View source for Biology:Blueberry

{{short description|Section of plants}}
{{automatic taxobox
| image = Blueberries.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Biology:Vaccinium caesariense|Vaccinium caesariense]]''
| taxon = Vaccinium sect. Cyanococcus
| authority = Rydb.
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See text
}}
[[File:Vaccinium fruechte reifestadien.jpg|thumb|right|Blueberries showing various stages of maturation. IG = Immature Green, GP = Green Pink, BP = Blue Pink, and R = Ripe.]]

'''Blueberry''' is a widely distributed and widespread group of [[Biology:Perennial|perennial]] [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]] with blue or purple berries. They are classified in the [[Biology:Section (botany)|section]] '''''Cyanococcus''''' within the [[Biology:Genus|genus]] ''[[Biology:Vaccinium|Vaccinium]]''. ''Vaccinium'' also includes [[Biology:Cranberry|cranberries]], [[Biology:Bilberry|bilberries]], huckleberries and [[Biology:Vaccinium padifolium|Madeira blueberries]].<ref name="rowland">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AxbUJntXepEC&pg=PA222|title=''Vaccinium'' spp. (8.1: Blueberry). In: Biotechnology of Fruit and Nut Crops: Volume 29 of Biotechnology in Agriculture Series|editor=Richard E. Litz |author=Lisa J. Rowland |author2=Freddi A. Hammerschlag|publisher=CABI|year=2005|isbn=0-85199-066-5|access-date=September 21, 2020|archive-date=December 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212091802/https://books.google.com/books?id=AxbUJntXepEC&pg=PA222|url-status=live}}</ref> Commercial blueberries—both wild (lowbush) and cultivated (highbush)—are all native to North America. The highbush varieties were introduced into Europe during the 1930s.<ref name=nauman1993/>

Blueberries are usually [[Biology:Prostrate shrub|prostrate]] [[Biology:Shrub|shrub]]s that can vary in size from {{convert|10|cm|in|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} to {{convert|4|m|ft|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} in height. In commercial production of blueberries, the species with small, pea-size berries growing on low-level bushes are known as "lowbush blueberries" (synonymous with "wild"), while the species with larger berries growing on taller, cultivated bushes are known as "highbush blueberries". Canada is the leading producer of lowbush blueberries, while the United States produces some 40% of the world supply of highbush blueberries.

==Origin and history of cultivation==

[[File:Vaccinium corymbosum0.jpg|thumb|Flowers on a cultivated blueberry bush]]
[[File:Fresh blueberries (49950742312).jpg|thumb|Fresh blueberries]]
The genus ''[[Biology:Vaccinium|Vaccinium]]'' has a mostly [[Biology:Circumpolar distribution|circumpolar distribution]], with species mainly present in North America, Europe, and Asia.<ref name=rowland/> Many commercially available species with English [[Biology:Common name|common name]]s including "blueberry" are from North America,<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019">{{cite journal | last1=Rodriguez-Saona | first1=Cesar | last2=Vincent | first2=Charles | last3=Isaacs | first3=Rufus | title=Blueberry IPM: Past Successes and Future Challenges | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=64 | issue=1 | date=January 7, 2019 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112147 | pages=95–114| pmid=30629894 | s2cid=58573080 | doi-access=free }}</ref> particularly [[Place:Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Canada]] and the northeastern United States for wild (lowbush) blueberries, and several US states and British Columbia for cultivated (highbush) blueberries.<ref name="aafc">{{Cite web |date=August 9, 2018 |title=Canadian blueberries |url=http://www5.agr.gc.ca/eng/food-products/explore-canadian-food-products/canadian-blueberries/?id=1426167712421 |access-date=February 5, 2020 |publisher=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada |archive-date=February 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220084817/http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/food-products/explore-canadian-food-products/canadian-blueberries/?id=1426167712421 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="hbc">{{Cite news |date=2020 |title=Blueberries – Celebrating 100 Years |newspaper=Blueberry.org |url=https://www.blueberrycouncil.org/about-blueberries/history-of-blueberries/ |access-date=February 5, 2020 |publisher=US Highbush Blueberry Council |archive-date=April 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409194817/https://www.blueberrycouncil.org/about-blueberries/history-of-blueberries/ |url-status=live }}</ref> First Nations peoples of Canada consumed wild blueberries for millennia.<ref name=aafc/> Highbush blueberries were first cultivated in New Jersey around the beginning of the 20th century.<ref name=hbc/><ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

