View source for Biology:Anthropometry

{{short description|Measurement of the human individual}}
[[File:Computer_Workstation_Variables_cleanup.png|thumb|right|240px|The field of ergonomics employs anthropometry to optimize human interaction with equipment and workplaces.]]

'''Anthropometry''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἄνθρωπος}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἄνθρωπος}})|human||''{{wikt-lang|grc|μέτρον}}'' ({{grc-transl|μέτρον}})|measure}}) refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of [[Biology:Biological anthropology|physical anthropology]], it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, in [[Biology:Paleoanthropology|paleoanthropology]] and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptors of body size and shape.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Since commonly used methods and approaches in analysing living standards were not helpful enough, the anthropometric history became very useful for historians in answering questions that interested them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Joerg|last2=Komlos|first2=John|date=2004|title=Looking Backward and Looking Forward: Anthropometric Research and the Development of Social Science History|journal=Social Science History|volume=28|pages=191–210|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> 

Today, anthropometry plays an important role in [[Social:Industrial design|industrial design]], clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. the [[Medicine:Epidemiology of obesity|rise in obesity]]) and require regular updating of anthropometric [[Data collection|data collection]]s.

== History ==
{{main|Biology:History of anthropometry}}
[[File:Galton at Bertillon's (1893).jpg|right|thumb|180px|A Bertillon record for Francis Galton, from a visit to Bertillon's laboratory in 1893]]

The history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, both [[Scientific method|scientific]] and [[Unsolved:Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]], such as [[Medicine:Craniometry|craniometry]], [[Biology:Paleoanthropology|paleoanthropology]], [[Biology:Biological anthropology|biological anthropology]], [[Philosophy:Phrenology|phrenology]], [[Unsolved:Physiognomy|physiognomy]], [[Physics:Forensic science|forensics]], [[Social:Criminology|criminology]], [[Biology:Phylogeography|phylogeography]], [[Social:Anthropogeny|human origins]], and cranio-facial description, as well as correlations between various anthropometrics and [[Philosophy:Personal identity|personal identity]], mental typology, [[Philosophy:Personality|personality]], [[Biology:Cranial vault|cranial vault]] and [[Biology:Brain size|brain size]], and other factors.

At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged from accurate [[Philosophy:Description|scientific description]] and [[Social:Epidemiology|epidemiological analysis]] to rationales for [[Biology:Eugenics|eugenics]] and overtly racist [[Social:Social movement|social movement]]s.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} One of its misuses was the discredited [[Unsolved:Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]], [[Philosophy:Phrenology|phrenology]].

==Individual variation==

===Auxologic===
{{main|Biology:Auxology}}
Auxologic is a broad term covering the study of all aspects of [[Biology:Human|human]] physical growth.

====Height====
{{main|Social:Human height}}
[[Social:Human height|Human height]] varies greatly between individuals and across populations for a variety of complex biological, genetic, and environmental factors, among others. Due to methodological and practical problems, its measurement is also subject to considerable error in statistical sampling.

The average height in genetically and environmentally [[Homogeneity (statistics)|homogeneous]] [[Biology:Population genetics|population]]s is often proportional across a large number of individuals. Exceptional height variation (around 20% deviation from a population's average) within such a population is sometimes due to [[Biography:Gigantism|gigantism]] or dwarfism, which are caused by specific [[Biology:Gene|gene]]s or endocrine abnormalities.<ref>Ganong, William F. (Lange Medical, 2001) ''Review of Medical Physiology'' (pp. 392–397)</ref> It is important to note that a great degree of variation occurs between even the most 'common' bodies (66% of the population),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=The True Height of the Waist: Explorations of Automated Body Scanner Waist Definitions of the TC2 scanner|journal=Proc. Of 5th Int. Conf. On 3D Body Scanning Technologies|date=2014|pages=55–65|doi=10.15221/14.055|isbn=9783033047631}}</ref> and as such no person can be considered 'average'.

