View source for Biology:Biodiversity of South Africa

{{Short description|Variety of life within South Africa and its exclusive economic zone}}
The '''Biodiversity of South Africa''' is the variety of living organisms within the boundaries of {{wipe|South Africa}} and its [[Earth:Exclusive economic zone|exclusive economic zone]]. South Africa is a region of high [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] in the terrestrial and marine realms. The country is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen [[Biology:Megadiverse countries|megadiverse countries]],<ref name="institutoaqualung" /> and is rated among the top 10 for plant species diversity and third for marine endemism.<ref name="NBA 2018 Genetic" />

This biodiversity is monitored and reported in terms of the continental terrestrial, inland aquatic, coastal, marine and the sub-antarctic Prince Edward Islands components.<ref name="Synthesis 2018" /> South Africa is a party to the Rio [[Biology:Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity]], and has declared a number of protected areas, including national parks and [[Earth:Marine protected area|marine protected area]]s which are managed by the national government. Continuing research and periodical reporting on the biodiversity of South Africa is the responsibility of the [[Organization:South African National Biodiversity Institute|South African National Biodiversity Institute]] (SANBI) as directed by the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, and authorised by various statutory acts.<ref name="Synthesis 2018" />

SANBI reports an estimate of about 67,000 animal species, and more than 20,400 plant species that have been described. Almost a quarter of the global [[Biology:Cephalopod|cephalopod]] species, about 16% of elasmobranch species, 13% of the world's sunspiders ([[Biology:Solifugae|Solifugae]]), nearly 10% of the world [[Biology:Coral|coral]] species, 8% of seaweeds, 7% of [[Biology:Vascular plant|vascular plant]]s, 7% of the birds, 5% of the mammals, nearly 5% of butterflies, 4% of the reptiles, 2% of the amphibians, and 1% of the freshwater fish of the world are found in the country and its [[Earth:Exclusive economic zone|exclusive economic zone]], including the Prince Edward Islands. Almost two thirds of South Africa's plant species, about half of the species of reptiles, amphibians, butterflies and freshwater fish, and about 40% of the estimated 10,000 marine animal species are endemic.<ref name="Poole 2019" />

==Global context==
[[Biology:Biodiversity|Biodiversity]] is the variety and [[Biology:Genetic variability|variability]] of life on Earth. It is typically a measure of variation at the [[Biology:Genetics|genetic]], [[Biology:Species|species]], and [[Earth:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] level.<ref name="UN" /> and is not distributed evenly, generally being richest in the tropics.<ref name="Gaston and Spicer 2013" /> [[Biology:Marine biology|Marine biodiversity]] is usually highest along coasts in the Western [[Earth:Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], where [[Physics:Sea surface temperature|sea surface temperature]] is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.<ref name="Tittensor et al 2010" /> Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in [[Biology:Biodiversity hotspot|hotspots]],<ref name="Myers et al 2000" /> and has been increasing through time,<ref name="McPeek and Brown 2007" /><ref name="Peters 2013" /> but will be likely to slow in the future.<ref name="Rabosky 2009" />

Estimates on the number of Earth's current [[Biology:Species|species]] range from 10&nbsp;million to 14&nbsp;million,<ref name="MillerSpoolman2012" /> of which about 1.2&nbsp;million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described.<ref name="PLoS-20110823" /> More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1&nbsp;trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.<ref name="NSF-2016002" />

The country is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen [[Biology:Megadiverse countries|megadiverse countries]],<ref name="institutoaqualung" /> with high levels of marine and terrestrial biodiversity.
The main criterion for megadiverse countries is endemism at the level of species, genera and families. A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems.

South Africa is one of the smaller megadiverse countries, with a terrestrial area of about 1.2 million km<sup>2</sup> and is rated among the top 10 for plant species diversity. The EEZ is about 1.1 million km<sup>2</sup> and is rated third for marine endemism.<ref name="NBA 2018 Genetic" />

=== Measuring diversity ===
Biodiversity is usually plotted as the richness of a geographic area, with some reference to a temporal scale. Types of biodiversity include [[Earth:Species diversity|taxonomic or species]], ecological,  morphological, and  [[Biology:Genetic diversity|genetic diversity]]. Taxonomic diversity, that is the number of species, genera, or families, is the most commonly assessed type.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction" />

The estimated number of South African animal species as of 2018 is about 67 000, with 20 401 plant species described. This comprises about 7% of the world's vascular plants, 7% of birds, 5% of mammals, 4% of reptiles, 2% of amphibians and 1% of freshwater fishes. Less information is available on invertebrate groups, but South Africa has almost a quarter of global cephalopods, and some terrestrial invertebrate groups are very strongly represented.<ref name="NBA 2018 Genetic" />

==Evolutionary history==
{{expand section|Evolutionary history of the biodiversity of SA. 
How this relates to the [[Earth:Gondwana#Break-up|breakup of Gondwana]] in the early [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] , and tectonic movement of the African plate - disconnection from other continental plates. Relative isolation of southern Africa by distance from the rest of Africa,  global climate changes,  rise and fall of sea levels, relative isolation of populations by altitude and life cycle specifics. Local climate changes, drought, flood and fire.

* Drivers of [[Biology:Speciation|speciation]]. The critical factor behind the origin of new species is reproductive isolation.<ref name="Mayr 1982" />
** Physical isolation 
** Habitat isolation
** Habitat change
** Changes in external pressures 
** Internal pressures

Biodiversity reduced by extinction and migration away from the region. Both affected by habitat change, disease and predation. 
|date=September 2020}}

The [[Earth:Age of the Earth|age of the Earth]] is about 4.54&nbsp;billion years.<ref name="USGS1997" /><ref name="Dalrymple 2001" /><ref name="Manhesa et al 1980" /> The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5&nbsp;billion years ago,<ref name="Schopf et al 2007" /><ref name="Schopf 2006"/><ref name="RavenJohnson2002" /> during the [[Earth:Eoarchean|Eoarchean]] Era after a geological [[Earth:Crust (geology)|crust]] started to solidify following the earlier molten [[Earth:Hadean|Hadean]] Eon. There are [[Biology:Microbial mat|microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&nbsp;billion-year-old [[Earth:Sandstone|sandstone]] discovered in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20131113" /><ref name="TG-20131113-JP" /><ref name="AST-20131108" /> Other early physical evidence of a [[Earth:Biogenic substance|biogenic substance]] is [[Chemistry:Graphite|graphite]] in 3.7&nbsp;billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland.<ref name="NG-20131208" /> More recently, in 2015, "remains of [[Chemistry:Biotic material|biotic life]]" were found in 4.1&nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20151019" /><ref name="Bell et al 2015" />

Since [[Biology:Abiogenesis|life began on Earth]], five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The [[Earth:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]] eon (the last 540&nbsp;million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the [[Earth:Cambrian explosion|Cambrian explosion]]—a period during which the majority of [[Biology:Multicellular organism|multicellular]] [[Biology:Phylum|phyla]] first appeared.<ref name="Berkeley" /> The next 400&nbsp;million years included repeated, massive, [[Biology:Biodiversity loss|biodiversity loss]]es classified as mass extinction events. In the [[Earth:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]], [[Earth:Carboniferous rainforest collapse|rainforest collapse]] led to a great loss of [[Biology:Plant|plant]] and [[Biology:Animal|animal]] life.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse" /> The [[Earth:Permian–Triassic extinction event|Permian–Triassic extinction event]], 251&nbsp;million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30&nbsp;million years.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction" /> The most recent, the [[Earth:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], occurred 65&nbsp;million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the {{nowrap|non-avian}} [[Biology:Dinosaur|dinosaur]]s.<ref name="BBC Nature" />

The period since the emergence of [[Humans|humans]] has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of [[Biology:Genetic diversity|genetic diversity]]. Named the [[Earth:Holocene extinction|Holocene extinction]], the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly [[Earth:Habitat destruction|habitat destruction]].<ref name="Vignieri 2014" /> Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in a number of ways, although a few negative effects are studied.<ref name="SalaMeyerson2009" />

Taxonomic biodiversity of a region may increase either by influx of species from other regions or by [[Biology:Speciation|speciation]] within the region. The former is facilitated by physical connections to other regions of compatible habitability, by the mobility of the affected organisms at some stage of their life cycle, and by agents contributing to dispersal. Speciation in situ is facilitated by reproductive isolation<ref name="Mayr 1982" /> and changes in the environmental pressures on the local populations. Many regions of high biodiversity or endemism arise from habitats which require unusual adaptations.