North American native species of blueberries are grown commercially in the Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand and South American nations. The Colombian or Andean blueberry, ''[[Biology:Vaccinium meridionale|Vaccinium meridionale]]'', is wild-harvested and commonly available locally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=Steven|date=2012|title=The Adulteration of Commercial Bilberry Extracts|url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/41820469/Bilberry-HerbalGram-96-2012-with-cover-page.pdf?Expires=1621161502&Signature=gWQA1y~Iat04jLHxNwnhk~ExQ7q8GuwQ8LWiz7WGZOiXMwo3xM0EIQF8jW34ECWQmJonGzjh-MYjUT60kaBPBnHoHIFeRWXh5E-aXI~WRHJOMGkbvAJZKC~y~rDrz3qUIl7QuqufdK1pUXuMXVdDTVvDXyeE1emxenVXId8Ro4zGfkWLIbaLn63MC7qrCsbiKf4gaiNECKu36G9Pq35zHWUB1m0Hs1seS8NJN3QwhDU7aLjONx3qVJm-CaeyIfUemfXk9J8YqWo1a0YfmC455E7yfzY1cisx7dSQq1Zj9EwvTxoyKhR7CPII7SxlkHPSGWnHUtFZKRF2gSpYGOrzPQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|journal=Academia|via=Herbalgram|access-date=May 16, 2021|archive-date=May 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516094201/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/41820469/Bilberry-HerbalGram-96-2012-with-cover-page.pdf?Expires=1621161502&Signature=gWQA1y~Iat04jLHxNwnhk~ExQ7q8GuwQ8LWiz7WGZOiXMwo3xM0EIQF8jW34ECWQmJonGzjh-MYjUT60kaBPBnHoHIFeRWXh5E-aXI~WRHJOMGkbvAJZKC~y~rDrz3qUIl7QuqufdK1pUXuMXVdDTVvDXyeE1emxenVXId8Ro4zGfkWLIbaLn63MC7qrCsbiKf4gaiNECKu36G9Pq35zHWUB1m0Hs1seS8NJN3QwhDU7aLjONx3qVJm-CaeyIfUemfXk9J8YqWo1a0YfmC455E7yfzY1cisx7dSQq1Zj9EwvTxoyKhR7CPII7SxlkHPSGWnHUtFZKRF2gSpYGOrzPQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA}}</ref> Several other wild shrubs of the genus ''Vaccinium'' also produce commonly eaten blue berries, such as the predominantly European ''[[Biology:Vaccinium myrtillus|Vaccinium myrtillus]]'' and other bilberries, which in many languages have a name that translates to "blueberry" in English.

==Description==

Five species of blueberries grow wild in Canada, including ''Vaccinium myrtilloides'', ''Vaccinium angustifolium'' and ''Vaccinium corymbosum'', which grow on forest floors or near [[Earth:Swamp|swamp]]s.<ref name="nb">{{Cite web |title=Wild Blueberry Fact Sheet A.2.0. Growth and Development of the Wild Blueberry |url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/10/pdf/Agriculture/WildBlueberries-BleuetsSauvages/a20e.pdf |access-date=February 5, 2020 |publisher=Agriculture, Aquaculture and Fisheries, Province of New Brunswick, Canada |archive-date=July 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717120713/http://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/10/pdf/Agriculture/WildBlueberries-BleuetsSauvages/a20e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Wild (lowbush) blueberries are not planted by farmers, but rather are managed on berry fields called "barrens".<ref name=aafc/>

Wild blueberries reproduce by cross pollination, with each seed producing a plant with a different genetic composition, causing within the same species differences in growth, productivity, color, leaf characteristics, disease resistance, flavor, and other fruit characteristics.<ref name=nb/> The mother plant develops underground stems called [[Biology:Rhizome|rhizome]]s, allowing the plant to form a network of rhizomes creating a large patch (called a ''clone'') which is genetically distinct.<ref name=nb/> [[Biology:Flower|Floral]] and leaf buds develop intermittently along the stems of the plant, with each floral bud giving rise to 5–6 flowers and the eventual fruit.<ref name=nb/> Wild blueberries prefer an acidic soil between 4.2 and 5.2 pH and only moderate amounts of moisture.<ref name=nb/> They have a hardy cold tolerance in their Canadian range and the U.S. state of Maine.<ref name=nb/> Fruit productivity of lowbush blueberries varies by the degree of pollination, genetics of the clone, soil fertility, water availability, insect infestation, plant diseases and local growing conditions.<ref name=nb/> Wild (lowbush) blueberries have an average mature weight of {{convert|0.3|g|oz|frac=128}}.<ref name=nb/>

Highbush (cultivated) blueberries prefer sandy or [[Earth:Loam|loam]] soils, having shallow root systems that benefit from mulch and [[Chemistry:Fertilizer|fertilizer]].<ref name="unh">{{Cite web |last=Becky Sideman |date=August 1, 2016 |title=Growing fruit: Highbush blueberries |url=https://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource000578_Rep600.pdf |access-date=February 5, 2020 |publisher=University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925194018/https://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/resource000578_rep600.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Biology:Leaf|leaves]] of highbush blueberries can be either [[Biology:Deciduous|deciduous]] or [[Biology:Evergreen|evergreen]], ovate to lanceolate, and {{convert|1|-|8|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|0.5|-|3.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} broad. The [[Biology:Flower|flower]]s are bell-shaped, white, pale pink or red, sometimes tinged greenish.