In the most extreme population comparisons, for example, the average [[Biology:Female|female]] height in Bolivia is {{convert|142.2|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} while the average [[Biology:Male|male]] height in the Dinaric Alps is {{convert|185.6|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}, an average difference of {{convert |43.4 |cm|ftin|abbr=on}}. Similarly, the shortest and tallest of individuals, Chandra Bahadur Dangi and Robert Wadlow, have ranged from {{convert|53-272|cm|ftin|frac=2|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref name="GWR-Dangi">{{cite web|url = https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2012/2/shortest-man-world-record-its-official!-chandra-bahadur-dangi-is-smallest-adult-of-all-time|title= Shortest man world record: It's official! Chandra Bahadur Dangi is smallest adult of all time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228213528/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2012/2/shortest-man-world-record-its-official!-chandra-bahadur-dangi-from-nepal-is-smallest-adult-of-all-time |archive-date=2012-02-28 |work = Guinness World Records|date = 26 February 2012|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="GWR-Wadlow">{{cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/tallest-man-ever |title=Tallest Man Ever |date=27 June 1940 |publisher=Guinness World Records }}</ref>'''

The age range where most females stop growing is 15–⁠18 years and the age range where most males stop growing is 18–⁠21 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=2 to 20 years: Girls Stature-for-age and Weight-for-age percentiles |url=https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/data/set2clinical/cj41c072.pdf |website=CDC |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2 to 20 years: Boys Stature-for-age and Weight-for-age percentiles |url=https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/data/set1clinical/cj41c021.pdf |website=CDC |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Taller –At What Age do Men Stop Growing? |url=https://upsmash.com/story/growing-taller-at-what-age-do-men-stop-growing/ |website=Upsmash |date=20 July 2017 |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aronson |first1=Anna |title=Does Your Height Increase After You're 21? |url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/352563-does-your-height-increase-after-youre-21/ |website=Livestrong |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Georgoff |first1=Victoria |title=When do girls stop growing? |url=https://www.care.com/c/stories/4218/when-do-girls-stop-growing/ |website=Care.com |date=31 July 2015 |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Physical changes in puberty: girls and boys |url=https://raisingchildren.net.au/pre-teens/development/puberty-sexual-development/physical-changes-in-puberty |website=raisingchildren.net.au |access-date=3 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Investigations on Skeletal Growth Zones via Bone Scans as Base of Determination of Optimal Time for Surgery in Mandibular Asymmetry |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10984887/ |journal=Nuklearmedizin. Nuclear Medicine |year=2000 |publisher=NIH |pmid=10984887 |access-date=26 June 2020|last1=Reuland |first1=P. |last2=Werz |first2=R. |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=121–6 |doi=10.1055/s-0038-1632257 |s2cid=43341029 }}</ref>

====Weight====
Human weight varies extensively both individually and across populations, with the most extreme documented examples of adults being Lucia Zarate who weighed {{cvt|4.7|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}, and Jon Brower Minnoch who weighed {{cvt|1,400|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}, and with population extremes ranging from {{cvt|109.3|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}} in Bangladesh to {{cvt|192.7|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}} in [[Place:Micronesia|Micronesia]].<ref name='2009-09-24 TT'>{{cite news | first = Tom | last = Chivers | title = Human extremes: the tallest, shortest, heaviest and lightest people ever | date = 2009-09-24 | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/6226095/Human-extremes-the-tallest-shortest-heaviest-and-lightest-people-ever.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090928173346/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/6226095/Human-extremes-the-tallest-shortest-heaviest-and-lightest-people-ever.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2009-09-28 | work = The Telegraph | access-date = 2013-05-26}}</ref><ref name='2012-06-21 TT'>{{cite news | first1 = Conrad | last1 = Quilty-Harper |first2= Andrew |last2= Blenkinsop | first3= David| last3= Kinross |first4= Dan |last4= Palmer | title = The world's fattest countries: how do you compare? | date = 2012-06-21 | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/9345086/The-worlds-fattest-countries-how-do-you-compare.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120621112904/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/9345086/The-worlds-fattest-countries-how-do-you-compare.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2012-06-21 | work = The Telegraph | access-date = 2013-05-26}}</ref>

