches on the lower surface of their bodies, though escaped individuals from Tartaria gradually lost these patches. The summer fur is generally shorter, sparser and duller than the winter fur.<ref name=s1392/> The thick underfur and oily guard hairs render the pelage water-resistant, with the length of the guard hairs being intermediate between those of [[Biology:Otter|otter]]s and [[Biology:European polecat|polecats]], thus indicating the American mink is incompletely adapted to an aquatic life. It [[Biology:Moulting|moults]] twice a year, during spring and autumn.<ref name=f663/> It does not turn white in winter.<ref name="s873">{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|p=873}}</ref> A variety of different colour mutations have arisen from experimental breeding on fur farms.<ref name=h488/>

===Locomotion===
On land, the American mink moves by a bounding gait, with speeds of up to {{convert|6.5|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. It also climbs trees and swims well.<ref name=h489/> During swimming, the mink propels itself primarily through undulating movements of the trunk. When diving, it undergoes [[Medicine:Bradycardia|bradycardia]], which is likely an adaptation to conserve [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]].<ref name=f663/> In warm water ({{convert|24|C|F}}), the American mink can swim for 3&nbsp;hours without stopping, but in cold water it can die within 27&nbsp;minutes.<ref name=s1410>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1410–1411}}</ref> It generally dives to depths of {{convert|30|cm|in|order=flip|abbr=on}} for 10&nbsp;seconds, though depths of 3&nbsp;m lasting 60&nbsp;seconds have been recorded. It typically catches fish after five- to 20-second chases.<ref name=h489/>

===Senses and scent glands===
The American mink relies heavily on [[Philosophy:Visual perception|sight]] when foraging. Its eyesight is clearer on land than underwater. Its auditory perception is high enough to detect the ultrasonic vocalisations (1–16&nbsp;kHz) of rodent prey. Its sense of smell is comparatively weak. Its two [[Biology:Anal gland|anal gland]]s are used for scent marking, either through defecation or by rubbing the anal region on the ground. The secretions of the anal glands are composed of 2,2-dimethyl[[Chemistry:Thietane|thietane]], 2-[[Chemistry:Ethyl group|ethylthietane]], cyclic [[Biology:Disulfide|disulfide]], 3,3-dimethyl-1,2-dithiacyclopentane, and [[Chemistry:Indole|indole]]. When stressed, the American mink can expel the contents of its anal glands at a distance of {{convert|30|cm|in|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref name=f663/> Scent glands may also be located on the throat and chest.<ref name=h491>{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=491}}</ref> The smell produced by these scent glands was described by Clinton Hart Merriam as more unbearable than that produced by [[Biology:Skunk|skunk]]s, and added it was "one of the few substances, of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, that has, on land or sea, rendered me aware of the existence of the abominable sensation called nausea".<ref name=m67>{{Harvnb|Merriam|1886|p=67}}</ref>

==Behavior==

===Social and territorial behaviours===
[[File:Angrylouisianamink.png|thumb|left|Southern mink (''N. v. vulgivagus'') in a threatening posture]]
[[File:Slick Mink.jpg|thumb|American mink emerges from a pond]]
American mink territories are held by individual animals with minimal intrasex overlap, but with extensive overlap between animals of the opposite sex. Most territories are in undisturbed, rocky coastal habitats with broad [[Earth:Littoral zone|littoral zone]]s and dense cover. Some are on estuaries, rivers and canals near urban areas. Home ranges are typically {{convert|1|–|6|km|mi|abbr=off}} long, with male territories larger than females'.<ref name=h489/> As long as it is close to water, the American mink is not fussy about its choice of den. Mink dens typically consist of long burrows in [[Earth:Bank (geography)|river bank]]s, holes under logs, [[Earth:Tree stump|tree stump]]s, or [[Biology:Root|root]]s and hollow [[Earth:Tree|tree]]s, though dens located in rock crevices, drains, and nooks under stone piles and bridges are occasionally selected. The burrows they dig themselves are typically about four inches in diameter and may continue along for {{convert|10|–|12|ft|cm}} at a depth of {{convert|2|–|3|ft|cm}}. The American mink may nest in burrows dug previously by [[Biology:Muskrat|muskrat]]s, [[Biology:Badger|badger]]s and [[Biology:Skunk|skunk]]s, and may also dig dens in old ant hills. The nesting chamber is at the end of a four-inch tunnel, and is about a foot in diameter. It is warm, dry, and lined with straw and feathers.<ref name="s879">{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|pp=879–880}}</ref> The American mink's dens are characterized by a large number of entrances and twisting passages. The number of exits varies from one to eight.<ref name=s1410/>

The American mink normally only vocalises during close encounters with other minks or predators. The sounds it emits include piercing shrieks and hisses when threatened and muffled chuckling sounds when mating. Kits squeak repeatedly when separated from their mothers.<ref name=h491/> Ernest Thompson Seton reported hearing minks growl and snarl when confronting a threat.<ref name=s877>{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|p=877}}</ref> During aggressive interactions, mink assert their dominance by arching their backs, puffing up, lashing out their tails, and stomping and scraping the ground with their feet, while also opening their mouth in a threat-gape. Should this be unsuccessful, fights may result, with injuries to the head and neck.<ref name=h491/>  [[File:Mink headshot.jpg|thumb|American mink in a burrow]]

===Reproduction and development===
[[File:American Mink - Young.JPG|thumb|American mink kits]]
The American mink is a promiscuous animal that does not form [[Philosophy:Pair bond|pair bond]]s.<ref name=h489>{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=489–490}}</ref> The start of mating season ranges from February in its southern range to April in the north.<ref name=f663/> In its introduced range, the American mink breeds one month earlier than the European mink.<ref name=s1413>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1413}}</ref> Males commonly fight during the mating season, which may result in the formation of loose, temporary dominance hierarchies governing access to receptive females.<ref name=h489/> The mating season lasts for three weeks, with ovulation being induced by the presence of males. The mating process is violent, with the male typically biting the female on the nape of the neck and pinning her with his forefeet. [[Biology:Mating|Mating]] lasts from 10 minutes to four hours. Females are receptive for seven- to 10-day intervals during the three-week breeding season, and can mate with multiple males. Along with the striped skunk, the American mink is among the only mammals to mate in spring that have a short delay before implantation. This delayed implantation allows pregnant minks to keep track of environmental conditions and select an ideal time and place for parturition.<ref name=f663/>