The fruit is a [[Biology:Berry (botany)|berry]] {{convert|5|-|16|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} in diameter with a flared crown at the end; they are pale greenish at first, then reddish-purple, and finally uniformly blue when ripe.<ref name=unh/> They are covered in a protective coating of powdery [[Biology:Epicuticular wax|epicuticular wax]], colloquially known as the "bloom".<ref name=nb/> They generally have a sweet taste when mature, with variable acidity.<ref name=nb/><ref name=unh/> Blueberry bushes typically bear fruit in the middle of the growing season: fruiting times are affected by local conditions such as climate, altitude and [[Earth:Latitude|latitude]], so the time of harvest in the northern hemisphere can vary from May to August.<ref name=nb/><ref name=unh/>

==Species==

Note: habitat and range summaries are from the ''Flora of New Brunswick'', published in 1986 by Harold R. Hinds, and ''Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast'', published in 1994 by Pojar and MacKinnon.
{{div col|colwidth=40em}}
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium angustifolium|Vaccinium angustifolium]]'' (lowbush blueberry):<ref name="Plunkett">{{Cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=Blue J. |last2=Espley |first2=Richard V. |last3=Dare |first3=Andrew P. |last4=Warren |first4=Ben A. W. |last5=Grierson |first5=Ella R. P. |last6=Cordiner |first6=Sarah |last7=Turner |first7=Janice L. |last8=Allan |first8=Andrew C. |last9=Albert |first9=Nick W. |last10=Davies |first10=Kevin M. |last11=Schwinn |first11=Kathy E. |date=September 11, 2018 |title=MYBA From Blueberry (Vaccinium Section Cyanococcus) Is a Subgroup 6 Type R2R3MYB Transcription Factor That Activates Anthocyanin Production |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=9 |page=1300 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2018.01300 |issn=1664-462X |pmc=6141686 |pmid=30254656 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" /> acidic barrens, bogs and clearings, Manitoba to Labrador, south to Nova Scotia; and in the United States, from Maine westward to Iowa and southward to Virginia
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium boreale|Vaccinium boreale]]'' (northern blueberry): peaty barrens, Quebec and Labrador (rare in New Brunswick), south to New York and Massachusetts
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium caesariense|Vaccinium caesariense]]'' (New Jersey blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium corymbosum|Vaccinium corymbosum]]'' (northern highbush blueberry)<ref name=Plunkett/>
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium darrowii|Vaccinium darrowii]]'' (evergreen blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium elliottii|Vaccinium elliottii]]'' (Elliott blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium formosum|Vaccinium formosum]]'' (southern blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium fuscatum|Vaccinium fuscatum]]'' (black highbush blueberry; syn. ''V. atrococcum'')
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium hirsutum|Vaccinium hirsutum]]'' (hairy-fruited blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium myrsinites|Vaccinium myrsinites]]'' (shiny blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium myrtilloides|Vaccinium myrtilloides]]'' (sour top, velvet leaf, or Canadian blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium pallidum|Vaccinium pallidum]]'' (dryland blueberry)
*''Vaccinium simulatum'' (upland highbush blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium tenellum|Vaccinium tenellum]]'' (southern blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium virgatum|Vaccinium virgatum]]'' (rabbiteye blueberry; syn. ''V. ashei'')<ref name=Plunkett/>
{{div col end}}
Some other blue-fruited species of ''Vaccinium'':
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium koreanum|Vaccinium koreanum]]'' (Korean blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium myrtillus|Vaccinium myrtillus]]'' ([[Biology:Bilberry|bilberry]] or European blueberry)
*''[[Biology:Vaccinium uliginosum|Vaccinium uliginosum]]'' (bog bilberry/blueberry, northern bilberry or western blueberry)
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:Wild Blueberry in autumn foliage.JPG|Wild blueberry in autumn foliage, Pilot Mountain, North Carolina, in October
File:Maturing blueberry.jpg|A maturing 'Polaris' blueberry (''Vaccinium corymbosum'')
File:Vaccinium fruits.JPG|A selection of blueberries, showing the typical sizes of the berries. The scale is marked in centimeters.
</gallery>

{{anchor|Highbush|Lowbush}}
The lowbush varieties are ''V. angustifolium'', ''V. boreale'', ''V. mytilloides'', ''V. pallidum'', and ''V. angustifolium'' × ''V. corymbosum''. They are still grown in a similar manner to pre-Columbian semi-wild cultivation, i.e. slash and burn. The highbush varieties are darrowii and corymbosum. Rabbiteye (''V. ashei''/''V. virgatum'') is considered different from both high- and lowbush.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019"/>

==Identification==

Commercially offered blueberries are usually from species that naturally occur only in eastern and [[Earth:North America|north-central North America.]] Other sections in the genus are native to other parts of the world, including the [[Place:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]] and southern United States,<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2013 |title=Plants Profile: ''Vaccinium corymbosum'' L., Highbush blueberry |url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=VACO |access-date=April 30, 2013 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service |archive-date=May 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502024713/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=VACO |url-status=live }}</ref> South America, Europe and Asia. Other wild shrubs in many of these regions produce similar-looking edible berries, such as [[Biology:Huckleberry|huckleberries]] and whortleberries (North America) and bilberries (Europe). These species are sometimes called "blueberries" and are sold as blueberry jam or other products.

The names of blueberries in languages other than English often translate as "blueberry", e.g. Scots ''blaeberry'' and Norwegian ''blåbær''. ''Blaeberry'', ''blåbær'' and French ''myrtilles'' usually refer to the European native [[Biology:Bilberry|bilberry]] (''[[Biology:Vaccinium myrtillus|V. myrtillus]]''), while ''bleuets'' refers to the North American blueberry. Russian ''голубика'' ("blue berry") does not refer to blueberries, which are non-native and nearly unknown in Russia, but rather to their close relatives, [[Biology:Vaccinium uliginosum|bog bilberries]] (''V. uliginosum'').