====Organs====
Adult [[Biology:Brain size|brain size]] varies from {{convert|974.9|cm3|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1498.1|cm3|abbr=on}} in females and {{convert|1052.9|cm3|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1498.5|cm3|abbr=on}} in males, with the average being {{convert|1130|cm3|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1260|cm3|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref name="refCosgrove">{{cite journal | last = Cosgrove| first = KP|author2=Mazure CM|author3=Staley JK| title = Evolving Knowledge of Sex Differences in Brain Structure, Function and Chemistry| year = 2007| journal = Biol Psychiatry| volume = 62| pages = 847–55| pmid = 17544382| doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001| issue = 8| pmc = 2711771}}</ref><ref name="refAllen">{{cite journal| last = Allen| first = JS|author2=Damasio H |author3=Grabowski TJ | title = Normal neuroanatomical variation in the human brain: An MRI-volumetric study| journal = Am J Phys Anthropol| year = 2002| volume = 118| pages = 341–58 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.10092| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/96515947/abstract | archive-url = https://archive.today/2011.04.26-044849/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/96515947/abstract | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2011-04-26 | pmid = 12124914 | issue = 4}}</ref> The right [[Biology:Cerebral hemisphere|cerebral hemisphere]] is typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are typically of more similar size.

Size of the human [[Biology:Stomach|stomach]] varies significantly in adults, with one study showing volumes ranging from {{convert|520|cm3|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1536|cm3|abbr=on}} and weights ranging from {{convert|77|g}} to {{convert|453|g}}.<ref name='Cox 1945'>{{cite journal | title = Variations in size of the human stomach | journal = California and Western Medicine | year = 1945 | first = Alvin J. | last = Cox | volume = 63 | issue = 6 | pages = 267–268 | pmid=18747178 | pmc=1473711}}</ref>

Male and female genitalia exhibit considerable individual variation, with [[Medicine:Human penis size|penis size]] differing substantially<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5347(01)65682-9| last1 = Wessells | first1 = H. | last2 = Lue | first2 = T. F. | last3 = McAninch | first3 = J. W. | title = Penile length in the flaccid and erect states: Guidelines for penile augmentation | journal = The Journal of Urology | volume = 156 | issue = 3 | pages = 995–997 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8709382}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Chen | first1 = J.| last2 = Gefen | first2 = A.| last3 = Greenstein | first3 = A.| last4 = Matzkin | first4 = H.| last5 = Elad | first5 = D.| title = Predicting penile size during erection| journal = International Journal of Impotence Research| volume = 12| issue = 6| pages = 328–333| year = 2000| pmid = 11416836| doi = 10.1038/sj.ijir.3900627| doi-access = free}}</ref> and [[Medicine:Human vaginal size|vaginal size]] differing significantly in healthy adults.<ref name='XXS 2013-04-01'>{{cite journal | title = The average human vagina | journal = Double X Science | date = 2013-04-01 | first = Jenny | last = Morber | url = http://www.doublexscience.org/the-average-human-vagina/ | access-date = 2013-05-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181104182401/http://www.doublexscience.org/the-average-human-vagina/ | archive-date = 2018-11-04 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Aesthetic===
{{main|Biology:Human physical appearance|Social:Physical attractiveness}}
[[Philosophy:Beauty#Human beauty|Human beauty]] and [[Social:Physical attractiveness|physical attractiveness]] have been preoccupations throughout history which often intersect with anthropometric standards. Cosmetology, [[Facial symmetry|facial symmetry]], and [[Waist–hip ratio|waist–hip ratio]] are three such examples where measurements are commonly thought to be fundamental.

==Evolutionary science==
Anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other large-bodied mammals, following [[Physics:Bergmann's rule|Bergmann's rule]], which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, and [[Biology:Allen's rule|Allen's rule]], which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm climates.

On a microevolutionary level, anthropologists use anthropometric variation to reconstruct small-scale population history. For instance, John Relethford's studies of early 20th-century anthropometric data from Ireland show that the geographical patterning of body proportions still exhibits traces of the invasions by the English and Norse centuries ago.

Similarly, anthropometric indices, namely comparison of the human stature was used to illustrate anthropometric trends. This study was conducted by Jörg Baten and Sandew Hira and was based on the anthropological founds that [[Social:Human height|human height]] is predetermined by the [[Biology:Nutrition|quality of the nutrition]], which used to be higher in the more developed countries. The research was based on the datasets for Southern Chinese contract migrants who were sent to Suriname and Indonesia and included 13,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baten |first1=Jörg |title=Anthropometric Trends in Southern China, 1830-1864 |journal=Australian Economic History Review |date=November 2008 |volume= 48 |issue= 3|pages=209–226 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8446.2008.00238.x }}</ref>