The gestation period lasts from 40 to 75&nbsp;days, with actual embryonic development taking place for 30–32 days, indicating implantation delay can last from eight to 45&nbsp;days. The young are born from April to June, in litters consisting of four kits on average.<ref name=f663/> The litters are often multiply sired.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Thom | first1 = Michael D. | last2 = MacDonald | first2 = David W. |last3 = Mason |first3 = Georgia J. | last4 = Pedersen | first4 = Vidi | last5 = Johnson | first5 = Paul J. | year = 2004 | title = Female American mink, ''Mustela vison'', mate multiply in a free-choice environment | url = http://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10214/4719/Thom%20et%20al.%202004.pdf?sequence=1 | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 67 | issue = 5| pages = 975–984 | doi = 10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.09.008 | hdl = 10214/4719 | s2cid = 4945467 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Exceptionally large litters of 11 kits have been recorded in Tartaria and 16 in the United States.<ref name=s1413/> The kits are blind at birth, weighing six grams and possessing a short coat of fine, silver-white hairs.<ref name=f663/> The kits are dependent on their mother's milk, which contains 3.8% [[Chemistry:Lipid|lipid]]s, 6.2% [[Biology:Protein|protein]], 4.6% [[Chemistry:Lactose|lactose]] and 10.66% mineral salts.<ref name=s1413/> Their eyes open after 25&nbsp;days, with weaning occurring after five weeks. The kits begin hunting after 8&nbsp;weeks of age, but stay close to their mother until autumn, when they become independent. Sexual maturity is attained during the kit's first spring, when they are about 10&nbsp;months old.<ref name=f663/>

===Diet===
[[File:Mink with catch.jpg|thumb|American mink with fish, in {{wipe|Norway}}]]
The American mink is a carnivorous animal that feeds on [[Biology:Rodent|rodent]]s, [[Biology:Fish|fish]], [[Biology:Crustacean|crustacean]]s, [[Biology:Amphibian|amphibian]]s, and [[Biology:Bird|bird]]s. It kills [[Biology:Vertebrate|vertebrate]] prey by biting the back of the head or neck, leaving canine puncture marks {{convert|9|-|11|mm|abbr=on}} apart.<ref name=h487>{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=487}}</ref> The American mink often kills birds, including larger species like seagulls and [[Biology:Cormorant|cormorant]]s, by drowning. In its natural range, fish are its primary prey. Although inferior to the [[Biology:North American river otter|North American river otter]] in hunting fish, Audubon and Bachman once reported seeing a mink carrying a foot-long [[Biology:Trout|trout]]. A similar sighting was also confirmed in 2019 within the Cattaraugus Creek, New York watershed. Mink inhabiting the prairie sloughs primarily target [[Biology:Frog|frog]]s, [[Biology:Tadpole|tadpole]]s, and mice.<ref name=s883>{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|pp=883–884}}</ref> It is a formidable predator of [[Biology:Muskrat|muskrat]]s, which are chased underwater and killed in their own burrows. Among the rodents killed by the American mink in its native range are rats and mice of the [[Biology:Genus|genera]] ''Hesperomys'', ''[[Biology:Microtus|Microtus]]'', ''[[Biology:Sigmodon|Sigmodon]]'', and ''Neotoma''. [[Biology:Marsh rabbit|Marsh rabbit]]s are frequently taken in marshy or swampy tracts.<ref name="c178">{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|p=178}}</ref>

In Tartaria, the American mink's most important food items are [[Biology:Vole|vole]]s, fish, crustaceans, frogs, and aquatic insects. In winter, aquatic foods predominate, while land-based prey increases in importance during the spring. Within the Altai Mountains, the American mink feeds predominantly on mammals such as rodents, shrews, and moles, as well as birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Among the 11&nbsp;different bird species preyed upon by minks in Altai are [[Biology:Dipper|dipper]]s and [[Biology:Pine grosbeak|pine grosbeak]]s. Among fish, small species predominate in the diet of minks in Altai, and include minnows, [[Biology:Gudgeon (fish)|gudgeon]]s, and wide-headed [[Biology:Sculpin|sculpin]]s. In the Sverdlovsk and Irkutsk Oblasts, mouse-like rodents are their most important foods, followed by birds, fish and insects. In the [[Place:Russian Far East|Russian Far East]], where crustaceans are scarce, the American mink feeds extensively on amphipods.<ref name=s1407>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1407–1408}}</ref> In the [[Place:British Isles|British Isles]], dietary composition varies seasonally and regionally. [[Biology:European rabbit|European rabbit]]s are the most commonly taken prey in areas where they are common, especially in summer. A range of small rodents and insectivores are preyed upon, but to a lesser degree. [[Biology:European hare|European hare]]s are occasionally attacked. Minks in Britain prey on several bird species, with [[Biology:Duck|duck]]s, [[Biology:Moorhen|moorhen]]s, and [[Biology:Coot|coot]]s being most frequently targeted on lakes and rivers, while [[Biology:Gull|gull]]s are taken in coastal habitats. Marine species preyed upon in Britain include [[Biology:European eel|European eel]]s, rock-pool fish such as blenny, shore crabs and crayfish.<ref name=h492>{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=492}}</ref> American minks have been implicated in the decline of the [[Biology:European water vole|water vole]] in the United Kingdom and linked to the decline of waterfowl across their range in Europe. They are now considered vermin in much of Europe and are hunted for the purpose of [[Earth:Wildlife management|wildlife management]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Haworth, Jenny |date=3 February 2009 |title=National cull may exterminate UK mink |newspaper=The Scotsman |place=Edinburgh, UK}}</ref> In South America's Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, mammals, including both native and exotic rodents, are the American mink's main prey throughout the year, though birds are of equal importance during their summer nesting periods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibarra |first1=J.T.S. |last2=Fasola |first2=L. |last3=MacDonald |first3=D.W. |last4=Rozzi |first4=R. |last5=Bonacic |first5=C.N. |year=2009 |title=Invasive American mink Mustela vison in wetlands of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, southern Chile: What are they eating? |journal=Oryx |volume=43 |pages=87 |doi=10.1017/S0030605308099997 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The American mink may pose a threat to poultry. According to Clinton Hart Merriam<ref name=m63>{{Harvnb|Merriam|1886|p=63}}</ref> and Ernest Thompson Seton,<ref name="s885">{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|p=885}}</ref> although the American mink is a potential poultry thief, it is overall less damaging than the [[Biology:Stoat|stoat]]. Unlike the stoat, which often engages in [[Biology:Surplus killing|surplus killing]], the mink usually limits itself to killing and eating one fowl during each attack. Studies in Britain indicate poultry and game birds only constitute 1% of the animals' overall diets;<ref name=h492/> small mammals, especially rabbits, tend to dominate, followed by fish and birds, especially [[Biology:Moorhen|moorhen]]s and [[Biology:Coot|coot]]s.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Macdonald, D.W. |author2=Barreto, G.R. |author3=Ferreras, P. |author4=Kirk, B. |author5=Rushton, S. |author6=Yamaguchi, N. |author7=Strachan, R. |year=1999 |section=The impact of American mink, Mustela vison, as predators of native species in British freshwater systems |pages=5–24 |editor1=Cowan, D.P. |editor2=Freare, C.J. |title=Advances in Vertebrate Pest Management |publisher=Filander Verlag |place=Furth |isbn=3930831163 |section-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230006764_The_impact_of_American_mink_Mustela_vison_as_predators_of_native_species_in_British_freshwater_systems |via=researchgate.net}}</ref>