==Biological realms==

===Terrestrial (continental) ===
[[File:Ecozone Afrotropic.svg|thumb|The Afrotropical realm, marked in blue]]

The continental terrestrial component of the region lies within the Afrotropical biogeographic realm, which is one of Earth's eight [[Biology:Biogeographic realm|biogeographic realm]]s. It includes [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] south of the Sahara Desert, the majority of the [[Place:Arabian Peninsula|Arabian Peninsula]], the island of {{wipe|Madagascar}}, southern [[Religion:Iran|Iran]] and extreme southwestern {{wipe|Pakistan}}, and the islands of the western [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]].

===Inland aquatic===

===Estuarine ===

===Marine===
[[File:Barred Fingerfin at Rocky bank P9205402.JPG|thumb|[[Biology:Barred fingerfin|Barred fingerfin]] at Rocky bank]]
According to the WWF scheme,<ref name="Spalding et al 2007" /> the coastal waters of continental South Africa mostly lie within the marine realm of [[Earth:Temperate Southern Africa|Temperate Southern Africa]], with a part in the [[Earth:Western Indo-Pacific|Western Indo-Pacific]]. The boundary between the Temperate Southern Africa and Western Indo-Pacific marine realms is near Lake St. Lucia, in northern KwaZulu-Natal, near the border with Mozambique.

The marine biodiversity of South Africa is the variety of living organisms that live in the seas off the coast of {{wipe|South Africa}}. It includes [[Biology:Genetics|genetic]], species and [[Earth:Ecosystem|ecosystem]]s [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] in a range of habitats spread over a range of ecologically varied regions, influenced by the [[Physics:Geomorphology|geomorphology]] of the seabed and circulation of major and local [[Earth:Water mass|water mass]]es, which distribute both living organisms and nutrients in complex and time-variable patterns.

South Africa has a wide range of marine diversity with coastline in three oceans, two major current systems, major ocean frontal systems and benthic topography extending to a maximum depth of 5 700 m. There are 179 defined marine ecosystem types, 150 of them around South Africa and 29 around the sub-Antarctic territory of the Prince Edward Islands.<ref name="tenfold" />

===Coastal===
Since 2018 the National Biodiversity Assessment has produced a separate coastal report, combining data from marine portions of the coastal zone with estuaries and dunes along with beaches and rocky shores, defining the coastal zone as an ecologically determined cross-realm zone spanning the coastal parts of the marine and terrestrial realms, and including all estuaries, within which relevant results from the constituent realms are presented together. This analyses biodiversity across the land-sea interface compares it with the non-coastal parts of the terrestrial and marine realms.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

Vegetation types on the landward side of the coastal zone are included in the ecologically defined coast if they are purely coastal or have a coastal affinity, and least 70% of their area is within 10&nbsp;km of the shore. On the seaward side, ecosystem types that are influenced by the land are considered to be coastal, and include ecosystems extending as far offshore as the back of the inner shelf,  bays, and marine ecosystem types influenced by rivers. Estuarine Functional Zones (EFZs) are also considered to be part of the coast.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

The ecologically defined coastal zone is estimated to comprise about 4% of mainland terrestrial area, but includes 186 of the 987 ecosystem types, high biodiversity, and many endemic species, particularly along the south coast. This is largely due to large variations in coastal conditions affected by the warm Agulhas Current on the east coast, and cool Benguela Current along the west coast, distinct variations in temperature and rainfall patterns and variations in geology.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

Coastal parts of ecosystems tend to be hotspots of cumulative pressure, which often causes poor ecological condition in those areas. Ports and harbours have been identified as centres of cumulative impacts and ecological degradation. Intensive pressures on coastal areas include use of biological resources, coastal development, and mining. Coastal species of economic value which are accessible are likely to be over-exploited. Estuaries are often subjected to major flow modification due to upstream water use, which has adverse impacts on many coastal ecosystem types. For example, sand supplies to beaches and dunes are severely reduced, which affects erosion rates. Climate change and invasive species increase pressures on coastal biodiversity, and much of the pressure due to pollution is poorly understood.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

60% of coastal ecosystem types making up 55% of the coastal zone area, have been identified to be threatened, with a high risk of biodiversity loss in 13 ecosystems, while 9% of the coastal zone area is protected, providing good protection to about 24% of coastal ecosystem types.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

The three South African regions of high plant diversity and endemism all occur partly along the coast. They are the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot, the Succulent Karoo Region, and the [[Biology:Cape Floristic Region|Cape Floristic Region]].<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

The coastal zone provides a rich variety of organisms useful to people as food, medicine, fuel and raw materials for construction and crafts. There are more than 220 coastal plant species recorded as useful for these purposes from South Africa.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

Many coastal inhabitants rely to some extent on estuarine and marine fish and invertebrates as part of their diet, and the money saved by harvesting natural resources can be used for other needs, which is a significant benefit for economically marginal families. About a million people engage in recreational fishing, and the fishery is estimated to have a value of about R1.6 billion in 2018.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />

Some 147 communities and 29000 people are involved in subsistence fishing, harvesting fish, rock lobster, abalone, bait organisms and other intertidal resources, to an estimated value of about R16 million in 2018, about 85% of which is linefishing. The major importance of this sector is in employment and food security of poor coastal communities.<ref name="NBA 2018 Coastal" />


===Sub-Antarctic===
The Prince Edward Islands are Marion Island and Prince Edward Island, two small islands in the subantarctic [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] that are part of {{wipe|South Africa}}. The islands have been declared Special Nature Reserves under the South African Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, No. 57 of 2003, and activities on the islands are therefore restricted to research and conservation management.<ref name="Cooper 2010" /><ref name="UN 1993" /> Further protection was granted when the area was declared a marine protected area in 2013.<ref name="DEA 2013" /><ref name="wwf"/>  The only human inhabitants of the islands are the staff of a [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorological]] and [[Biology:Biology|biological]] research station run by the South African National Antarctic Programme on Marion Island.<ref name="NBA 2018 sub-Antarctic" />

==Ecoregions==
{{main|Earth:Ecoregion}}
<!-- Define -->
An ecoregion (ecological region) is an [[Earth:Ecology|ecologically]] and geographically defined area that is smaller than a [[Earth:Bioregion|bioregion]], which in turn is smaller than a [[Biology:Biogeographic realm|biogeographic realm]]. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of natural [[Biology:Community (ecology)|communities]] and [[Biology:Species|species]]. The [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. In theory, biodiversity or conservation ecoregions are relatively large areas of land or water where the probability of encountering different species and communities at any given point remains relatively constant, within an acceptable range of variation. An ecoregion will typically include several habitat types.

===Terrestrial ecoregions===

Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. The WWF divides the land surface of the Earth into eight biogeographical realms containing 867 smaller [[Earth:List of terrestrial ecoregions (WWF)|terrestrial ecoregions]].

The eight realms follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, that separate the world's major plant and animal communities. Realm boundaries generally follow [[Earth:Continent|continent]]al boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara.

Ecoregions are classified by [[Biology:Biome|biome]] type, which are the major global plant communities determined by rainfall and climate. Forests, grasslands (including savanna and shrubland), and deserts (including xeric shrublands) are distinguished by climate (tropical and subtropical vs. temperate and boreal climates) and, for forests, by whether the trees are predominantly [[Biology:Conifer|conifer]]s ([[Biology:Gymnosperm|gymnosperm]]s), broadleaf ([[Biology:Angiosperm|Angiosperm]]s), or mixed (broadleaf and conifer). Biome types like Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub; [[Earth:Tundra|tundra]]; and mangroves host very distinct ecological communities, and are also recognized as distinct biome types.