==Measuring instruments==

===3D body scanners===
Today anthropometry can be performed with [[3D body scanning|three-dimensional scanners]]. A global collaborative study to examine the uses of three-dimensional scanners for health care was launched in March 2007. The Body Benchmark Study will investigate the use of three-dimensional scanners to calculate volumes and segmental volumes of an individual body scan. The aim is to establish whether the Body Volume Index has the potential to be used as a long-term computer-based anthropometric measurement for health care. In 2001 the UK conducted the largest sizing survey to date using scanners. Since then several national surveys have followed in the UK's pioneering steps, notably SizeUSA, SizeMexico, and SizeThailand, the latter still ongoing. SizeUK showed that the nation had become taller and heavier but not as much as expected. Since 1951, when the last women's survey had taken place, the average weight for women had gone up from 62 to 65&nbsp;kg. However, recent research has shown that posture of the participant significantly influences the measurements taken,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning|journal=Ergonomics|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1123–1136|doi=10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621|pmid=27764997|year=2017|s2cid=23758581|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/33471}}</ref> the precision of 3D body scanner may or may not be high enough for industry tolerances,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Gill|first2=Simeon|last3=Hayes|first3=Steven G.|title=3D Body Scanning has Suitable Reliability: An Anthropometric Investigation for Garment Construction|journal=Proc. Of 3DBODY.TECH 2017 – 8th Int. Conf. And Exh. On 3D Body Scanning and Processing Technologies|date=2017|pages=298–305|doi=10.15221/17.298|isbn=9783033064362}}</ref> and measurements taken may or may not be relevant to all applications (e.g. garment construction).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Ahmed|first2=Maryam|last3=Parker|first3=Christopher J.|last4=Hayes|first4=Steven G.|title=Not All Body Scanning Measurements are Valid: Perspectives from Pattern Practice|journal=Proc. Of 3DBODY.TECH 2017 – 8th Int. Conf. And Exh. On 3D Body Scanning and Processing Technologies|date=2017|pages=43–52|doi=10.15221/17.043|isbn=9783033064362}}</ref> Despite these current limitations, 3D Body Scanning has been suggested as a replacement for body measurement prediction technologies which (despite the great appeal) have yet to be as reliable as real human data.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Januszkiewicz|first1=Monika|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|last3=Hayes|first3=Steven G.|last4=Gill|first4=Simeon|title=Online Virtual Fit Is Not Yet Fit For Purpose: An Analysis Of Fashion e-Commerce Interfaces|journal=Proc. Of 3DBODY.TECH 2017 – 8th Int. Conf. And Exh. On 3D Body Scanning and Processing Technologies|date=2017|pages=210–217|doi=10.15221/17.210|isbn=9783033064362}}</ref>

===Baropodographic===
[[File:example insole pressure device.jpg|thumb|Example insole (in-shoe) foot pressure measurement device]]
Baropodographic devices fall into two main categories: (i) [[:File:example foot pressure measurement device.jpg|floor-based]], and (ii) [[:File:example insole pressure device.jpg|in-shoe]]. The underlying technology is diverse, ranging from [[Engineering:Piezoelectric sensor|piezoelectric sensor]] arrays to light refraction,<ref name="Lord1981">Lord M 1981. Foot pressure measurement: a review of methodology. J Biomed Eng 3 91–9.</ref><ref name="Gefen2007">Gefen A 2007. Pressure-sensing devices for assessment of [[Physics:Soft tissue|soft tissue]] loading under bony prominences: technological concepts and clinical utilization. Wounds 19 350–62.</ref><ref name="Cobb1995">Cobb J, Claremont DJ 1995. Transducers for foot pressure measurement: survey of recent developments. Med Biol Eng Comput 33 525–32.</ref><ref name="Rosenbaum1997">Rosenbaum D, Becker HP 1997. Plantar pressure distribution measurements: technical background and clinical applications. J Foot Ankle Surg 3 1–14.</ref><ref name="Orlin2000">Orlin MN, McPoil TG 2000. Plantar pressure assessment. Phys Ther 80 399–409.</ref> but the ultimate form of the data generated by all modern technologies is either a 2D image or a 2D image [[Time series|time series]] of the pressures acting under the plantar surface of the foot. From these data other variables may be calculated (see ''[[Biology:Pedobarography#Data analysis|data analysis]].'')