===Relationships with other predators===
The American mink replaces and sometimes kills the European mink wherever their ranges overlap.<ref name=s1414>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1414}}</ref> The decline of European mink populations seems to coincide with the spread of the American mink, but “The early declines in Central Europe and later in Finland took place before the spread of the American mink.”<ref name=decline>{{cite journal | last1 = Maran | first1 = T. | last2 = Henttonen | first2 = H. | year = 1995 | title = Why is the European mink, ''Mustela lutreola'' disappearing? – a review of the process and hypotheses | journal = Annales Fennici Zoologici | volume = 32 | pages = 47–54 | url = http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf32/anz32-047-054.pdf}}</ref> The diets of the American mink and European otter overlap to a great extent. In areas where these two species are sympatric, competition with the otter for fish causes the American mink to hunt land-based prey more frequently.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonesi |first1=L. |last2=Chanin |first2=P. |last3=MacDonald |first3=D.W. |year=2004 |title=Competition between Eurasian otter ''Lutra lutra'' and American mink ''Mustela vison'' probed by niche shift |journal=Oikos |volume=106 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12763.x |url=http://www2.units.it/lbonesi/Oikos3.pdf }}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Large birds of prey, such as [[Biology:Bald eagle|bald eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') and great horned owls (''Bubo virginianus'') occasionally hunt American mink.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Watson, James W. |year=2002 |title=Comparative home ranges and food habits of bald eagles nesting in four aquatic habitats in Western Washington |journal=Northwestern Naturalist |volume=83 |number=3 |pages=101–108 |publisher=Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology |doi=10.2307/3536608|jstor=3536608 }}</ref><ref>Bent, A. C. 1938. Life histories of North American birds of prey, Part 2. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 170:295-357.</ref> In {{wipe|Finland}}, [[Biology:White-tailed eagle|white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') have become the main natural control and may inhibit the mink from breeding via heavy predation.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Salo, P. |author2=Nordström, M. |author3=Thomson, R.L. |author4=Korpimäki, E. |year=2008 |title=Risk induced by a native top predator reduces alien mink movements |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1092–1098|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01430.x |pmid=18624744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Eurasian eagle-owls (''Bubo bubo'') also can be predators of mink in the introduced regions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sidorovich, V.E. |year=2011 |title=Analysis of Vertebrate Predator-Prey Community |publisher=Tesey |place=Minsk, Ukraine}}</ref>

==Intelligence==
An early behavioral study was performed in the 1960s to assess visual learning ability in minks, [[Biology:Ferret|ferret]]s, skunks, and house cats. Animals were tested on their ability to recognize objects, learn their valences and make object selections from memory. Minks were found to outperform ferrets, skunks, and cats in this task, but this letter (short paper) fails to account for a possible conflation of a cognitive ability (decision making, associative learning) with a largely perceptual ability (invariant object recognition).<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Doty |first1 = B.A. |last2 = Jones |first2 = C.N. |last3 = Doty |first3 = L.A. |year = 1967 |title = Learning-set formation by mink, ferrets, skunks, and cats |journal = Science |volume = 155 |issue = 3769 |pages = 1579–1580 |doi = 10.1126/science.155.3769.1579 |pmid = 6020488 |bibcode = 1967Sci...155.1579D |s2cid = 6419439}}</ref>

==Range==

===Natural===
[[File:Mink in the snow.png|thumb|Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska.]]
The species' natural range encompasses most of North America, from [[Earth:Alaska|Alaska]], through {{wipe|Canada}} and further into the {{wipe|United States}} except Arizona and the more arid areas of {{wipe|California}}, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and West Texas.<ref name=iucn/>

===Introduced===

====Argentina====
The American mink was deliberately introduced for commercial fur production in several provinces of [[Place:Patagonia|Patagonia]] in 1930. The animals escaped or were released from farms in [[Place:Chubut Province|Chubut Province]] and now occur in the Chubut and [[Place:Río Negro Province|Río Negro Province]]s and [[Earth:Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuego]].<ref>{{cite conference |author=Bonino, Never |year=1995 |title=Introduced Mammals into Patagonia, Southern Argentina: Consequences, problems and management strategies |pages=406–409 |conference=Integrating peoples and wildlife for a sustainable future. International Wildlife Management Congress, 1ro. |place=Bethesda, MD |publisher=Wildlife Society |url=http://www.inta.gov.ar/bariloche/info/indices/natural/Fauna/CT%20N%20073%20Fauna.pdf |via=inta.gov.ar |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718182137/http://www.inta.gov.ar/bariloche/info/indices/natural/Fauna/CT%20N%20073%20Fauna.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> In {{wipe|Argentina}} the mink is one of the major menaces of the [[Biology:Hooded grebe|Hooded Grebe]], which risks becoming [[Biology:Extinction|extinct]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Conservación del Macá Tobiano (''Podiceps gallardoi''): factores que afectan la viabilidad de sus poblaciones |series=Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales |publisher=Universidad de Buenos Aires |url=http://digital.bl.fcen.uba.ar/gsdl-282/cgi-bin/library.cgi?a=d&c=tesis&d=Tesis_5958_Roesler}}</ref>