Listed by [[Biology:Biome|biome]]:

[[Earth:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]];

[[Earth:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]];

Montane grasslands and shrublands;

Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub;

Deserts and xeric shrublands;

[[Earth:Tundra|Tundra]];

Mangroves;

===Marine ecoregions===
[[File:Ecoregions of SA EEZ.png|thumb|upright=2|Marine ecoregions of the South African Exclusive Economic Zone (redefined 2011)]]
The marine ecoregions of the South African exclusive economic zone are a set of geographically delineated regions of similar ecological characteristics on a fairly broad scale, covering the exclusive economic zone along the South African coast. There were originally five inshore bioregions over the continental shelf and four offshore bioregions covering the continental slope and abyssal regions. These bioregions are used for conservation research and planning. They were defined in the South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment of 2004.<ref name="NBA 2004 vol 4" /> The South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment of 2011 amended this to reduce the number of regions to four inshore and two offshore and rename them as ecoregions.<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" />

Inshore ecoregions:
*The Benguela ecoregion comprises the consolidated Namaqua and South-western Cape bioregions.<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" /> which lie between Sylvia Hill in Namibia and Cape Point  The northern sector is a cool temperate region from Namibi to Cape Columbine , with large-scale intensive upwelling and nutrient rich water, and the cold Benguela current. The region is known for low oxygen events and it contains extensive mud banks and a relatively wide continental shelf.<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" /><ref name="Sink et al 2004" />{{rp|102}}

The southern sector has a relatively narrow continental shelf and a change in geology at Cape Columbine which marks the northern extent of exposed granite, and there is less offshore mud habitat south of this break. This region includes the two underwater canyons, Cape Point Valley and Cape Canyon, and there are large areas of rocky reef. The change in biology at Cape Columbine is indicated  by changes in seaweed and intertidal communities. There is less tendency for oxygen deficient bottom water than in the area further north. The break at the south-eastern end of the region is at Cape Point , where it is distinct in the inshore and tidal habitats, but the change in deeper water tends obliquely to the south-east, and is more diffuse, due to mixing of the Benguela and Agulhas currents between these regions.<ref name="Sink et al 2004" />{{rp|102}}
*The Agulhas ecoregion extends over the continental shelf from Cape Point to the Mbashe river. The south coast comprises a warm temperate component from Mbashe to Cape Agulhas, and a large overlap zone between Cape Agulhas and Cape Point where waters of the two currents mix. The continental shelf is at its widest in this region, extending up to 240&nbsp;km offshore on the Agulhas Bank. The shelf edge includes areas of extensive slumping. There are several areas of reef on the Agulhas Bank, including the Alphard banks. This region has the highest number of South African endemics, and is a breeding area for many species.<ref name="Sink et al 2004" />{{rp|103}} It was renamed to Agulhas ecoregion in the 2011 assessment.<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" />

Offshore ecoregions:

===Habitat types===
In [[Earth:Ecology|ecology]], a habitat is the type of [[Earth:Natural environment|natural environment]] in which a particular species of organism lives.  A species's habitat is those places where the species can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
It is characterized by both physical and biological features. Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, but some are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements. A habitat is not necessarily a geographical area, it can be the interior of a stem, a rotten log, a rock or a clump of [[Biology:Moss|moss]]; a [[Earth:Parasitism|parasitic organism]] has as its habitat the body of its [[Biology:Host|host]], part of the host's body (such as the digestive tract), or a [[Biology:Cell|single cell]] within the host's body.

Geographic habitat types include [[Earth:Polar regions of Earth|polar]], [[Earth:Temperate climate|temperate]], [[Earth:Subtropics|subtropical]] and tropical. The terrestrial vegetation type may be [[Earth:Forest|forest]], [[Earth:Steppe|steppe]], [[Earth:Grassland|grassland]], semi-arid or [[Earth:Desert|desert]]. Fresh-water habitats include [[Earth:Marsh|marsh]]es, [[Earth:Stream|stream]]s, [[Earth:River|river]]s, [[Earth:Lake|lake]]s, and [[Earth:Pond|pond]]s; marine habitats include salt marshes, the coast, the [[Earth:Intertidal zone|intertidal zone]], [[Earth:Estuary|estuaries]], [[Earth:Reef|reef]]s, bays, the open sea, the sea bed, deep water and [[Earth:Hydrothermal vent|submarine vents]].

Habitats may change over time. Causes of change may include a violent event, or change may occur more gradually over millennia with alterations in the climate. Other changes come as a direct result of human activities. The [[Earth:Introduced species|introduction of alien species]] can have a devastating effect on native wildlife, through increased [[Earth:Predation|predation]], competition for resources or the introduction of pests and diseases to which the indigenous species have no immunity. A change to a habitat can have far reaching consequences. It can make it more habitable for some inhabitants, at the expense of others. It can open new niches to immigrants, induce speciation, drive out established communities, and in some cases may lead to extinctions at various scales. A habitat is also directly and indirectly affected by the inhabitant organisms, their presence and biological activity influences the environment in complex ways.

====Marine habitat types====
A total of 136 marine [[Earth:Habitat|habitat]] types have been identified. The classification takes connectivity, depth and slope, substrate geology and sediment grain size, shoreline wave exposure, and biogeography into account. Beach state considers the wave exposure and grain size. These habitats include 37 coastal types, 17 inshore types in the 5 to 30&nbsp;m depth range, 62 offshore benthic types deeper than 30&nbsp;m, and 16 offshore pelagic types,<ref name="NBA 2011" /> three types of island and one type of lagoon.<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" />

== Vegetation types ==
[[File:Vegetation types of South Africa.svg|thumb|Vegetation types of South Africa.]]
{{main|List of vegetation types of South Africa}}<!-- The lists will be split out once a suitable intro and references have been added -->

The diverse vegetation types of South Africa are sampled, classified, described, and mapped by the SANBI VEGMAP project. Vegetation types of Lesotho and Eswatini are included in the project. The vegetation map is useful for biodiversity assessment, research, conservation management and environmental planning, and includes a database. The project is ongoing as more data becomes available over time. The first map was published in 2006, and has been updated in 2009. 2012 and 2018.<ref name="NatVegMap" />

The classification system uses a hierarchy to organise the vegetation types within the nine defined biomes and a tenth azonal group. Bioregions are described within the biomes, and the vegetation types are at the more detailed level, and represent groups of communities with similar biotic and abiotic features. The vegetation types are plotted on the map in as much resolution as is available using a GIS system.<ref name="NatVegMap" />

Listed by biome, there are 88 [[Earth:Savanna|Savanna]] vegetation types, code SV;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 73 Grassveld vegetation types, code G;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 
81 [[Biology:Fynbos|Fynbos]] vegetation types, code FF;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 29 [[Biology:Renosterveld|Renosterveld]] vegetation types, code FR;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 65 Succulent Karoo vegetation types, code SK;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 54 Albany Thicket and Strandveld vegetation types, codes AT and FS;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 29 Nama Karoo and desert vegetation types, codes NK and D;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 35 Azonal vegetation types, cose AZ;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> 17 Forest and coastal belt vegetation types, codes FO and CB;<ref name="Vegmap 2012" /> and 8 Subantarctic vegetation types, code ST.<ref name="Vegmap 2012" />

==Endemism==
{{main|Biology:Endemism}}
Endemism is the ecological state of a [[Biology:Species|species]] being native to a single defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are [[Biology:Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. The extreme opposite of an endemic species is one with a [[Biology:Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan distribution]], having a global or widespread range, and the opposite to an indigenous species in an introduced or [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]].

===Terrestrial===

The [[Biology:Cape Floristic Region|Cape Floristic Region]], the smallest of the six recognised [[Earth:Phytochorion|floral kingdoms]] of the world, is an area of extraordinarily high diversity and [[Biology:Endemism|endemism]], and is home to over 9,000 [[Biology:Vascular plant|vascular plant]] species, of which 69 percent are endemic.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" /> Much of this diversity is associated with the [[Biology:Fynbos|fynbos]] biome, a Mediterranean-type, fire-prone shrubland.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" />

Several species are endemic to extremely limited habitats, and are under severe pressure due to habitat reduction and degradation.

===Marine===
Over 13000 species of marine organisms are recorded from South African waters. Endemism is estimated at between 26 and 33%, the third highest marine endemism after New Zealand (51%) and Antarctica (45%). This varies between taxonomic groups from no endemic marine mammals or birds, to over 90% of [[Biology:Chiton|chiton]]s.<ref name="NBA 2019 vol 4" />{{rp|20}}

The region of highest known endemism is the south coast Agulhas inshore ecoregion, which is relatively far from the national borders, and relatively isolated from large scale oceanic circulation due to the effects of the widening of the continental shelf at the Agulhas Bank on the path of the Agulhas current, and far from other warm temperate regions. This region is largely bypassed by the Agulhas current, and has cooler inshore water due to upwelling, making it less hospitable to tropical Indo-west Pacific species. It is also isolated from the South Atlantic and Southern Ocean, so has been more prone to niche speciation.<ref name="NBA 2019 vol 4" />{{rp|20}}