The spatial and temporal resolutions of the images generated by commercial pedobarographic systems range from approximately 3 to 10&nbsp;mm and 25 to 500&nbsp;Hz, respectively. Sensor technology limits finer resolution. Such resolutions yield a [[Physics:Contact area|contact area]] of approximately 500 sensors (for a typical adult human foot with surface area of approximately 100&nbsp;cm<sup>2</sup>).<ref name="Britane2004">Birtane M, Tuna H 2004. The evaluation of plantar pressure distribution in obese and non-obese adults. Clin Biomech 19 1055–9.</ref> For a stance phase duration of approximately 0.6 seconds during normal walking,<ref name="Blanc1999">Blanc Y, Balmer C, Landis T, Vingerhoets F 1999. Temporal parameters and patterns of the foot roll during walking: normative data for healthy adults. Gait & Posture 10 97–108.</ref> approximately 150,000 pressure values, depending on the hardware specifications, are recorded for each step.

===Neuroimaging===
Direct measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging techniques such as MRI, which can be used on living persons. Such measurements are used in research on [[Biology:Neuroscience and intelligence|neuroscience and intelligence]]. Brain volume data and other craniometric data are used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archeology.

==Epidemiology and medical anthropology==
Anthropometric measurements also have uses in [[Social:Epidemiology|epidemiology]] and [[Medicine:Medical anthropology|medical anthropology]], for example in helping to determine the relationship between various body measurements (height, weight, percentage body fat, etc.) and medical outcomes.  Anthropometric measurements are frequently used to diagnose [[Medicine:Malnutrition|malnutrition]] in resource-poor clinical settings.

==Forensics and criminology==
[[File:Fingerprints taken by William James Herschel 1859-1860.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An early set of [[Biology:Fingerprint|finger- and handprint]]s by Sir William Herschel, 2nd Baronet (1833–1917)]]
{{Further|Biology:Forensic anthropology|Social:Anthropological criminology}}

Forensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses that produce a biological profile. Forensic anthropologists utilize the Fordisc program to help in the interpretation of craniofacial measurements in regards to ancestry determination.

One part of a biological profile is a person's ancestral affinity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Spradley |first=M. Kate |title=Metric Methods for the Biological Profile in Forensic Anthropology: Sex, Ancestry, and Stature |journal=Academic Forensic Pathology |volume=6 |issue=3 |date=2016 |pages=391–399 |doi=10.23907/2016.040 |pmid=31239914 |pmc=6474557 }}</ref> People with significant European or Middle Eastern ancestry generally have little to no  [[Medicine:Prognathism|prognathism]]; a relatively long and narrow face; a prominent brow ridge that protrudes forward from the forehead; a narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a "silled" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. A relatively small prognathism often characterizes people with considerable East Asian ancestry; no nasal sill or dam; an oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape.<ref>[http://www.redwoods.edu/Instruct/AGarwin/anth_6_ancestry.htm Forensic Anthropology – Ancestry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206061745/http://www.redwoods.edu/instruct/agarwin/anth_6_ancestry.htm |date=2012-02-06 }}</ref> Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among those of particular ancestries: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into an ancestral group.

==Ergonomics==
{{main|Engineering:Human factors and ergonomics}}
Today, ergonomics professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. This includes physical ergonomics in relation to human anatomy, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics; [[Cognitive ergonomics|cognitive ergonomics]] in relation to perception, memory, reasoning, motor response including [[Human–computer interaction|human–computer interaction]], mental workloads, decision making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress, training, and user experiences; organizational ergonomics in relation to metrics of communication, crew resource management, work design, schedules, teamwork, participation, community, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, and telework; environmental ergonomics in relation to human metrics affected by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, and light; visual ergonomics; and others.<ref name="IEA def">International Ergonomics Association. [http://iea.cc/01_what/What%20is%20Ergonomics.html ''What is Ergonomics''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520090316/http://iea.cc/01_what/What%20is%20Ergonomics.html |date=May 20, 2013 }}. Website. Retrieved 6 December 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environmental-ergonomics.org/ |title=Home Page of Environmental Ergonomics Society |publisher=Environmental-ergonomics.org |access-date=2012-04-06}}</ref>