''Cyanococcus'' blueberries can be distinguished from the nearly identical-looking bilberries by their flesh color when cut in half. Ripe blueberries have light green flesh, while bilberries, whortleberries and huckleberries are red or purple throughout.

{{nutritional value
| name=Blueberries, raw
| image=Dish of blueberries.jpg
| caption=A dish of blueberries
| kJ=240
| protein=0.74 g
| fat=0.33 g
| carbs=14.49 g
| fiber=2.4 g
| sugars=9.96 g
| calcium_mg=6
| iron_mg=0.28
| magnesium_mg=6
| phosphorus_mg=12
| potassium_mg=77
| sodium_mg=1
| zinc_mg=0.165
| manganese_mg=0.336
| vitC_mg=9.7
| thiamin_mg=0.037
| riboflavin_mg=0.041
| niacin_mg=0.418
| pantothenic_mg=0.124
| vitB6_mg=0.052
| folate_ug=6
| betacarotene_ug=32
| vitA_iu=54
| lutein_ug=80
| vitE_mg=0.57
| vitK_ug=19.3
| opt1n=Water
| opt1v=84 g
| source_usda=1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171711/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

==Culinary use==
Blueberries are sold fresh or are processed as individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or dried or infused berries. These may then be used in a variety of consumer goods, such as jellies, jams, pies, muffins, snack foods, pancakes, or as an additive to breakfast cereals.

Blueberry jam is made from blueberries, sugar, water, and fruit [[Chemistry:Pectin|pectin]]. Blueberry sauce is a sweet sauce prepared using blueberries as a primary ingredient.

Blueberry wine is made from the flesh and skin of the berries, which is fermented and then matured; usually the lowbush variety is used.

===Nutrients===

Blueberries consist of 14% carbohydrates, 0.7% [[Biology:Protein|protein]], 0.3% fat and 84% water (table). They contain only negligible amounts of micronutrients, with moderate levels (relative to respective Daily Values) (DV) of the essential dietary mineral [[Chemistry:Manganese|manganese]], [[Biology:Vitamin C|vitamin C]], [[Chemistry:Vitamin K|vitamin K]] and dietary fiber (table). Generally, nutrient contents of blueberries are a low percentage of the DV (table). A 100-gram serving provides a relatively low amount of food energy &ndash; {{convert|57|kcal|kJ|order=flip}} &ndash; with a glycemic load of 6.

===Phytochemicals and research===

Blueberries contain [[Chemistry:Anthocyanin|anthocyanin]]s, other [[Chemistry:Polyphenol|polyphenol]]s and various [[Chemistry:Phytochemical|phytochemical]]s under preliminary research for their potential biological effects.<ref name=lpi/> Most polyphenol studies have been conducted using the highbush [[Biology:Cultivar|cultivar]] of blueberries (''V. corymbosum''), while content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in lowbush (wild) blueberries (''V. angustifolium'') exceeds values found in highbush cultivars.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Kalt W, Ryan DA, Duy JC, Prior RL, Ehlenfeldt MK, Vander Kloet SP |date=October 2001 |title=Interspecific variation in anthocyanins, phenolics, and antioxidant capacity among genotypes of highbush and lowbush blueberries (''Vaccinium cyanococcus'' spp.) |journal=J Agric Food Chem |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=4761–7 |doi=10.1021/jf010653e |issn=0021-8561 |pmid=11600018}}</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="155px">
File:Vaccinium fruit.JPG|A cut blueberry showing how, having been frozen and then thawed, the [[Chemistry:Anthocyanin|anthocyanin]]s in the pericarp are able to run into the [[Physics:Freezing#Freezing of living organisms|damaged cells]], staining the flesh.
File:Anthocyanidine.svg|Structure of [[Chemistry:Anthocyanin|anthocyanin]]s, the blue pigments in blueberries.<ref name="lpi">{{Cite web |date=November 2015 |title=Flavonoids |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/flavonoids |access-date=25 December 2017 |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR |archive-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024044103/https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/flavonoids |url-status=live }}</ref>
</gallery>

==Cultivation==
[[File:Blueberry harvester.jpg|thumb|Blueberry harvester in Michigan]]
Blueberries may be cultivated, or they may be picked from semiwild or wild bushes. In North America, the most common cultivated species is ''V. corymbosum'', the [[Biology:Northern highbush blueberry|northern highbush blueberry]]. Hybrids of this with other ''Vaccinium'' species adapted to southern U.S. climates are known collectively as southern highbush blueberries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growing Highbush Blueberries |url=https://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource000578_Rep600.pdf |access-date=September 22, 2013 |publisher=University of New Hampshire-Extension |archive-date=September 27, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927074859/https://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource000578_Rep600.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

So-called "wild" (lowbush) blueberries, smaller than cultivated highbush ones, have intense color. The [[Biology:Lowbush blueberry|lowbush blueberry]], ''V. angustifolium'', is found from the Atlantic provinces westward to Quebec and southward to Michigan and West Virginia. In some areas, it produces natural "blueberry barrens", where it is the dominant species covering large areas. Several First Nations communities in Ontario are involved in harvesting wild blueberries.