==Centres of diversity==
The flora are not evenly distributed over South Africa, they tend to be concentrated in centres of diversity, which are regions of relatively high local biodiversity in a global or national context. 
* Succulent Karoo - the arid area to the north and west of the Cape fynbos.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" /> 
* [[Biology:Cape Floristic Region|Cape Floristic Region]] - <ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Griqualand West Centre - the arid area roughly between Prieska, [[Place:Vryburg|Vryburg]], Vorstershoop and Upington in the Northern Cape Province. The vegetation is mainly a variety of bushveld, grassland and Karoo types.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Albany Centre - in the Eastern Cape from the Kei River to about Middelburg, Aberdeen and the Baviaanskloof Mountains, with a transitional climate between the winter-rainfall of the Western Cape and the summer-rainfall of eastern southern Africa, with a large variety of vegetation types.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Drakensberg Alpine Centre - the highest altitude mountain region of southern Africa including most of Lesotho, the mountainous area around Barkly East in the Eastern Cape, and the eastern slopes of the Drakensberg through the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Free State southwest of Harrismith. Van Rooy (2000) considers this to be one of the main centres of diversity of mosses in southern Africa.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Soutpansberg Centre - the mountains from the Blouberg in the west, along the Soutpansberg, separating the Limpopo valley from the rest of South Africa, and parts of the Limpopo valley into the north-western corner of the Kruger National Park.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Wolkberg Centre - the escarpment areas previously known as the Transvaal Drakensberg, between Carolina, Mpumalanga, in the south to Haenertsburg, Limpopo Province in the north, and west to Zebediela.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" /> 
* Sekhukhuneland Centre - a drier area inland of the escarpment of the Wolkberg Centre, on basic and ultramafic rocks of the [[Earth:Bushveld Igneous Complex|Bushveld Igneous Complex]].<ref name="Crous et al 2006" /> 
* Barberton Centre - the mountains between Barberton in Mpumalanga Province, and the border with Eswatini.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />
* Maputaland-Pondoland Region - most of KwaZulu-Natal, with the edges extending into neighbouring areas, particularly southern Mozambique and the Eastern Cape. The area contains various grassland, thicket and forest types.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />

==Genetic diversity==
{{main|Biology:Genetic diversity}}

Genetic diversity is the amount of variation in the Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of distinct individuals, representing the [[Biology:Genetics|genetic]] characteristics of a species. From a conservation perspective, genetic diversity appears to be highly variable in populations and species.<ref name="NBA 2018 Genetic" />

Genetic diversity is important for evolutionary potential, as it serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of [[Biology:Allele|allele]]s that are suited for the new environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey" />

The methods of measuring genetic diversity of a region include:<ref name="uidaho" />
* [[Biology:Species richness|Species richness]], a measure of the number of species, 
* Species abundance, a relative measure of the abundance of species, 
* Species density, an evaluation of the total number of species per unit area

Stochastic simulation software can be used to predict the future of a population given measurements such as allele frequency and population size.<ref name="Hoban 2014" />

==Hotspots==
{{main|Biology:Biodiversity hotspot}}
[[File:MAP Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany.png|thumb|Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot]]
[[File:AT1322 map.png|thumb|Succulent Karroo location map]] 
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] that is threatened by human habitation.<ref name="bsienvis" /><ref name="ConsInt" /> Around the world, 36 areas qualify under this definition.<ref name="CEPF" /> These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal,  reptile, and amphibian [[Biology:Species|species]], with a very high proportion of those species as endemics. Some of these hotspots support as many as 15,000 endemic plant species and some have lost up to 95% of their natural habitat.<ref name="CEPF"/> Biodiversity hotspots support their diverse ecosystems on just 2.4% of the planet's surface,<ref name="ConsInt" /> but the area defined as hotspots covers a much larger proportion of the land, at about 15.7% of the land surface area, where they have lost around 85% of their original habitat.<ref name="e-education" />

Three of these hotspots are largely or entirely within South Africa:
[[File:Flora at Cape Peninsula.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Fynbos in the Western Cape]]
[[File:Fynbos_18_months_after_fire_-_360_degree_photo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 360 degree photograph of fynbos in the [[Groot Winterhoek]] region of the Western Cape about 18 months after a fire.  New plants can be seen in various stages of growth following the fire.  The infertile white soil that fynbos tends to grow in can also be clearly seen.  
Click here to see the photograph in 360 degrees.
]]
The [[Biology:Cape Floristic Region|Cape Floristic Region]] is the smallest of the six recognised [[Earth:Phytochorion|floral kingdoms]] of the world, is an area of extraordinarily high diversity and [[Biology:Endemism|endemism]], and is home to over 9,000 [[Biology:Vascular plant|vascular plant]] species, of which 69 percent are endemic.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" /> Much of this diversity is associated with the [[Biology:Fynbos|fynbos]] biome, a Mediterranean-type, fire-prone shrubland.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" /> The economical worth of fynbos biodiversity, based on harvests of fynbos products (e.g. [[Biology:Wildflower|wildflower]]s) and eco-tourism, is estimated to be in the region of [[Finance:South African rand|R]]77 million a year.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" /> Thus, it is clear that the Cape Floristic Region has both economic and intrinsic biological value as a [[Biology:Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspot]].<ref name="Odendaal 2008" />

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is situated near the south-eastern coast of Africa, occupying an area between the Great Escarpment and the [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]].<ref name="Biodiversityhotspots MPA" /> The area is named after [[Place:Maputaland|Maputaland]], [[Place:Pondoland|Pondoland]] and Albany. It stretches from the Albany Centre of Plant Endemism in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, through the Pondoland Centre of Plant Endemism and  KwaZulu-Natal Province, the eastern side of Eswatini (known as Swaziland until 2018) and into southern Mozambique and Mpumalanga. The Maputaland Centre of Plant Endemism is contained in northern KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique.

The Succulent Karoo lies along the coastal strip of southwestern Namibia and South Africa's Northern Cape Province, where the cold [[Earth:Benguela Current|Benguela Current]] offshore creates frequent fogs. The ecoregion extends inland into the uplands of South Africa's Western Cape Province. It is bounded on the south by the [[Earth:Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean climate]] [[Biology:Fynbos|fynbos]], on the east by the Nama Karoo, which has more extreme temperatures and variable rainfall, and on the north by the Namib Desert.

==Species lists==
A simple measure of taxonomic biodiversity is the count or listing of taxa found within a region. This may be recorded as species checklists. Since the number of species may be large, a checklist may be split into lists of species in a specified taxon at whatever level is convenient. For some taxa, a list by phylum is manageable, for others lists may be broken down to family level. Within the lists, the detail is generally at species level, but may vary depending on the available information, and a utilitarian approach is used, providing available detail that appears useful and reliable. A taxon may be labelled to indicate that it is endemic, [[Biology:Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]], [[Earth:Introduced species|introduced]], [[Earth:Agriculture|cultivated]], or [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive]].

===Flora===
[[File:Lion's Head and king protea seen from slopes of Table Mountain.jpg|thumb|Protea cynaroides on Table Mountain]] 
23,420 species of vascular plant have been recorded in South Africa, making it the sixth most species-rich country in the world and the most species-rich country on the African continent. Of these, 153 species are considered to be threatened.<ref name="Butler 2019" /> Nine [[Biology:Biome|biome]]s have been described in South Africa: [[Biology:Fynbos|Fynbos]], Succulent Karoo, [[Earth:Desert|desert]], Nama Karoo, [[Earth:Grassland|grassland]], [[Earth:Savanna|savanna]], Albany thickets, the Indian Ocean coastal belt, and [[Earth:Forest|forest]]s.<ref name="PlantZAfrica" />

The 2018 National Biodiversity Assessment plant checklist lists 35,130 taxa in the phyla [[Biology:Anthocerotophyta|Anthocerotophyta]] (hornworts (6)), [[Biology:Anthophyta|Anthophyta]] (flowering plants(33534)), Bryophyta (mosses (685)), [[Biology:Cycadophyta|Cycadophyta]] (cycads (42)), [[Biology:Lycopodiophyta|Lycopodiophyta]] (Lycophytes(45)), [[Biology:Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta]] (liverworts (376)), [[Biology:Pinophyta|Pinophyta]] (conifers (33)), and [[Biology:Pteridophyta|Pteridophyta]] (cryptogams(408)).<ref name="Plants 2018" />

*{{annotated link|Biology:List of conifers of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of cycads of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:Lists of flowering plants of South Africa}}<ref name="Plants 2018" />
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of hornworts of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of liverworts of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of lycophytes of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of mosses of South Africa}} 
*{{annotated link|Biology:List of pteridophytes of South Africa}}