==Biometrics==
[[File:Iris Recognition.ogv|thumb|250px|[[Iris recognition|Iris recognition]] system based on pattern matching]]
[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 090728-A-2946F-124.jpg|thumb|2009 photo showing a man having a [[Biology:Retinal scan|retinal scan]] taken by a U.S. Army soldier]]
{{main|Biometrics}}

Biometrics refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits. Biometrics is used in computer science as a form of identification and [[Access control|access control]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biometrics.cse.msu.edu/info.html |title=Biometrics: Overview |publisher=Biometrics.cse.msu.edu |date=6 September 2007 |access-date=2012-06-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107071003/http://biometrics.cse.msu.edu/info.html |archive-date=2012-01-07 }}</ref> It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. Biometric identifiers are the distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals.<ref name="JainA">{{cite journal | author1 = Jain A. | author2 = Hong L. | author3 = Pankanti S. | year = 2000 | title = Biometric Identification | url = http://helios.et.put.poznan.pl/~dgajew/download/PUT/SEMESTR_10/IO/FACE_RECOGNITION/BiometricsACM.pdf | journal = Communications of the ACM | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 91–98 | doi = 10.1145/328236.328110 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.216.7386 | s2cid = 9321766 | access-date = 2013-05-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120330083547/http://helios.et.put.poznan.pl/~dgajew/download/PUT/SEMESTR_10/IO/FACE_RECOGNITION/BiometricsACM.pdf | archive-date = 2012-03-30 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Biometric identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics.<ref name=Jain1>{{Cite book| last1 = Jain| first1 = Anil K.| last2 = Ross| first2 = Arun| title = Handbook of Biometrics| publisher = Springer| editor-last = Jain| editor-first = AK| editor2-last = Flynn| editor3-last = Ross| editor3-first = A| year = 2008| chapter = Introduction to Biometrics| pages = 1–22| chapter-url = https://www.springer.com/computer/image+processing/book/978-1-4419-4375-0| isbn = 978-0-387-71040-2 }}</ref> Subclasses include [[Biology:Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphics]] and [[Biology:Soft biometrics|soft biometrics]].

==United States military research==
The US Military has conducted over 40 anthropometric surveys of U.S. Military personnel between 1945 and 1988, including the 1988 Army Anthropometric Survey (ANSUR) of men and women with its 240 measures.  Statistical data from these surveys encompasses over 75,000 individuals.<ref>[http://assist.daps.dla.mil/docimages/0000/40/29/54083.PD0  U.S. Military personnel] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041016064120/http://assist.daps.dla.mil/docimages/0000/40/29/54083.PD0 |date=October 16, 2004 }}</ref>

== Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource Project — CAESAR ==
CAESAR began in 1997 as a partnership between government (represented by the US Air Force and NATO) and industry (represented by [[Organization:SAE International|SAE International]]) to collect and organize the most extensive sampling of consumer body measurements for comparison.
<ref>[https://www.humanics-es.com/CAESARvol1.pdf CIVILIAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN SURFACE ANTHROPOMETRY RESOURCE (CAESAR)  FINAL REPORT, VOLUME I:  SUMMARY]</ref>

The project collected and organized data on 2,400 U.S. & Canadian and 2,000 European civilians and a database was developed. This database records the anthropometric variability of men and women, aged 18–65, of various weights, ethnic groups, gender, geographic regions, and socio-economic status. The study was conducted from April 1998 to early 2000 and included three scans per person in a standing pose, full-coverage pose and relaxed seating pose.

Data collection methods were standardized and documented so that the database can be consistently expanded and updated. High-resolution measurements of body surfaces were made using 3D Surface Anthropometry. This technology can capture hundreds of thousands of points in three dimensions on the human body surface in a few seconds. It has many advantages over the old measurement system using tape measures, anthropometers, and other similar instruments. It provides detail about the surface shape as well as 3D locations of measurements relative to each other and enables easy transfer to Computer-Aided Design (CAD) or Manufacturing (CAM) tools. The resulting scan is independent of the measurer, making it easier to standardize. Automatic landmark recognition (ALR) technology was used to extract anatomical landmarks from the 3D body scans automatically. Eighty landmarks were placed on each subject. More than 100 univariate measures were provided, over 60 from the scan and approximately 40 using traditional measurements.