==== South Chile====
In {{wipe|Chile}}, American minks were introduced to Magallanes Region in the 1930s. Ever since minks were freed into nature during the crisis of the fur industry the mink has expanded its range across Chile. Actually it ranges from [[Place:Araucanía Region|Araucanía Region]] in the north to Magallanes Region in the south. However, there are isolated territories in between where the mink is not found, probably due to [[Earth:Biogeography|biogeographic barriers]]. One of the latest areas where the mink has been found is Chiloé Archipelago,- minks were reported there for the first time 2013, making scientists suspect they may have arrived on a ship.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |author1=Vergara, Gonzalo |author2=Valenzuela, Jorge |year=2015 |title=Presencia de visón americano (''Neovison vison'', {{small|Schreber, 1777}}) en Chiloé, Chile: ¿Inicio de una invasión biológica? |journal=Ecosistemas |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=29–31  |doi=10.7818/ECOS.2015.24-1.05 |url=https://www.revistaecosistemas.net/index.php/ecosistemas/article/view/984|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Western Europe====
Feral American minks in Europe are thought to be of domesticated stock derived from the ''N. v. vison'', ''N. v. melampeplus'' and ''N. v. ingens'' subspecies. The first specimens were imported to Europe in 1920 for fur-farming purposes. The American mink was introduced in Italy in the 1950s, and currently resides mostly in the northeastern part of the [[Place:Italian Peninsula|Italian Peninsula]]. The majority of these populations do not appear to be self-sufficient, though minks in the Monti Prenestini and Simbruini in Lazio have reproduced successfully.<ref name=mammiferi>{{cite report |author1=Spagnesi, M. |author2=Toso, S. |author3=de&nbsp;Marinins, A.M. |year=2002 |title=I Mammiferi d'Italia |lang=it |trans-title=The Mammals of Italy |publisher=Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica |place=Italy |url=http://www.minambiente.it/opencms/export/sites/default/archivio/biblioteca/protezione_natura/qcn_14.pdf |via=minambiente.it}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Escapees of fur farms established a self-sustaining and expanding population on the Iberian peninsula by the second half of the 20th century. In 2013, the {{wipe|Spain}} government announced a plan to eradicate the species,<ref>{{cite news |title=El visón europeo y su primo peligroso |lang=es |trans-title=The European mink and its dangerous cousin |newspaper=El País |date=11 November 2013 |url=http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2013/11/07/actualidad/1383849768_986614.html}}</ref> as a means to protect the falling populations of European mink and other endangered species affected such as the [[Biology:Pyrenean desman|Pyrenean desman]].

The first mink farm in {{wipe|Norway}} was built in 1927, with escapees establishing wild populations within 30 years of its establishment. The first feral mink populations arose in 1930, establishing territories in southwestern Norway. These feral minks, augmented by further escapees, formed the basis of a strong population in Hordaland by the end of [[Social:World War II|World War II]]. Feral mink colonised eastern Norway in 1930 and had become established in most southeastern counties in the early 1940s. By 1950, feral mink reached central Norway, with further populations occurring in the northern counties of Nordland and Troms. During the post-World War II period until 1965, mink had colonised most of the country. In modern times, the American mink occupies all of the Norwegian mainland, but is absent on some islands.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bevanger, K. |author2= Henriksen, G. |year=1995 |title=The distributional history and present status of the American mink (''Mustela vison'' {{small|Schreber, 1777}}) in Norway |journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages= 1–14 |jstor=23735558 |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf32/anz32-011-014.pdf}}</ref>

The American mink was first imported to Great Britain in 1929, though a series of escapes and releases led to the establishment of a self-sufficient feral population in [[Earth:Devon|Devon]] by the late 1950s, and others by the early 1960s. In Ireland, the American mink was not farmed until the early 1950s, thus feral populations established themselves there much later. The species is now widespread in mainland Great Britain and Ireland, though some places remain uncolonised. It has established itself on a few islands, including [[Earth:Isle of Arran|Arran]] and Lewis and Harris.<ref name=h489/> Until 2005, mink hunting with packs of hounds occurred in the UK. The total mink population in Great Britain is estimated at 110,000 ({{wipe|England}}: 46,750; Scotland: 52,250; Wales: 9,750). This population may be declining as European otter numbers increase. There are no estimates for the mink population in Ireland, but it is thought to be low, because of Ireland's strong otter population.<ref name="h493">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=493}}</ref>

====Former USSR====
[[File:MustelaVison001.JPG|thumb|An American mink in Lithuania's Kėdainiai district]]
In 1933, American minks were released into the Voronezh Oblast in European Russia. Until 1963, more minks were introduced in various quantities in the Voronezh and Arkhangelsk Oblasts, [[Place:Karelia|Karelia]], in Kalininsk, Gorkovsk, Volgograd and Chelyabinsk Oblasts, and into Tatarstan and Bashkir, as well as the Lithuanian and Byelorussian SSRs. Beyond the Urals, American minks were introduced in the Sverdlovsk, Tyumen, Omsk, [[Place:Kemerovo Oblast|Kemerovo]], Novosibirsk, Chita and Irkutsk Oblasts, in the [[Place:Altai Krai|Altai]] and [[Place:Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk Krai]], in the [[Place:Tuvan People's Republic|Tuvan]], Buryat and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, into the Magadan, Kamchatka and Amur Oblasts, into the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krai, into the [[Earth:Chukotka Autonomous Okrug|Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]] and several other locations, including Sakhalin and Urup Island. In the Caucasus region, American minks were released into North Ossetia. In Central Asia they were released in the Tien Shan region. Originally, captive-bred minks were used, but wild specimens were later released to facilitate the species' acclimatisation within [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet]] territories. Several years after the first release, introductions into the ranges already held by native European minks were discontinued, with most releases from then on taking place in Siberia and the Far East. Although considerable areas were occupied by the American mink by the early 1960s, the species' Soviet range was never continuous, as most released populations were isolated from one another.<ref name="s1399">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1399–1403}}</ref>

====Iceland====
The species has been present in Iceland since the 1930s, and has become well established, despite it being heavily hunted since 1939. However, its population underwent a 42% decline during the years 2002–2006, which coincided with a decline in sand eel populations resulting in a drop in the seabird populations on which the minks feed.<ref>{{cite report |first1=Pall |last1=Hersteinsson |first2=Robert Arnar |last2=Stefansson |first3=Menja |last3=von&nbsp;Schmalensee |first4=Steven |last4=Rushton |first5=Anders |last5=Angerbjorn  |first6=Rannveig |last6=Magnusdottir |year=c. 2007 |title=The impact of climate change on the American mink in Iceland |type=research proposal |department=Wildlife Conservation Research Unit |series=Department of Zoology
|publisher=University of Oxford |place=Oxford, UK |url=http://www.wildcru.org/research/research-detail/index.php?theme=&project_id=38 |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727022222/http://www.wildcru.org/research/research-detail/index.php?theme=&project_id=38 |archive-date=July 27, 2011}}</ref>