===Fauna===
*{{annotated link|Biology:Acanthocephala}} – List of Acanthocephala of South Africa
*{{annotated link|Biology:Annelid|Annelida}} – List of annelids of South Africa
**{{annotated link|Biology:Clitellata}} 
***{{annotated link|Biology:Leech|Hirudinea}} 
***{{annotated link|Biology:Oligochaeta}} 
*[[Biology:Arthropoda|Arthropoda]]
**[[Biology:Arachnida|Arachnida]]
***Astigmata, [[Biology:Mesostigmata|Mesostigmata]], [[Biology:Prostigmata|Prostigmata]], [[Biology:Oribatida|Oribatida]]
***[[Biology:Ixodida|Ixodida]] 
***[[Biology:Amblypygi|Amblypygi]] 
***[[Biology:Araneae|Araneae]]
***[[Biology:Opiliones|Opiliones]]
***[[Biology:Palpigradi|Palpigradi]]
***[[Biology:Pseudoscorpiones|Pseudoscorpiones]]
***[[Biology:Schizomida|Schizomida]]
***[[Biology:Scorpiones|Scorpiones]]
***[[Biology:Solifugae|Solifugae]]
**[[Biology:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]]
***[[Biology:Anostraca|Anostraca]]
***Conchostraca
***[[Biology:Cladocera|Cladocera]]
***[[Biology:Notostraca|Notostraca]]
**[[Biology:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]]
**[[Biology:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]]
**[[Biology:Entognatha|Entognatha]]
***Collembola
***[[Biology:Diplura|Diplura]]
**[[Biology:Insecta|Insecta]]
***[[Biology:Archaeognatha|Archaeognatha]]
***{{annotated link|Biology:Blattodea}}
***{{annotated link|Biology:Coleoptera}} 
***[[Biology:Dermaptera|Dermaptera]]
***[[Biology:Diptera|Diptera]]
***[[Biology:Embioptera|Embioptera]]
***[[Biology:Ephemeroptera|Ephemeroptera]]
***[[Biology:Notoptera|Notoptera]]
***[[Biology:Hemiptera|Hemiptera]]
***{{annotated link|Biology:Hymenoptera}} 
***Isoptera
***{{annotated link|Biology:Lepidoptera}}
****List of butterflies of South Africa
****List of moths of South Africa
*****List of moths of South Africa (Arctiinae)
*****[[Biology:List of moths of South Africa (Crambidae)|List of moths of South Africa (Crambidae)]]
*****[[Biology:List of moths of South Africa (Gelechiidae)|List of moths of South Africa (Gelechiidae)]]
*****List of moths of South Africa (Geometridae)
*****[[Biology:List of moths of South Africa (Nepticulidae)|List of moths of South Africa (Nepticulidae)]]
*****List of moths of South Africa (Noctuidae)
*****List of moths of South Africa (Pyralidae)
*****[[Biology:List of moths of South Africa (Tortricidae)|List of moths of South Africa (Tortricidae)]]
***[[Biology:Mantodea|Mantodea]]
***[[Biology:Mecoptera|Mecoptera]]
***[[Biology:Megaloptera|Megaloptera]]
***[[Biology:Neuroptera|Neuroptera]]
***[[Biology:Odonata|Odonata]]
***[[Biology:Orthoptera|Orthoptera]]
***Phasmida
***[[Biology:Phthiraptera|Phthiraptera]]
***[[Biology:Plecoptera|Plecoptera]]
***[[Biology:Psocoptera|Psocoptera]]
***[[Biology:Siphonaptera|Siphonaptera]]
***[[Biology:Strepsiptera|Strepsiptera]]
***[[Biology:Thysanoptera|Thysanoptera]]
***[[Biology:Trichoptera|Trichoptera]]
***[[Biology:Zygentoma|Zygentoma]]
**[[Biology:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] – [[Biology:List of marine crustaceans of South Africa#Malacostraca|List of marine crustaceans of South Africa]]
***[[Biology:Amphipoda|Amphipoda]]
***[[Biology:Bathynellacea|Bathynellacea]]
***[[Biology:Cumacea|Cumacea]]
***[[Biology:Decapoda|Decapoda]]
***[[Biology:Euphausiacea|Euphausiacea]]
***[[Biology:Isopoda|Isopoda]]
***[[Biology:Leptostraca|Leptostraca]]
***[[Biology:Mysida|Mysida]]
***[[Biology:Spelaeogriphacea|Spelaeogriphacea]]
***[[Biology:Stomatopoda|Stomatopoda]]
***[[Biology:Tanaidacea|Tanaidacea]]
**[[Biology:Maxillopoda|Maxillopoda]] – [[Biology:List of marine crustaceans of South Africa#Maxillopoda|List of marine crustaceans of South Africa]]
***[[Biology:Branchiura|Branchiura]]
***Copepoda – [[Biology:List of marine crustaceans of South Africa#Copepoda|List of marine crustaceans of South Africa]]
***[[Biology:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]]
***[[Biology:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]]
***[[Biology:Thecostraca|Thecostraca]]
**[[Biology:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] – [[Biology:List of marine crustaceans of South Africa#Ostracoda|List of marine crustaceans of South Africa]]
**[[Biology:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]]
**[[Biology:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] – List of sea spiders of South Africa
**[[Biology:Symphyla|Symphyla]]
*[[Biology:Brachiopoda|Brachiopoda]]
*[[Biology:Bryozoa|Bryozoa]]
*[[Biology:Chaetognatha|Chaetognatha]]
*[[Biology:Chordata|Chordata]]
**{{annotated link|Biology:Actinopterygii}} – List of marine bony fishes of South Africa#Actinopterygii
*** List of marine spiny-finned fishes of South Africa
**** List of marine Perciform fishes of South Africa
***** List of marine fishes of the suborder Percoidei of South Africa
**[[Biology:Amphibia|Amphibia]]
**[[Biology:Larvacea|Appendicularia]]/[[Biology:Thaliacea|Thaliacea]]
**[[Earth:Ascidiacea|Ascidiacea]]
**[[Biology:Aves|Aves]] – List of birds of South Africa
**[[Biology:Cephalochordata|Cephalochordata]]
**Chondrichthyes – List of marine fishes of South Africa#Chondrichtyes
**Mammalia – List of mammals of South Africa
**Myxini – List of marine fishes of South Africa#Myxini
**Reptilia
***List of lizards of South Africa
**[[Biology:Sarcopterygii|Sarcopterygii]] – List of marine bony fishes of South Africa#Gigaclass Sarcopterygii — Lobefin fishes
*[[Biology:Cnidaria|Cnidaria]] – List of marine cnidarians of South Africa
<!--**[[Biology:Anthozoa|Anthozoa]]
**[[Biology:Cubozoa|Cubozoa]]
**[[Biology:Hydrozoa|Hydrozoa]]
**[[Biology:Scyphozoa|Scyphozoa]]-->
*[[Biology:Ctenophora|Ctenophora]] – List of comb jellies of South Africa
*[[Biology:Cycliophora|Cycliophora]]
*[[Biology:Echinodermata|Echinodermata]] – List of echinoderms of South Africa
<!--**Asteroidea
**[[Biology:Crinoidea|Crinoidea]]
**Echinoidea
**[[Biology:Holothuroidea|Holothuroidea]]
**Ophiuroidea-->
*[[Biology:Echiura|Echiura]]
*[[Biology:Entoprocta|Entoprocta]]
*[[Biology:Gastrotricha|Gastrotricha]]
*[[Biology:Gnathostomulida|Gnathostomulida]]
*[[Biology:Hemichordata|Hemichordata]]
*[[Biology:Kinorhyncha|Kinorhyncha]]
*[[Biology:Loricifera|Loricifera]]
*[[Biology:Micrognathozoa|Micrognathozoa]]
*[[Biology:Mollusca|Mollusca]]
**[[Biology:Aplacophora|Aplacophora]] – List of marine molluscs of South Africa#Aplacophora
**[[Biology:Bivalvia|Bivalvia]] – List of marine molluscs of South Africa#Bivalvia
**[[Biology:Cephalopoda|Cephalopoda]] – List of marine molluscs of South Africa#Cephalopoda
**[[Biology:Gastropoda|Gastropoda]] – List of marine gastropods of South Africa
***List of marine heterobranch gastropods of South Africa
**[[Biology:Polyplacophora|Polyplacophora]] – List of marine molluscs of South Africa#Polyplacophora
**[[Biology:Scaphopoda|Scaphopoda]] – List of marine molluscs of South Africa#Scaphopoda
*[[Biology:Myxozoa|Myxozoa]]
*[[Biology:Nematoda|Nematoda]]
*[[Biology:Nematomorpha|Nematomorpha]]
*[[Biology:Nemertea|Nemertea]]
*[[Biology:Onychophora|Onychophora]]
*[[Biology:Orthonectida|Orthonectida]]
*[[Biology:Phoronida|Phoronida]]
*[[Biology:Placozoa|Placozoa]]
*[[Biology:Platyhelminthes|Platyhelminthes]]
**[[Biology:Cestoda|Cestoda]]
**[[Biology:Monogenea|Monogenea]]
**[[Biology:Trematoda|Trematoda]]
**[[Biology:Turbellaria|Turbellaria]]
*[[Biology:Porifera|Porifera]] – List of sponges of South Africa
*[[Biology:Priapulida|Priapulida]]
*Rhombozoa
*[[Biology:Rotifera|Rotifera]]
*[[Biology:Sipuncula|Sipuncula]]
*[[Biology:Tardigrada|Tardigrada]]
*[[Biology:Xenacoelomorpha|Xenacoelomorpha]]