"Wild" has been adopted as a marketing term for harvests of managed native stands of lowbush blueberries. The bushes are not planted or [[Biology:Selective breeding|selectively bred]], but they are pruned or burned over every two years, and pests are "managed".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wild Blueberry Network Information Centre |url=https://www.dal.ca/sites/wild-blueberry.html |website=Wild Blueberry Network Information Centre |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015114521/https://www.dal.ca/sites/wild-blueberry.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Numerous highbush [[Biology:Cultivar|cultivar]]s of blueberries are available, with diversity among them, each having individual qualities. A blueberry breeding program has been established by the USDA-ARS breeding program at Beltsville, Maryland, and Chatsworth, New Jersey. This program began when Frederick Vernon Coville of the USDA-ARS collaborated with Elizabeth Coleman White of New Jersey.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2011 |title=Blueberry Growing Comes to the National Agricultural Library |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/2011/may11/nal0511.htm |access-date=June 17, 2011 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Magazine, Vol. 59, No. 5 |archive-date=July 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709184007/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/2011/may11/nal0511.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In the early part of the 20th century, White offered pineland residents cash for wild blueberry plants with unusually large fruit.<ref name=whitesboghistory>{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=The History of ''Whitesbog Village'' |url=http://www.whitesbog.org/whitesboghistory/history1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515060850/http://www.whitesbog.org/whitesboghistory/history1.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2008 |access-date=October 11, 2011 |publisher=Whitesbog.org}}</ref> After 1910 Coville began to work on blueberry, and was the first to discover the importance of soil acidity (blueberries need highly acidic soil), that blueberries do not self-pollinate, and the effects of cold on blueberries and other plants.<ref name="mirsky">{{Cite web |last=Mirsky |first=Steve |title=Early 20th Century Botanist Gave Us Domesticated Blueberries |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=early-20th-century-botanist-gave-us-11-06-17 |access-date=September 21, 2013 |publisher=Scientific American |archive-date=September 27, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927073915/https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=early-20th-century-botanist-gave-us-11-06-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1911, he began a program of research in conjunction with White, daughter of the owner of the extensive cranberry bogs at Whitesbog in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. His work doubled the size of some strains' fruit, and by 1916, he had succeeded in cultivating blueberries, making them a valuable crop in the Northeastern United States.<ref name=whitesboghistory/><ref name="JN62916">{{Cite news |last=Jim Minick |date=June 29, 2016 |title=The Delicious Origins of The Domesticated Blueberry |work=JSTOR News |url=http://daily.jstor.org/delicious-origins-of-domesticated-blueberry/?cid=eml_j_jstordaily_dailylist_06302016 |access-date=June 30, 2016 |archive-date=February 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208004416/https://daily.jstor.org/delicious-origins-of-domesticated-blueberry/?cid=eml_j_jstordaily_dailylist_06302016 |url-status=live }}</ref> For this work he received the George Roberts White Medal of Honor from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.

The [[Biology:Rabbiteye blueberry|rabbiteye blueberry]] (''Vaccinium virgatum'' syn. ''V. ashei'') is a southern type of blueberry produced from the Carolinas to the Gulf Coast states. Production of rabbiteye blueberries was a focus in {{wipe|Texas}} in the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Monte Nesbitt |last2=Jim Kamas |last3=Larry Stein |date=2013 |title=Blueberries |url=https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/fruit-nut/files/2015/04/blueberries_2015.pdf |access-date=April 27, 2019 |publisher=Texas A&M University, AgriLife Extension Service |archive-date=September 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905012008/https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/fruit-nut/files/2015/04/blueberries_2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Other important species in North America include ''V. pallidum'', the hillside or dryland blueberry. It is native to the eastern U.S., and common in the Appalachians and the Piedmont of the Southeast. Sparkleberry, ''V. arboreum'', is a common wild species on sandy soils in the Southeast.

Successful blueberry cultivation requires attention to [[Biology:Soil pH|soil pH]] (acidity) measurements in the acidic range.<ref name="msu">{{Cite web |last=Longstroth M |date=2014 |title=Lowering the soil pH with sulfur |url=http://blueberries.msu.edu/uploads/files/Lowering_Soil_pH_with_Sulfur.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116230847/http://blueberries.msu.edu/uploads/files/Lowering_Soil_pH_with_Sulfur.pdf |archive-date=November 16, 2015 |access-date=August 24, 2015 |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref><ref name="purdue">{{Cite web |last=Hayden RA |date=2001 |title=Fertilizing blueberries |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/HO-65.pdf |access-date=September 5, 2015 |publisher=Purdue University, Department of Horticulture |archive-date=October 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011233131/https://hort.purdue.edu/ext/HO-65.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Cornell fruit: berry diagnostic tool |url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berrytool/blueberry/leaves/BBleafbrowning.htm |access-date=September 5, 2015 |publisher=Cornell University, Department of Horticulture |archive-date=September 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912104518/http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berrytool/blueberry/leaves/BBleafbrowning.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Blueberry bushes often require supplemental fertilization,<ref name=purdue/> but over-fertilization with nitrogen can damage plant health, as evidenced by nitrogen-burn visible on the leaves.<ref name=msu/><ref name=purdue/>