==Diseases and parasites==
The American mink often carries light [[Biology:Tick|tick]] and flea infestations. Tick species known to infest minks include ''[[Biology:Ixodes hexagonus|Ixodes hexagonus]]'', ''[[Biology:Ixodes canisuga|Ixodes canisuga]]'', ''[[Biology:Ixodes ricinus|Ixodes ricinus]]'', and ''Ixodes acuminatus''. Flea species known to infest minks include ''Palaeopsylla minor'', ''Malaraeus penicilliger'', ''Ctenopthalmus noblis'', ''Megabothris walkeri'', ''Typhloceras poppei'', and ''[[Biology:Nosopsyllus fasciatus|Nosopsyllus fasciatus]]''. Endoparasites include ''[[Biology:Skrjabingylus nasicola|Skrjabingylus nasicola]]'' and ''Troglotrema acutum''.<ref name=h493/> Trematode ''[[Biology:Metorchis conjunctus|Metorchis conjunctus]]'' can also infect American minks.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wobeser | first1 = G. | last2 = Runge | first2 = W. | last3 = Stewart | first3 = R.R. | year = 1983 | title = ''Metorchis conjunctus'' (Cobbold, 1860) infection in wolves (''Canis lupus''), with pancreatic involvement in two animals | journal = [[Biology:Journal of Wildlife Diseases|Journal of Wildlife Diseases]] | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 353–356 | pmid = 6644936 | doi = 10.7589/0090-3558-19.4.353 | s2cid = 35587314 }}</ref>

Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) is a [[Medicine:Prion|prion]] disease of mink, similar to [[Medicine:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] in [[Biology:Cattle|cattle]] and scrapie in [[Biology:Sheep|sheep]]. A 1985 outbreak of TME in Stetsonville, Wisconsin resulted in a 60% mortality rate for the minks.<ref>Tenembaum, David (2007) [http://grow.cals.wisc.edu/agriculture/unfolding-the-prion-mystery Unfolding the Prion Mystery]. cals.wisc.edu</ref> Further testing revealed this agent is transmissible between mink, cattle, and sheep. The Stetsonville outbreak may have been due to the mink being fed carcasses or otherwise consuming other infected animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mad-cow.org/Marsh_collected.html|title=Scientific papers on Spongiform Disease by R.F. Marsh|work=mad-cow.org}}</ref>

''[[Biology:Toxoplasma gondii|Toxoplasma gondii]]'' has been recorded in American minks in southern {{wipe|Chile}}, with 59% [[Biology:Seroprevalence|seroprevalence]] in the 73 mink analyzed in one study. [[Biology:Southern river otter|Southern river otter]]s of the area were also found to have high ''T. gondii'' seroprevalence in this study, showing a high exposure of [[Biology:Semiaquatic|semiaquatic]] [[Biology:Mustelidae|mustelids]] to the parasite in this part of Chile.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barros |first1=Macarena |last2=Cabezón |first2=Oscar |last3=Dubey |first3=Jitender P. |last4=Almería |first4=Sonia |last5=Ribas |first5=María P. |last6=Escobar |first6=Luis E. |last7=Ramos |first7=Barbara |last8=Medina-Vogel |first8=Gonzalo |display-authors=6 |date=2018-06-20 |df=dmy-all |title=Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild mustelids and cats across an urban-rural gradient |lang=en |journal=PLoS One |volume=13 |issue=6 |page=e0199085 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0199085 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6010287 |pmid=29924844 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1399085B }}</ref>

==Decline of wild mink==
Because of numerous incidents of domestic mink escaping from fur farms and establishing themselves in the wild, concern has arisen among conservationists of the possible repercussions such escapes may have on natural wild mink populations. Domestic mink are larger than wild mink, which may cause problems with the ecosystem when they escape. Minks are solitary, territorial animals and are intolerant of other minks. In times of overpopulation, they control their own numbers by either killing each other through direct conflict or by causing weaker minks to be driven from territory until starvation sets in.<ref name=Dunstone>{{cite book |author=Dunstone, N. |year=1993 |title=The Mink |place=London, UK}}</ref> When hundreds or thousands of released domestic minks flood an ecosystem, it causes a great disturbance for the wild minks, resulting in the deaths of the majority of the released mink and many of the wild ones from starvation or injuries incurred while fighting over territory.<ref name=Dunstone/>  When a domestic mink survives long enough to reproduce, it may cause problems for the wild mink populations.<ref name=Bowman>{{cite journal |last1=Bowman |first1=J. |last2=Kidd |first2=A. |last3=Gorman |first3=R. |last4=Schultehostedde |first4=A. |year=2007 |title=Assessing the potential for impacts by feral mink on wild mink in Canada |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=139 |issue=1–2 |pages=12–18 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2007.05.020 |url=http://www3.laurentian.ca/ebvlab/Bowman_mink_Biol_Cons_2007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140616230020/http://www3.laurentian.ca/ebvlab/Bowman_mink_Biol_Cons_2007.pdf |archive-date=2014-06-16 }}</ref> The adding of weaker domestic mink genes into wild mink populations is believed by some to have contributed to the decline of mink populations in Canada.<ref name=Bowman/>

A 2006 study in Denmark concluded, due to frequent escapes from existing mink farms, "Closing mink farms may result in a crash of the free-ranging population, or alternatively it may result in the establishment of a better-adapted, truly feral population that may ultimately outnumber the population that was present before farm closures." The study reported more information would be necessary to determine the outcome.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hammershøj | first1 = M. | last2 = Travis | first2 = J.M.J. | last3 = Stephenson | first3 = C.M. | year = 2006 | title = Incorporating evolutionary processes into a spatially-explicit model: Exploring the consequences of mink-farm closures in Denmark | journal = Ecography | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 465–476 | doi = 10.1111/j.2006.0906-7590.04492.x}}</ref> Another Danish study reported a significant majority of the "wild" mink were mink which had escaped from fur farms. About 47% had escaped within two months, 31% had escaped prior to two months, and 21% "may or may not have been born in nature." The survival rate for recently released minks is reportedly lower than for wild minks, but if feral minks survive at least two months, their survival rate is the same as for wild minks. The authors suggest this is due to the rapid behavioural adaptation of the animals.<ref name=Hammershoj>{{cite thesis |author=Hammershøj, M. |year=2004 |title=Population ecology of free-ranging American mink ''Mustela vison'' in Denmark |degree=PhD thesis |publisher=National Environmental Research Institute |place=Kalø, DK |url=http://www2.dmu.dk/1_viden/2_Publikationer/3_Ovrige/rapporter/Phd_MHA.pdf}}</ref>