=== Fungi ===
By 1945, more than 4900 species of [[Biology:Fungus|fungi]] (including [[Biology:Lichen#Fungi|lichen-forming]] species) had been recorded,<ref name="Rong and Baxter 2006" /> and by 2006, the number of [[Biology:List of fungi of South Africa|fungi in South Africa]] was estimated at 200,000 species, without taking into account fungi associated with insects.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" /> If correct, then the number of South African fungi dwarfs that of its plants. In at least some major South African ecosystems, an exceptionally high percentage of fungi are highly specific in terms of the plants with which they occur.<ref name="Marincowitz et al 2013" /> The country's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan does not mention fungi (including lichen-forming fungi).<ref name="cbd.int" />
* [[Biology:Ascomycota|Ascomycota]] 
* [[Biology:Basidiomycota|Basidiomycota]] 
* [[Biology:Zygomycota|Zygomycota]] 
* [[Biology:Lichen|Lichen]]-forming and lichenicolous fungi
* Oomycete

==== History ====
I. B. Pole-Evans established a national collection of fungi in Pretoria after his appointment in 1905. The previously existing collections of MacOwan and Medley Wood comprised 765 specimens. By 1950 the collection included more than 35 000 fungal specimens. The collections of P.A. van der Bijl and L. Verwoerd were housed at Stellenbosch, and the [[Biography:Peter MacOwan|P. MacOwan]] collection and Bolus herbarium collections at Cape Town. Several European herbaria, including Kew and the International Mycological Institute also held collections. E. M. Doidge (1950) summarised the content, listing 835 species of Ascomycetes, 1704 Basidiomycetes, 93  Myxomycetes, 77 Phycomycetes, 1159 lichens, and 880 fungi imperfecti, with a total of 4748 species.<ref name="Crous et al 2006" />

=== Other eukaryotes ===
* {{annotated link|Biology:Seaweed}} 
** {{annotated link|Biology:Green algae}} – [[Biology:List of green seaweeds of South Africa|List of green seaweeds of South Africa]]
** {{annotated link|Biology:Brown algae}} – [[Biology:List of brown seaweeds of South Africa|List of brown seaweeds of South Africa]]
** {{annotated link|Biology:Red algae}} – [[Biology:List of red seaweeds of South Africa|List of red seaweeds of South Africa]]

=== Prokaryotes ===

==Threats==
Biodiversity loss is the [[Biology:Extinction|extinction]] of [[Biology:Species|species]] worldwide, and also the local reduction or loss of species in a given [[Earth:Habitat|habitat]]. Local losses can be temporary or permanent, depending on whether the environmental degradation that leads to the loss is reversible through ecological restoration or [[Biology:Ecological resilience|ecological resilience]], or effectively permanent. Global extinction has so far been proven to be irreversible.

Even though permanent [[Biology:Global biodiversity|global]] species loss is a more dramatic phenomenon than regional changes in species composition, even minor changes from a healthy stable state can have dramatic influence on the [[Biology:Food web|food web]] and the food chain insofar as reductions in only one species can adversely affect the entire chain (coextinction), leading to an overall reduction in [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]], possible [[Earth:Alternative stable state|alternative stable state]]s of an ecosystem notwithstanding. [[Earth:Ecological effects of biodiversity|Ecological effects of biodiversity]] are usually counteracted by its loss. Reduced biodiversity in particular leads to reduced [[Biology:Ecosystem services|ecosystem services]] and eventually poses an immediate danger for [[Earth:Food security|food security]], both within the ecosystem, and for human populations relying on it.<ref name=cardinale2012/>

Habitat change by way of [[Biology:Habitat fragmentation|habitat fragmentation]] or [[Earth:Habitat destruction|habitat destruction]]) is the most important driver currently affecting biodiversity, as some 40% of forests and ice-free habitats have been converted to cropland or pasture.<ref name="10.1146/annurev-environ-042911-093511" /> Other drivers are: [[Earth:Overexploitation|overexploitation]], pollution, [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]], and [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]].

===Human impacts===
According to a 2019 ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'' by IPBES, 25% of plant and animal species are globally threatened with extinction as the result of human activity.<ref name="IPBES-20190506" /><ref name="Watts 2019" /><ref name="NYT-20190506"/> As a region with high endemic diversity and three major biodiversity hotspots, South Africa is one of the regions where this is highly significant.

===Climate change===
Climate change includes both the global warming driven by human emissions of [[Chemistry:Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas]]es, and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns.<ref>{{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers|2013|p=4|ps=: Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased}}; {{harvnb|Gleick, 7 January|2017}}</ref> While there have been [[Earth:Climate variability and change|previous periods of climatic change]], changes observed since the mid-20th century have been unprecedented in rate and scale.<ref>{{harvnb|IPCC SR15 Ch1|2018|p=54|ps=: Abundant empirical evidence of the unprecedented rate and global scale of effect of human influence on the Earth System (Steffen et al., 2016; Waters et al., 2016) has led many scientists to call for an acknowledgement that the Earth has entered a new geological epoch: the Anthropocene.}}</ref> 

===Endangered species===
An endangered species is a [[Biology:Species|species]] that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular region. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, [[Biology:Poaching|poaching]] and [[Earth:Invasive species|invasive species]]. The [[Organization:International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) [[Organization:IUCN Red List|Red List]] lists the global [[Biology:Conservation status|conservation status]] of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as [[Biology:Captive breeding|captive breeding]] and habitat restoration.


===Extinction===
Rapid [[Earth:Environmental change|environmental change]]s typically cause mass extinctions.<ref name="CockellKoeberl2006" /><ref name="Algeo and Scheckler 1998" /><ref name="Bond and Wignall 2008" /> More than 99.9 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species,<ref name="Book-Biology" /> are estimated to be extinct.<ref name="StearnsStearns2000" /><ref name="NYT-20141108-MJN" />


==Economic value==
Ways in which the biodiversity of SA has economic value to the inhabitants
*Natural resources
*Employment opportunities
*Tourism industry
The economical worth of fynbos biodiversity, based on harvests of fynbos products (e.g. [[Biology:Wildflower|wildflower]]s) and eco-tourism, is estimated to be in the region of [[Finance:South African rand|R]]77 million a year.<ref name="Odendaal 2008" /> Thus, it is clear that the Cape Floristic Region has both economic and intrinsic biological value as a [[Biology:Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspot]].<ref name="Odendaal 2008" />

==Management==
South Africa signed the Rio [[Biology:Convention on Biological Diversity|Convention on Biological Diversity]] on 4 June 1994, and became a party to the convention on 2 November 1995.<ref name="CBD parties" /> It has subsequently produced a [[Biology:Biodiversity action plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan]], which was received by the convention on 7 June 2006.<ref name="cbd.int" />

===Responsibility===
*Government department - Department of the Environment, Forestry and Fisheries. Previous departments: DEAT etc.
*Laws

===Sustainable use===
Ecotourism in South Africa has become more prevalent as a possible method of supporting the maintenance of biodiversity.

==Protection==

===Protected areas===
The protected areas of South Africa include national parks and [[Earth:Marine protected area|marine protected area]]s managed by the national government, public nature reserves managed by provincial and local governments, and private nature reserves managed by private landowners. Most protected areas are intended for the [[Biology:Conservation biology|conservation of flora and fauna]]. National parks are maintained by South African National Parks (''SANParks'').<ref name ="DEAT" /> A number of national parks have been incorporated in transfrontier conservation areas.