===Growing regions===
[[File:BlueberryYield.png|thumb|Worldwide highbush blueberry growing areas (data from 2008)]]

Significant production of highbush blueberries occurs in British Columbia, Maryland, Western Oregon, Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Washington. The production of southern highbush varieties occurs in California, as varieties originating from [[Organization:University of Florida|University of Florida]], Connecticut, New Hampshire, [[Organization:North Carolina State University|North Carolina State University]] and Maine have been introduced. Peru, Spain, and Mexico also have significant production, as of 2018 (see Production).<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 25, 2017 |title=Where Are Blueberries Grown? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-blueberry-growers-in-the-world.html |access-date=April 27, 2019 |publisher=World Atlas |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427142253/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-blueberry-growers-in-the-world.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====United States====
In 2018, Oregon produced the most cultivated blueberries, recording {{convert|131|e6lb|e6kg|order=flip|abbr=off}}, an amount slightly exceeding the production by {{wipe|Washington (state)}}.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mitch Lies |date=December 31, 2018 |title=Record year makes Oregon top blueberry producer |work=Capital Press |location=Salem, OR |url=https://www.capitalpress.com/state/oregon/record-year-makes-oregon-top-blueberry-producer/article_a0c4132a-0d2e-11e9-bc90-f798d8cfae21.html |access-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427140503/https://www.capitalpress.com/state/oregon/record-year-makes-oregon-top-blueberry-producer/article_a0c4132a-0d2e-11e9-bc90-f798d8cfae21.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In descending order of production volume for 2017, other major producers were Georgia, Michigan, New Jersey, California, and North Carolina.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Top 10 Blueberry Producing States In America |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-blueberry-states-in-america.html |access-date=April 27, 2019 |publisher=World Atlas |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427140459/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-blueberry-states-in-america.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Hammonton, New Jersey, claims to be the "Blueberry Capital of the World",<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 11, 2013 |title=Home: Welcome to the Town of Hammonton |url=http://www.townofhammonton.org |access-date=November 6, 2013 |publisher=Town of Hammonton |archive-date=November 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111083002/http://www.townofhammonton.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with over 80% of New Jersey's cultivated blueberries coming from this town.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=The Beautiful Blueberry! |url=http://www.pineypower.com/blueberries.htm |access-date=July 10, 2018 |publisher=Pineypower.com |archive-date=July 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711022002/http://www.pineypower.com/blueberries.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Every year the town hosts a large festival, which draws thousands of people to celebrate the fruit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Hammonton Chamber of Commerce |url=https://www.hammontonnj.us/ |access-date=July 10, 2018 |publisher=Hammontonnj.us |archive-date=December 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212091803/https://www.hammontonnj.us/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Maine is known for its wild blueberries,<ref>"[https://visitmaine.com/things-to-do/dining-nightlife/maines-famous-blue-fruit Maine's Famous Blue Fruit]", Maine Office of Tourism; accessed 2022.01.22.</ref> but the state's lowbush (wild) and highbush blueberries combined account for 10% of all blueberries grown in North America.  Some {{convert|44000|ha|acre}} are farmed, but only half of this acreage is harvested each year due to variations in pruning practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=David E. Yarborough |date=February 2015 |title=Wild Blueberry Culture in Maine |url=https://extension.umaine.edu/blueberries/factsheets/production/wild-blueberry-culture-in-maine/ |access-date=April 20, 2016 |publisher=Cooperative Extension: Maine Wild Blueberries, University of Maine |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306220155/http://extension.umaine.edu/blueberries/factsheets/production/wild-blueberry-culture-in-maine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The wild blueberry is the official fruit of Maine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007 |title=State Berry – Wild Blueberry |url=http://www.maine.gov/sos/kids/about/symbols/berry.htm |access-date=July 8, 2017 |publisher=Secretary of State for Maine, Matthew Dunlap |archive-date=September 24, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924114947/http://www.maine.gov/sos/kids/about/symbols/berry.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Canada====
[[File:Wild blueberry fields in the fall near Parrsboro (1).jpg|thumb|Wild blueberry fields in Nova Scotia, Canada]]

Canadian production of wild and cultivated blueberries in 2015 was 166,000 tonnes valued at $262&nbsp;million, the largest fruit crop produced nationally accounting for 29% of all fruit value.<ref name="statcan">{{Cite web |date=February 3, 2016 |title=Fruit and vegetable production, 2015 – Canada |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/160203/dq160203a-eng.htm |access-date=May 18, 2016 |publisher=Statistics Canada |archive-date=June 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611014817/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/160203/dq160203a-eng.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