==Relationships with humans==

=== Disease ===

The American mink and [[Biology:European mink|European mink]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Genomic epidemiology of novel coronavirus - Europe-focused subsampling |url=https://nextstrain.org/ncov/europe?c=host&f_host=Neovison%20vison\&m=div |website=nextstrain.org |publisher=Maintained by the [[Organization:Nextstrain|Nextstrain]] team. |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref> have both been found to transmit [[Biology:SARS-CoV-2|SARS-CoV-2]], the virus that causes [[Medicine:COVID-19|COVID-19]].

===Fur use===
American minks are primarily used in manufacturing fur coats, jackets, and capes. Pelts that are not able to be converted into these items are made into trimming for cloth and fur coats. Mink scarves and [[Religion:Stole (vestment)|stole]]s are also manufactured. Jackets and capes are mostly made from small to medium-sized specimens, usually females and young males, while trimming, scarves and stoles are made from adult males.<ref name="b326">{{Harvnb|Bachrach|1953|p=326}}</ref> The most valuable peltries come from eastern Canada which, although the smallest, are the silkiest and darkest.<ref name="b327">{{Harvnb|Bachrach|1953|p=327}}</ref>

====Trapping====
[[File:Minktrap.png|thumb|Illustration of an American mink approaching a board or log trap]]
Although difficult to catch, the American mink, prior to being commercially farmed, was among the most frequently trapped furbearers as, unlike other furbearing mammals, it did not hibernate in winter, and could thus be caught on a nightly basis even in the far north.<ref name="h19">{{Harvnb|Harding|1906|p=19}}</ref> Minks were legally trapped from early November to early April, when their pelts were prime.<ref name="s895">{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|p=895}}</ref> Minks caught in traps cling to life with great tenacity, having been known to break their teeth in trying to extricate themselves from steel traps.<ref name="c175">{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|pp=175–176}}</ref> [[Biography:Elliott Coues|Elliott Coues]] described a trapped mink thusly:

{{blockquote|text=One who has not taken a Mink in a steel trap can scarcely form an idea of the terrible expression the animal's face assumes as the captor approaches. It has always struck me as the most nearly diabolical of anything in animal physiognomy. A sullen stare from the crouched, motionless form gives way to a new look of surprise and fear, accompanied with the most violent contortions of the body, with renewed champing of the iron till breathless, with heaving flanks, and open mouth dribbling saliva, the animal settles again, and watches with a look of concentrated hatred, mingled with impotent rage and frightful despair. The countenance of the Mink, its broad, low head, short ears, small eyes, piggish snout, and formidable teeth, is always expressive of the lower and more brutal passions, all of which are intensified at such times. As may well be supposed, the creature must not be incautiously dealt with when in such a frame of mind.<ref name=c175/>}}

One Native American method involved using a bait (usually a slit open chicken carcass filled with fish oil and oysters) tied to a rope and dragged around an area laden with traps. A mink would thus follow the trail into one of the traps. Another indigenous method involved placing traps scented with muskrat and female mink musk on top of disused muskrat dens by water bodies. Attracted by the scent of food and a female, the mink would get caught in the trap and drown.<ref name="h53">{{Harvnb|Harding|1906|pp=53–56}}</ref> On the American prairies, only the steel trap was used, due to the lack of timber.<ref name="h57">{{Harvnb|Harding|1906|pp=57–69}}</ref>

====Farming====
[[File:Mink colours.jpg|thumb|Various American mink colour mutations]]
Breeding American minks for their fur began in the late 19th century, as increasing enthusiasm for mink pelts made the harvesting of wild minks insufficient to meet the new demands. American minks are easily kept in captivity, and breed readily.<ref name="s896">{{Harvnb|Seton|1909|pp=896–897}}</ref> In 2005, the U.S. ranked fourth in production behind Denmark, China and the Netherlands. Minks typically breed in March, and give birth to their litters in May. Farmers vaccinate the young kits for botulism, distemper, enteritis, and, if needed, pneumonia. They are harvested in late November and December. Methods for killing animals on fur farms, as on all farms, are detailed in the American Veterinary Medical Association's Report on Euthanasia which is used as a voluntary guideline for state departments of agriculture which have jurisdiction over all farms raising domesticated livestock, including minks.<ref>[http://www.avma.org/issues/animal_welfare/euthanasia.pdf AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712174941/http://www.avma.org/issues/animal_welfare/euthanasia.pdf |date=2012-07-12 }}, June 2007, American Veterinary Medical Association</ref> In the past, some mink farms successfully provided pools of water for the mink to swim;<ref name="g50">{{Harvnb|Gates|1915|p=50}}</ref> however, this practice is unheard-of in modern mink production. Minks are motivated to access swimming water, and the absence of water is a source of frustration on modern farms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Georgia |last2=Cooper |first2=Jonathon |year=2001 |title=Frustrations of fur-farmed mink |journal=Nature |volume=410 |issue=6824 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.1038/35065157|pmid=11242031 |s2cid=39542739 |url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/516/2/paper.pdf }}</ref> The ideal diet for farm-bred minks consists of four to five ounces of horse meat and a quarter-pint of milk once daily.<ref name="g50"/>