==Research==

===Research institutions===
The [[Organization:South African National Biodiversity Institute|South African National Biodiversity Institute]] (SANBI) is an organisation established in 2004 in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, No 10 of 2004, under the South African Department of Environmental Affairs (later named Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries), tasked with research and dissemination of information on biodiversity, and legally mandated to contribute to the management of the country's biodiversity resources.<ref name="DEA" />
*{{annotated link|Organization:Iziko South African Museum}}
Marine research:
*{{annotated link|Organization:South African Association for Marine Biological Research}}
*{{annotated link|Organization:South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity|abbreviation=SAIAB}}


===National Biodiversity Assessment===
The National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) is a recurring project by the South African National Biodiversity Institute in collaboration with the government department currently responsible for environmental affairs and several other organisations to assess the state of South Africa's biodiversity over time as an input for policy and decision making where the environment may be affected. The NBA looks into genetic, species and ecosystems biodiversity for terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and marine environments. Each assessment cycle nominally takes approximately five years, and both generates new knowledge and analyses existing knowledge.<ref name="SANBI NBA" /> NBA reports are named for the year of the data, and are usually published in the following year. They have been published for 2004,<ref name="NBA 2004 vol 4" /> 2011,<ref name="NBA 2011 vol 4" /> and 2018,<ref name="NBA 2019 vol 4" /> and include reports, data, and supplementary documents.<ref name="SANBI NBA 2018" />

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Biology:Biodiversity}}

==References==
<!-- Please use CS1 list defined references if you know how. If you don't, do what you can and it will be fixed by someone else -->
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="Animals 2020" >{{cite web
 |title=Checklist for South African Animal Species
 |last1=Khoza |first1=Thembile |date=26 March 2020
 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6971
 |website=opus.sanbi.org |publisher=South African National Biodiversity Institute |hdl=20.500.12143/6971 
 |access-date=17 November 2020 }}</ref>

<ref name="10.1146/annurev-environ-042911-093511">{{cite journal
 |last=Pereira|first=H. M. |s2cid=154898897
 |title=Global Biodiversity Change: The Bad, the Good, and the Unknown
 |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources
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<ref name="Algeo and Scheckler 1998">{{cite journal
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<!-- 
NBA 2018: These citations may be useful. If you use one, format it and move it to the reflist

Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm
Skowno, A.L., Raimondo, D.C., Poole, C.J., Fizzotti, B.&Slingsby, J.A. (eds.). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6370

CHAPTER CITATIONS

Chapter 1: Skowno,A.L.Raimondo,D.C. & Poole,C.J. 2019.'Chapter 1: Introduction and Approach', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L.Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. & Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 2: Poole,C.J., Raimondo,D. & Driver,A.(eds.). 2019.'Chapter 2: Benefits of Biodiversity in the Terrestrial Realm',in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. & Slingsby JA(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 3: Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Driver,A., Powrie,L.W., Hoffman,M.T., Van de Merwe S., Hlahane,K., Fizzotti,B. &Variawa,T. 2019.'Chapter 3: Pressures and Drivers I –General', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 4: van Wilgen,B.W., Wilson,J.R., Faulkner,K.T., Mnikathi,Z., Morapi,T., Munyai,T., Rahlao,S. &Zengeya,T.A.2019.'Chapter 4: Pressures and Drives II –Biological Invasions', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 5: Foden,W., Midgley,G., Kelly,C., Stevens,N. & Robinson,J.2019.'Chapter 5: Pressures and Drivers III –Climate Change',in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical ReportVolume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 6: Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Dayaram,A. & Kirkwood,D. 2019.'Chapter 6: Input Data', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 7: Skowno,A.L., Matlala,M.S., Kirkwood,D. &Slingsby.J.A.2019.'Chapter 7: Ecosystem Assessments' in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. & Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 8: Raimondo,D., Von Staden,L., Van der Colff,D., Child,M., Tolley,K.A., Edge,D., Kirkman,S., Measey,J., Taylor,M., Retief,E., Weeber,J., Roxburgh,L. &Fizzotti,B.2019.'Chapter 8: Indigenous Species Assessments' in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L.,Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 9: Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C. &Fizzotti,B.2019.'Chapter 9: Biome Summaries',in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J. & Fizzotti,B.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 10: Tolley,K.A, da Silva,J.&Van Vuuren,B. 2019.'Chapter 10:Benefits, Trends and Risks to Genetic Diversity' in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 11: Skowno,A.L., Daniels,F., Driver,A., Midgely,G., Foden,W., Stevens,N., Van Wilgen,B.W., Wilson,J.R.,Faulkner,K.T.,Mnikathi,Z., Morapi,T., Munyai,T., Rahlao,S., Zengeya,T.A., Poole,C.J. &Pfab,M.2019.'Chapter 11: Responses to Pressures' in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 12:Skowno,A.L., Poole,C.J.2019.'Chapter 12: Knowledge gaps and research priorities' in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 1: Terrestrial Realm. Skowno,A.L., Raimondo,D.C., Poole,C.J., Fizzotti,B. &Slingsby,J.A.(eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Volume 2: South African Inventory of Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
Van Deventer,  H.;  Smith-Adao, L.;  Mbona, N.;  Petersen, C.;Skowno, A.;Collins, N.B.; Grenfell, M.;  Job, N.; Lötter, M.;  Ollis, D.;  Scherman, P.; Sieben, E.;  Snaddon, K. 2018. South African Inventory of Inland Aquatic Ecosystems.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute,  Pretoria.Report Number: CSIR  report  numberCSIR/NRE/ECOS/IR/2018/0001/A; SANBI report number http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/5847.

Volume 3: Estuarine Realm
Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., Lamberth,S.J., MacKay, C.F., Taljaard, S., Turpie, J.K., Weerts S.P. &Raimondo, D.C., 2019 (eds). South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: Technical Report. Volume 3: Estuarine Realm.CSIR report number CSIR/SPLA/EM/EXP/2019/0062/A. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.  Report  Number:  SANBI/NAT/NBA2018/2019/Vol3/A. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6373(Unproofed version)

Chapter citations:

Example of Chapter Citation:Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., James, N., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, C.F., Turpie, J.K., Rajkaran,A. Weerts, S.P.&Whitfield, A.K.,2019,'Chapter 3: A new Ecosystem Classification for South African estuaries' in South  African  National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report. Volume  3:  Estuarine Realm.CSIR report number CSIR/SPLA/EM/EXP/2019/0062/A. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Report Number: SANBI/NAT/NBA2018/2019/Vol3/A.

CHAPTERS 
Chapter 1: Introduction and approach Skowno. A.L., Van Niekerk, L.& Poole, C.
Chapter 2: Benefits of estuarine biodiversity. Turpie, J.K.&Letley,G.
Chapter 3: A new Ecosystem Classification for South African estuaries. Van Niekerk, L., Adams,J.B., James, N., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, C.F., Turpie, J.K., Ramjukhad, C.-L., Weerts, S.P.& Whitfield, A.K.
Chapter 4: Extending the estuary functional zone to include key habitats and processes. Van  Niekerk, L., Adams, J., Fernandes, M., Harris, L., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, C.F., Petersen, C., Ramjukhad, C-L., Riddin, T., Van Deventer, H.&Weerts, S.P.
Chapter 5: Estuarine habitat status and trends. Adams, J., Fernandes, M.&Riddin,T.
Chapter 6: Pressures on the estuarine realm. Van Niekerk, L., Adams, A.B., Lamberth, S.J., Taljaard, S., MacKay, C.F., Bachoo, S. Parak, O.,Murison, G.& Weerts, S.P.
Chapter 7: Condition of South Africa's estuarine ecosystems. Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., Clark, B., Lamberth, S.J., Taljaard, S., MacKay, C.F.& Weerts, S.P.
Chapter 8: Ecosystem Threat Status and Protection levels. Van Niekerk, L.,Adams, J.B., Lamberth, S.J., Turpie, J., MacKay, F., Sink, K.& Skowno, A.L.
Chapter 9: Indigenous species assessments Raimondo, D.C., Adams, J.B., Lamberth, J.S., MacKay, C.F., Turpie, J.K., Sink, K. & van Niekerk, L.
Chapter 10: How vulnerable are South Africanestuaries to climate change? Van Niekerk, L., Lamberth, S.J., James, N., Taljaard, S. Theron, A.& Krug, M.
Chapter 11: Government's responses to declining estuarine condition and biodiversity. Van Niekerk, L., Taljaard, S., Adams, J.B, Bachoo, S., George, C., De Villiers, P., Lamberth, S.J., Sink, K., MacKay, C.F., Parak, P.& Murison, G.