Demographic data such as age, ethnic group, gender, geographic region, education level, and present occupation, family income and more were also captured.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/tsb/cooperative/caefact.htm|title=CAESAR Fact Sheet|website=www.sae.org}}</ref><ref>Robinette, Kathleen M, Daanen, Hein A M, Precision of the CAESAR scan-extracted measurements, Applied Ergonomics, vol 37, issue 3, May 2007, pp. 259–265.</ref>

==Fashion design==
Scientists working for private companies and government agencies conduct anthropometric studies to determine a range of sizes for clothing and other items. For just one instance, measurements of the foot are used in the manufacture and sale of footwear: measurement devices may be used either to determine a retail shoe size directly (e.g. the [[Engineering:Brannock Device|Brannock Device]]) or to determine the detailed dimensions of the foot for custom manufacture (e.g. ALINEr).<ref>Goonetilleke, R. S., Ho, Edmond Cheuk Fan, and So, R. H. Y. (1997). "Foot Anthropometry in Hong Kong". ''Proceedings of the ASEAN 97 Conference'', Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1997. pp. 81–88.</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{Annotated link |Allometry}}
* {{Annotated link |Anthropometric cosmetology}}
* {{Annotated link |Biometrics}}
* {{Annotated link |Body shape}}
** {{Annotated link |Body proportions}}
*** {{Annotated link |Artistic canons of body proportions}}
* {{Annotated link |Cephalometry}}
* {{Annotated link |Chironomia}}
* {{Annotated link |Craniometry}}
* {{Annotated link |Dermatoglyphics}}
* {{Annotated link |Genetic fingerprinting}}
* {{Annotated link |Guidonian hand}}
* {{Annotated link |Digit ratio}}
* {{Annotated link |Eigenface}}
* {{Annotated link |Human height}}
* {{Annotated link |Human weight}}
* {{Annotated link |Kinanthropometry}}
* {{Annotated link |Morphometrics}}
* {{Annotated link |Osteometry}}
* {{Annotated link |Palmistry}}
* {{Annotated link |Phrenology}}
* {{Annotated link |Physiognomy}}
* {{Annotated link |Reflexology}}
* {{Annotated link |Samuel George Morton}}
* {{Annotated link |Single transverse palmar crease}}
* {{Annotated link |Statistical shape analysis}}
* {{Annotated link |World Engineering Anthropometry Resource}}
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a225094.pdf Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621131227/http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a225094.pdf |date=2022-06-21 }}
* ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design, [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]], 1998.
* ISO 8559: Garment construction and anthropometric surveys — Body dimensions, [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]], 1989.
* ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases, [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]], 2000.
* ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs, [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]], 2003.
* ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases, [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]], 2005.
* {{cite book| last = Pheasant | first = Stephen | title = Bodyspace : anthropometry, ergonomics, and design| url = https://archive.org/details/bodyspaceanthrop0000phea | url-access = registration | publisher = Taylor & Francis| year = 1986| location = London; Philadelphia| isbn = 978-0-85066-352-5}} (A classic review of human body sizes.)
* {{cite book| last = Redman | first = Samuel | title = Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2016 | location = Cambridge | isbn = 9780674660410 }}

==External links==
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/anthropometry/ Anthropometry] at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
* [http://msis.jsc.nasa.gov/sections/section03.htm Anthropometry and Biomechanics] at ''[[Organization:NASA|NASA]]''
* [http://www.dined.nl Anthropometry data at faculty of Industrial Design Engineering at Delft University of Technology]
* [http://www.ngds-ku.org/ngds_folder/M02.pdf Manual for Obtaining Anthropometric Measurements Free Full Text]
* [http://www.udeworld.com/anthropometrics.html Prepared for the US Access Board: Anthropometry of Wheeled Mobility Project Report Free Full Text]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160112002629/http://store.sae.org/caesar/ Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource Project—CAESAR] at [[Organization:SAE International|SAE International]]

{{Human anatomical features}}
{{Organ systems}}

[[Category:Anthropometry| ]]
[[Category:Biological anthropology]]
[[Category:Biometrics]]
[[Category:Forensic disciplines]]
[[Category:Human anatomy]]
[[Category:Measurement]]
[[Category:Medical imaging]]
[[Category:Physiology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Anthropometry}}