====Colour mutations====
[[Biology:Selective breeding|Selective breeding]] has produced a number of different colour shades in mink peltries, ranging from pure white, through beiges, browns, and greys, to a brown that is almost black. The two standard strains are brown and "black cross" which, when paired, produce numerous colour variations. When an albino mink is born, it is standard procedure in fur farms to breed it to other colour mutations to produce grey and light-brown pastel shades. The following graph is a simplification of the main colour strains:<ref name="b335">{{Harvnb|Bachrach|1953|p=335}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! width=150 | Colour variant
! width=150 | Image
! width=500 | Description
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|  | '''Pastel'''
|  |[[File:Mink paw fur coat, c 1970 (1).jpg|50 px]]
|  | Pale brown and beige fur with darker guard hairs of various hues<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Royal pastel'''
|  |
|  | Same as above, but with a bluish cast<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Silverblu'''
|  |[[File:Norka silverblue.jpg|100 px]]
|  | Bluish grey fur fibre and guard hairs which are sometimes white-tipped, giving a silvery blue tone, pelts of this type with a brownish cast are less valuable.<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Breath of spring'''
|  |
|  | Also known as "platinum", this variety has a brighter bluish cast than the Silverblu type.<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Blufrost'''
|  |
|  | Pale brown fur fibre interspersed with dark brown guard hair, sprinkled with white guard hairs<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Kohinur'''
|  |[[File:Black cross mink fur cape 1.jpg|50 px]]
|  |Also known as "black cross", this variety has white or cream-coloured fur fibre with a sprinkling of blackish guard hairs throughout the body, with the greatest concentrations being on the back and shoulders.<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Cerulean'''
|  |[[File:Sapphire mink fur coat 1980.jpg|50 px]]
|  | Also known as "sapphire", this variety has bluish-grey fur fibre with mauve, blue-grey guard hair, with the greatest depth of colour being on the back.
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Steel blue'''
|  |
|  | Dull battleship grey guard hair, with lighter shaded fur fibre<ref name="b335"/>
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| style="font-style: bold;" | '''Lutetia'''
|  |[[File:Aleutian mink fur coat 1950 (2).jpg|50 px]]
|  | Also known as "Aleutian", this variety has gun-metal grey fur fibre and guard hair.
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|}

===As pets===
[[File:Snappemat.gif|thumb|Mink as pet]]
Wild mink can be tamed if caught young, but can be difficult to handle and are usually not handled bare-handed.<ref name="h2">{{Harvnb|Harding|1906|p=2}}</ref> In the late 19th century, tame American minks were often reared for ratting, much as [[Biology:Ferret|ferret]]s were used in Europe. Some modern ratters have revived this practice using farm-raised mink, sometimes alongside ratting dogs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carter |first=Joseph |year=2014 |title=The New Sport of Minkenry: The art of taming, training, and hunting with one of nature's most intense predators |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1500400668 |location=USA |page=1 |lang=en}}</ref> They are sometimes more effective ratters than terriers, as they can enter rat holes and drive rats from their hiding places.

When mink of wild stock are confined with tame ones, the wild invariably dominate the tamed mink. They have also been known to dominate [[Biology:Cat|cat]]s in confrontations.<ref name=c181>{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|pp=181–183}}</ref> Although intelligent, minks are not quick to learn tricks taught to them by their owners.<ref name=g32>{{Harvnb|Gates|1915|p=32}}</ref> Because of their fondness for bathing, captive American minks may enter [[Engineering:Kettle|kettle]]s or other open water-containing vessels.

Although domestic minks have been bred in captivity for almost a century, they have not been bred to be tame. Domestic minks have been bred for size, fur quality, and color. However, the U.S. Fur Commission claims "mink are truly domesticated animals", based on the number of years they have been kept on fur farms.<ref>{{cite report |title=Mink Farming in the United States |year=2008 |publisher=U.S. Fur Commission |place=Colorado |url=http://www.furcommission.com/resource/Resources/MFIUS.pdf |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219163639/http://www.furcommission.com/resource/Resources/MFIUS.pdf |archive-date=2006-02-19}} <!-- ¿¿ archive date before published ?? --> </ref>

===Literature===
As an [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]] in the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, minks have been the subject of at least two novels. Ewan Clarkson's 1968 ''Break for Freedom'' (published as ''Syla, the Mink'' in the US) tells the story of a female mink escaped from a fur farm in a realistic style. On the other hand, A.R. Lloyd's 1982 ''Kine'' is a heroic fantasy with the minks as villains and the weasels and other indigenous animals as heroes.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

==Indigenous names==
{{div col begin|colwidth=20em}}
* Abenaki language
** Penobscot: {{lang|aaq|mósəpehso}}
* {{lang-ale|ilgitux̂}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Bergsland |year=1994 |title=Aleut Dictionary |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center |isbn=1-55500-047-9}}</ref>
* {{lang-bla|aapssiiyai'kayi}} or {{lang|bla|soyii'kayi}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Frantz |author2=Russell |year=1989  |title=Blackfoot Dictionary |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto, ON |isbn=0-8020-2691-5}}</ref>
* {{lang-cic|okfincha}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Munro |author2=Willmond |year=1994 |title=Chickasaw: An analytical dictionary |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-2687-6}}</ref>
* {{lang-chp|tthełjus}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Chipewyan Dictionary |year=2012 |publisher=South Slave Divisional Education Council |place=Canada |isbn=978-0-9878616-0-3}}</ref>
** {{lang-crk|sâkwês|script=Latn}} {{lang|crk-Cans|ᓵᑫᐧᐢ}}
** {{lang-csw|šâkwêšiw|script=Latn}} {{lang|csw-Cans|ᔖᑴᔑᐤ}}
** {{lang-crm|shakweshiw|script=Latn}} {{lang|crm-Cans|ᔕᑴᔑᐤ}}
** {{lang-nsk|achikaas|script=Latn}} {{lang|nsk-Cans|ᐊᒋᑲᔅ}}
** James Bay Cree: {{lang|crj-Latn|achikaash}} {{lang|crj-Cans|ᐊᒋᑳᔥ}}
* [[Social:Carrier language|Dakelh]]
** Nadleh Whut'en: {{lang|caf|telhjoos}}
** Nak'azdli: {{lang|caf|techus}}
* Delaware
** {{lang-umu|wiiníingwus}} <ref>{{cite book |last=O'Meara |year=1996 |title=Delaware–English, English–Delaware Dictionary |publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto, ON |isbn=978-0-8020-0670-7}}</ref>
* Halkomelem
** Hul'q'umi'num: {{lang|hur|chuchi'q'un'}}
** Halqeméylem: {{lang|hur|ts'qáyex̱iya}}
** Haíɫzaqv: {{lang|hei|kvṇ̓á}}
* {{lang-win|jająksík}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Helmbrecht |author2=Lehmann |year=2010 |title=Hocąk teaching materials |volume=1: Elements of grammar/learners dictionary |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-3339-4}}</ref>
* {{lang-lkt|ikhúsą}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Elementary Bilingual Dictionary English–Lakhóta, Lakhóta-English |year=1976 |publisher=University of Colorado}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Buechel, Eugene |year=1983 |title=Lakota–English Dictionary |publisher=Red Cloud Indian School |lccn=74-114669}}</ref>
* Lushootseed
** Northern Lushootseed: {{lang|lut|bəščəb|label=none}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bates |first1=Dawn |title=Lushootseed Dictionary |last2=Hess |first2=Thom |last3=Hilbert |first3=Vi |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1994}}</ref>
** Southern Lushootseed: {{lang-lut|c̓əbal̕qid|label=none}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bates |first1=Dawn |title=Lushootseed Dictionary |last2=Hess |first2=Thom |last3=Hilbert |first3=Vi |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1994}}</ref>
* Nishnaabemwin: {{lang|otw|zhaangwesh}}
* Nlaka'pamuctsin: {{lang|thp|c̓əx̣lécn}}
* Nuu-chah-nulth
** Ehattesaht: {{lang|nuk|č̕aastumc}}
** Tseshaht: {{lang|nuk|č̓aastimc}}
* {{lang-oj|zhaangweshi}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Nichols |author2=Nyholm |year=1995 |title=A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe |publisher=University of Minnestota Press |isbn=0-8166-2428-3}}</ref>
* [[Social:Salishan languages|Salish]]: {{lang|sal|c̓xlicn̓}}
* Senćoŧen: {{lang|str|ćećiḵen}}
* Shashishalhem: {{lang|sec|ḵáyx̱}}
* Secwepemc: {{lang|shs|ts'exlétsen}}
* Sm'álgyax: {{lang|tsi|lis'yaan}}
* {{lang-tus|θenę́·ku·t}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Rudes |year=1999 |title=Tuscarora–English, English–Tuscarora Dictionary |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=0-8020-4336-4}}</ref>
* Tse'khene: {{lang|sek|tantl'ehe}}
* [[Social:Babine-Witsuwitʼen language|Witsuwittʼen]]: {{lang|bcr|tëc'ohts'iy}}
{{div col end}}