Volume 4: Marine Realm
Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP,Karenyi N(eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapters:

Chapter 1: Sink KJ, Skowno AL, Green A, Landschoff J, Lamont T, and Franken M.2019. Chapter 1: Introduction and Approach. In:  Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 2: van der Bank MG, Poole CJ, Sink KJ, Perschke M, Franken M, Rylands S, Miza SA, Majiedt PA, Sibanda SM, Harris LR, Whitehead TO, Dunga LV, Adams R. 2019. Chapter 2: Benefits of Biodiversity in the Marine Realm. In: Sink KJ, van  der  Bank  MG,  Majiedt  PA,  Harris  LR,  Atkinson  LJ,  Kirkman  SP,  Karenyi  N  (eds).  2019. South  African  National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 3: Sink KJ, Harris LR, Skowno AL, Livingstone T, Franken M, Porter S, Atkinson LJ, Bernard A, Cawthra H, Currie J, Dayaram A, de Wet W, Dunga LV, Filander Z, Green A, Herbert D, Karenyi N, Palmer R, Pfaff M, Makwela M, MackayF, van Niekerk L, van Zyl W, Bessinger M, Holness S, Kirkman SP, Lamberth S, Lück-Vogel M.2019. Chapter 3: Marine Ecosystem  Classification  and  Mapping.  In: Sink  KJ,  van  der  Bank  MG,  Majiedt  PA,  Harris  LR,  Atkinson  LJ,  Kirkman  SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 4: Majiedt PA, Holness S, Sink KJ, Reed J, FrankenM, van der Bank MG, Harris LR, Adams L, Perschke M, Miza SA, Currie J,  Dunga LV. 2019. Chapter 4: Pressures on Marine Biodiversity. In: Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372Chapter  5:  MizaSA,  Robinson  TB,  Peters  K,  Majiedt  PA,  Jackson  L,  Hampton  SL,  Sink  KJ.  2019.

Chapter 5:  Alien  and Invasive Species. In: Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372Chapter 6: Kelly C, Foden W, Midgley G, Porter S, Lamberth S, van der Lingen C, Atkinson LJ, Robinson J. 2019.

Chapter 6: Climate Change. In: Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 4: Marine Realm. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 7: Sink KJ, Holness S, Skowno AL, Franken M, Majiedt PA, Atkinson LJ, Bernard A, Dunga LV, Harris LR, Kirkman SP, Oosthuizen A, Porter S, Smit K, Shannon L. 2019. Chapter 7: Ecosystem Threat Status. In: Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018  Technical  Report  Volume  4:  Marine  Realm.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute,  Pretoria.  South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372Chapter  8:  Sink  KJ,  Sibanda  SM,  Fielding  P,  Skowno  AL,  Franken  M,

Chapter 8: Sink KJ,  Sibanda  SM,  Fielding  P,  Skowno  AL,  Franken  M,  Harris  LR,  Adams  R,  Baleta  T.  2019.  Chapter 8: Ecosystem  Protection  Level.  In: Sink  KJ,  van  der  Bank  MG,  Majiedt  PA,  Harris  LR,  Atkinson  LJ,  Kirkman  SP,  Karenyi  N (eds).  2019. South  African  National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  4:  Marine  Realm.  South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 9: van der Bank MG, Adams R, Raimondo DC, Sink KJ, van der Colff D, Makhado A, Kock A, Porter S, Seakamela SM,  Louw  S,  Mann  BQ,  Bürgener  M.  2019.  Chapter  9:  The  State  of  Indigenous  Species.  In: Sink  KJ,  van  der  Bank  MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR,Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018  Technical  Report  Volume  4:  Marine  Realm.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute,  Pretoria.  South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 10: da Silva J, van Vuuren B. 2019. Chapter 10: The genetic perspective on marine biodiversity. In: Sink KJ, van der Bank MG, Majiedt PA, Harris LR, Atkinson LJ, Kirkman SP, Karenyi N (eds). 2019. South African National Biodiversity Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  4:  Marine  Realm.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute,  Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Chapter 11: Sink KJ, Harris LR, van der Bank MG, Franken M, Skowno A, Driver A, Atkinson LJ, Fairweather TP, Kerwath S,  Majiedt  PA,  Robinson  T,  Pfaff  M,  Rikhotso  W,  Smith  C.  and  van  Niekerk  L.  2019.  Chapter  11:  Key  findings,  priority actions  and knowledge  gaps.  In: Sink  KJ,  van der  Bank  MG,  Majiedt  PA,  Harris  LR,  Atkinson  LJ,  Kirkman  SP,  Karenyi  N (eds).  2019. South  African  National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  4:  Marine  Realm.  South African National Biodiversity Institute,Pretoria. South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6372

Volume 5: Coast.

CHAPTER CITATIONS:

Chapter 1. Skowno,  A.L.,  Poole,  C.J. 2019. Chapter 1: National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018: Introduction  and approach.  In: Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L.  &  Van  Niekerk,  L.  (eds).  South  African  National Biodiversity  Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5:  Coast.  South  African  National  Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63742.Harris,  L.R., Sink, K.J.,  Dayaram,  A.,  Skowno,  A.L., Van  Niekerk,  L.,  Adams,  J.B.,  Lamberth,  S.,  Pfaff,  M., Kirkman, S.2019.

Chapter 2: About the coast: physical characteristicsand biological diversity. In: Harris, L.R., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L. & Van Niekerk, L. (eds). South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: Technical Report. Volume 5: Coast. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63743.Harris, L.R., Poole, C.J., van der Bank, M., Sink, K., De Vos, D., Raw, J.L., Turpie, J., Perschke, M., Dunga, L.V.2019.

Chapter 3: Benefits of coastal biodiversity.  In:  Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L.  &  Van Niekerk,  L.  (eds).  South  African  National  Biodiversity Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5: Coast. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63744. Harris, L.R., Bessinger, M., Dayaram, A., Holness, S., Kirkman, S., Livingstone, T.-C., Lombard, A.T., Lück-Vogel, M., Pfaff, M., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., Van Niekerk, L.2019.

Chapter 4: Coastal ecosystem types. In: Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L.  &  Van  Niekerk,  L.  (eds).South  African  National  Biodiversity Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5:  Coast.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63745.Harris,  L.R.,  Majiedt,  P.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L., Van  Niekerk,  L.,  Holness,  S.,  Adams,  J.B.,  Currie,  J.C., Dunga, L.V., Lamberth, S., MacKay, C.F., Miza, S., Perschke, M., Taljaard, S.2019.

Chapter 5: Pressures and ecological condition.In: Harris, L.R., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L. & Van Niekerk, L. (eds). South African National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5:  Coast.  South  African  National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63746.Harris, L.R., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., Van Niekerk, L., Holness, S., Sibanda, S.M.2019.

Chapter 6: Ecosystem assessments.In: Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L.  &  Van  Niekerk,  L.  (eds).  South  African  National Biodiversity  Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5:  Coast.  South  African  National  Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/63747.Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L., Van  Niekerk,L.,Driver,  A.  2019.

Chapter 7: Going  forward:  key findings, priority action, knowledge gaps and research priorities.In: Harris, L.R., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L. & Van Niekerk, L. (eds). South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: Technical Report. Volume 5: Coast. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6374Harris,  L.R.,  Sink,  K.J.,  Skowno,  A.L.  &  Van  Niekerk,  L.  (eds).  2019. South  African  National  Biodiversity Assessment  2018:  Technical  Report.  Volume  5:  Coast.  South  African  National  Biodiversity  Institute, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12143/6374

Volume 6: sub-Antarctic Territory:

CHAPTER CITATIONS:

Chapter  1:  Adams,  R.,  van  der  Merwe,  S., Skowno,  A., Sink,  K. von  der  Meden,  C., andWhitehead, T.O. 2019. '1: Introduction and Approach', in National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R. andHolness, S. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 2:von der Meden, C., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R., Dayaram, A., Sink, K., Lombard, A., Bosman, A., Fourie, F., Harris, L., Hedding, D., Holness, S., Majiedt, P., Makhado, A., Meyer, R., Pistorius, P., Reisinger, R., Skowno, A., Somhlaba, S., Swart, S. andSmith, M .2019. '2: Ecosystem Classification and Mapping', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J.,  van der Merwe, S., Adams, R. andHolness, S. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 3: Skowno, A., Sink, K., Holness, S., Fairweather, T., von der Meden, C., Adams, R. andvan der Merwe, S.2019. '3: Ecosystem Assessments', in National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R. andHolness, S. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 4: van der Merwe, S., Greve, M., von der Meden, C. andAdams, R. 2019. ''4: Threats in the sub-Antarctic II–Alien and Invasive Species', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R. and Holness, S. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter 5:Whitehead, T.O., van der Merwe, S. andGreve, M. 2019. ''5: Threats in the sub-Antarctic II -Climate Change', in National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden,  C.,  Skowno,  A.L.,  Sink,  K.J.,  van  der  Merwe,  S.,  Adams,  R. andHolness,  S.  (eds.).  South  African  National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Chapter  6:  Sink,  K.J.,  Whitehead,  T.O.,van  der  Merwe,  S.,Adams,R.and  Kirkman,  S. 2019. '6: Key Findings,  Priority Actionsand Knowledge  Gaps', in National  Biodiversity  Assessment  2018  Technical  Report  Volume  6: sub-Antarctic Territory. Whitehead, T.O., Von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R. andHolness, S. (eds.). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria

Volume 7: Genetic diversity.

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[[Category:Biodiversity of South Africa]]

{{Sourceattribution|Biodiversity of South Africa}}