British Columbia was the largest Canadian producer of cultivated blueberries, yielding 70,000 tonnes in 2015,<ref name="statcan" /> the world's largest production of blueberries by region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=British Columbia Blueberries |url=http://www.bcblueberry.com/ |access-date=November 6, 2013 |publisher=BC Blueberry Council |archive-date=October 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023124842/http://www.bcblueberry.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Place:Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Canada]] contributes approximately half of the total North American wild/lowbush annual production with New Brunswick having the largest in 2015, an amount expanding in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deschênes V |date=April 20, 2016 |title=New Brunswick to become world's largest producer of wild blueberries |url=http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/10/news/news_release.2016.04.0301.html |access-date=May 18, 2016 |publisher=Government of New Brunswick, Department of Agriculture, Aquaculture and Fisheries |archive-date=June 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024921/http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/10/news/news_release.2016.04.0301.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Québec are also major producers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dorff E |date=November 30, 2015 |title=Blueberry varieties – Canada. In: The changing face of the Canadian fruit and vegetable sector: 1941 to 2011 |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/11921-eng.htm#a3 |access-date=May 18, 2016 |publisher=Statistics Canada |archive-date=June 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610002220/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/11921-eng.htm#a3 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nova Scotia recognizes the wild blueberry as its official provincial berry,<ref>Nova Scotia: [http://www3.sympatico.ca/goweezer/canada/embNS.htm Official emblems and symbols] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213063145/http://www3.sympatico.ca/goweezer/canada/embNS.htm |date=February 13, 2007 }}</ref> with the town of Oxford, Nova Scotia known as the Wild Blueberry Capital of Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Wild blueberry trivia |url=http://www.nswildblueberries.com/ |access-date=May 18, 2016 |publisher=Wild Blueberry Producers Associations of Nova Scotia |archive-date=May 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160524152145/http://www.nswildblueberries.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Québec is a major producer of wild blueberries, especially in the regions of Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean (where a popular name for inhabitants of the regions is ''bleuets'', or "blueberries") and Côte-Nord, which together provide 40% of Québec's total provincial production. This wild blueberry commerce benefits from [[Social:Vertical integration|vertical integration]] of growing, processing, frozen storage, marketing and transportation within relatively small regions of the province.<ref name="quebec">{{Cite web |last=Gagnon A |date=2006 |title=Wild Blueberry Production Guide in a Context of Sustainable Development: Survey of the Wild Blueberry Industry in Québec |url=http://perlebleue.ca/images/documents/amenagement/guideanglais/e001.pdf |access-date=February 4, 2015 |publisher=Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l'Alimentation du Québec |archive-date=February 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204183950/http://perlebleue.ca/images/documents/amenagement/guideanglais/e001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On average, 80% of Québec wild blueberries are harvested on farms ({{convert|21|e6kg|ST}}), the remaining 20% being harvested from public forests ({{convert|5|e6kg|ST}}).<ref name=quebec/> Some 95% of the wild blueberry crop in Québec is frozen for export out of the province.<ref name=quebec/>
[[File:Agraz..jpg|thumb|right|170px|''Vaccinium meridionale'', a wild species found in the Andes{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}]]

====Europe====
Highbush blueberries were first introduced to Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands in the 1930s, and have since been spread to numerous other countries of Europe.<ref name="nauman1993">{{Cite book |last=Naumann |first=W. D. |title=Fifth International Symposium on Vaccinium Culture |publisher=International Society for Horticultural Science |year=1993 |isbn=978-90-6605-475-2 |editor-last=K. A. Clayton-Greene |location=Wageningen, the Netherlands |pages=53–58 |chapter=Overview of the Vaccinium Industry in Western Europe |oclc=29663461 |chapter-url=http://www.actahort.org/books/346/346_6.htm |access-date=August 25, 2006 |archive-date=March 11, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311054006/http://www.actahort.org/books/346/346_6.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ''V. corymbosum'' only began to be cultivated in Romania in a few years leading up to 2018 and rapidly increased in production and sales in that time (as with berries in general). {{As of|2018}} it remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases (see [[Biology:Blueberry#Diseases|Diseases]] below).<ref name="Slav-et-al-2018">{{cite journal | title=Researches on the presence and aggressivity of the blueberry root rot (''Phytophthora cinnamomi'') in a Dâmbovița county plantation | last1=Slav | first1=M. | last2=Hoza | first2=D.  | last3=Asănică | first3=A. | journal=Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology | date=2018 | volume=22 | issue=4 | pages=7–12 }} ref.15</ref>

====Southern Hemisphere====
In the [[Earth:Southern Hemisphere|Southern Hemisphere]], Brazil, Chile, {{wipe|Argentina}}, Peru, Uruguay, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa,<ref name="where">{{cite news |title=Where blueberries grow |newspaper=Blueberry.org |url=https://www.blueberrycouncil.org/growing-blueberries/where-blueberries-grow/ |publisher=U.S. Highbush Blueberry Council |access-date=July 27, 2020 |date=2019 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061827/https://www.blueberrycouncil.org/growing-blueberries/where-blueberries-grow/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and Zimbabwe grow blueberries commercially.<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 3, 2020|title=Harvesting commences at one of Zimbabwe's bigger blueberry projects|url=https://www.thezimbabwean.co/2020/07/harvesting-commences-at-one-of-zimbabwes-bigger-blueberry-projects/|access-date=November 20, 2020|website=The Zimbabwean|language=en-US|archive-date=August 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812172718/https://www.thezimbabwean.co/2020/07/harvesting-commences-at-one-of-zimbabwes-bigger-blueberry-projects/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Brazil, blueberries are produced in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Minas Gerais.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cultivar|first=Grupo|title=Propagação eficiente de mirtilo|url=http://www.grupocultivar.com.br/artigos/propagacao-eficiente|access-date=March 8, 2021|website=Grupo Cultivar|language=pt-br}}</ref>