==See also==
*[[Biology:Aleutian disease|Aleutian disease]]
*[[Biology:European mink|European mink]]
*[[Biology:Sea mink|Sea mink]]
*Fur farming

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|colwidth=25em|small=y}}

* {{cite journal
 |last=Anthony |first=Harold Elmer
 |year=1928
 |title=Field Book of North American Mammals
 |quote=Descriptions of every mammal known north of the Rio Grande, together with brief accounts of habits, geographical ranges, etc.
 |journal=Nature
 |volume=124 |issue=3135 |page=836
 |doi=10.1038/124836c0 |doi-access=free
 |bibcode=1929Natur.124S.836. |hdl=2027/mdp.39015020808831
 |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldbookofnorth00anth
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Bachrach |first=Max
 |year=1953
 |title=Fur: A practical treatise |edition=3rd
 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Prentice-Hall
}}

* {{cite report
 |last=Coues |first=Elliott
 |year=1877
 |title=Fur-Bearing Animals: A monograph of North American mustelidae
 |publisher=Government Printing Office |place=Washington, DC
 |url=https://archive.org/details/furbearinganima00couegoog
}}

* {{cite book
 |last1=Feldhamer |first1=George A.
 |last2=Thompson |first2=Bruce Carlyle
 |last3=Chapman |first3=Joseph A.
 |year=2003
 |title=Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, management, and conservation
 |publisher=JHU Press
 |isbn=978-0-8018-7416-1
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xQalfqP7BcC
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Gates |first=William Gilford
 |year=1915
 |title=The Propagation of Mink and Marten
 |publisher=Spokane, Shaw, & Borden Co.
 |url=https://archive.org/details/propagationofmin00gate
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Harding |first=Arthur Robert
 |year=1906
 |title=Mink Trapping
 |quote=A book of instruction giving many methods of trapping
 |place=Columbus, OH |publisher=A.R. Harding (self published)
 |url=https://archive.org/details/minktrappingbook00harduoft
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Merriam |first=C. Hart
 |year=1886
 |title=The Mammals of the Adirondack Region, Northeastern New York
 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Holt
 |quote=With an introductory chapter treating of the location and boundaries of the region, its geological history, topography, climate, general features, botany and faunal position
 |url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofadiron00merr
}}

* {{cite book
 |last1=Harris |first1=Stephen
 |last2=Yalden |first2=Derek
 |year=2008
 |title=Mammals of the British Isles |edition=4th, revised
 |publisher=Mammal Society
 |isbn=978-0-906282-65-6
}}

* {{cite book
 |last1=Heptner |first1=V.G.
 |last2=Sludskii |first2=A.A.
 |year=2002
 |title=Mammals of the Soviet Union
 |volume=II, part&nbsp;1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae)
 |place=Washington, DC
 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Libraries and [[Organization:National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation]]
 |isbn=978-90-04-08876-4
 |url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov212001gept
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Kurtén |first=Björn
 |year=1980
 |title=Pleistocene Mammals of North America
 |publisher=Columbia University Press |place=New York, NY
 |isbn=978-0-231-03733-4
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f8pviaxPIKEC
}}

* {{cite book
 |last=Seton |first=Ernest Thompson
 |year=1909
 |title=Life-Histories of Northern Animals: An account of the mammals of Manitoba
 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Scribner
 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifehistoriesofn02seto
}}

* {{cite journal
 |last1=Stone |first1=Witmer
 |last2=Cram |first2=William Everett
 |year=1902
 |title=American animals
 |journal=Nature
 |volume=124 |issue=3135 |page=836
 |bibcode=1929Natur.124S.836.  |hdl=2027/mdp.39015020808831
 |doi=10.1038/124836c0 |doi-access=free
 |url=https://archive.org/details/americananimals02cramgoog
}}

{{refend}}

==External links==

* {{cite report |author1=Bonesia, Laura |author2=Palazon, Santiago |year=2007 |title=The American mink in Europe: Status, impacts, and control |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=134 |issue=4 |page=470 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13248587 |via=academia.edu}}

* {{cite report |title=''Neovison vison'' |series=North American Mammals |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |place=Washington, DC |url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=188}}

* {{cite web |title=Mink Research Library |type=main |url=http://www.furresearch.org/secure/index.html  |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513060834/http://www.furresearch.org/secure/index.html |archive-date=2013-05-13}}

* {{cite report |title=Mink Control Project |publisher=Scottish Invasive Species Initiative |url=http://www.invasivespecies.scot/mink-control-project}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q27179}}

[[Category:Semiaquatic mammals]]

{{Sourceattribution|American mink}}