Blueberries were first introduced to Australia in the 1950s, but the effort was unsuccessful. In the early 1970s, the Victorian Department of Agriculture imported seed from the U.S. and a selection trial was started. This work was continued into the mid-1970s when the Australian Blueberry Growers' Association was formed.<ref name="australianblueberries.com.au">{{Cite web |title=Australian Blueberry Growers' Association |url=http://www.australianblueberries.com.au |access-date=November 6, 2013 |publisher=Australianblueberries.com.au |archive-date=September 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906234221/http://www.australianblueberries.com.au/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 21st century, the industry grew in {{wipe|Argentina}}: "Argentine blueberry production has increased over the last three years with planted area up to 400 percent," according to a 2005 report by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.<ref>[http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118470.doc U.S. Department of Agriculture GAIN Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016204951/http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118470.doc |date=October 16, 2008 }}, Retrieved June 30, 2011</ref> "Argentine blueberry production has thrived in four different regions: the province of Entre Rios in northeastern Argentina, the province of Tucuman, the province of Buenos Aires and the southern Patagonian valleys", according to the report.<ref name="gain2005">{{Cite web |last=Pirovano |first=Francisco |date=January 12, 2005 |title=Argentina Blueberries Voluntary 2005 |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118470.doc |access-date=June 22, 2009 |website=GAIN Report |publisher=[[Organization:Foreign Agricultural Service|Foreign Agricultural Service]] |archive-date=October 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016204951/http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118470.doc |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Bureau of International Labor Affairs report of 2014 on child labor and forced labor, blueberries were listed among the goods produced in such working conditions in Argentina.<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor |url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ |website=dol.gov |access-date=January 9, 2015 |archive-date=June 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610003351/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{anchor|Pests|Diseases}}

===Pests and diseases===
====Diseases====
{{main|Biology:List of Vaccinium diseases}}
{{As of|2018}} ''V. corymbosum''  remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases in Romania, with ''[[Biology:Phytophthora cinnamomi|Phytophthora cinnamomi]]'', ''[[Biology:Monilinia|Monilinia]] vaccinii-corymbosi'', ''[[Biology:Botryosphaeria|Botryosphaeria]] corticis'', ''[[Biology:Godronia|Godronia]] cassandrae'', ''[[Biology:Phomopsis|Phomopsis]]'' sp., ''[[Biology:Botrytis cinerea|Botrytis cinerea]]'', ''Naohidemyces vaccinii'', ''Microsphaera penicillata'' var. ''vaccinii'', and various viruses being the most common.<ref name="Slav-et-al-2018" />

====Pest management====
=====Pesticides=====
[[Chemistry:DDT|DDT]] began to be used in blueberry soon after its discovery in 1939, and a few years later in the mid-1940s research began into its use in North America.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

Because "wild" is a marketing term generally used for all low-bush blueberries, it is not an indication that such blueberries are free from pesticides.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2005 |title=Catching the Toxic Drift: How Pesticides Used in the Blueberry Industry Threaten Our Communities, Our Water and the Environment |url=http://www.environmentmaine.org/reports/environmental-health/reduce-pesticide-exposure-reports/catching-the-toxic-drift-how-pesticides-used-in-the-blueberry-industry-threaten-our-communities-our-water-and-the-environment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301051357/http://www.environmentmaine.org/reports/environmental-health/reduce-pesticide-exposure-reports/catching-the-toxic-drift-how-pesticides-used-in-the-blueberry-industry-threaten-our-communities-our-water-and-the-environment |access-date=October 11, 2011 |archive-date=March 1, 2011 |publisher=Environment Maine}}</ref>

Insecticide [[Chemistry:Mode of action|modes of action]] must be varied to avoid encouraging resistance in the invasive pest ''[[Biology:Drosophila suzukii|Drosophila suzukii]]''.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

Some [[Biology:Insecticide|insecticide]]s can be counterproductive, harming natural enemies of pests as well. For example, treatment for ''Illinoia pepperi'' can reduce populations of its predators. Kaolin clay for ''[[Biology:Rhagoletis mendax|Rhagoletis mendax]]'' also reduced effectiveness of ''[[Biology:Diachasma alloeum|Diachasma alloeum]]'', its [[Biology:Parasitoid|parasitoid]]. The pest predator ''Harpalus erraticus'' maintains greater abundance with selective insecticides rather than broad-spectrum MoAs.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

{{anchor|IPM}}

=====Integrated pest management=====
Blueberries are naturally relatively unmolested by [[Biology:Arthropod|arthropod]] pests. Nonetheless, there are 24 insect taxa known to be pest (organism)s in North America, the worst in New Jersey, Michigan, Maine, and Eastern Canada being ''[[Biology:Rhagoletis mendax|Rhagoletis mendax]]''. Secondary but still important are ''[[Biology:Acrobasis vaccinii|Acrobasis vaccinii]]'', ''[[Biology:Grapholita|Grapholita]] packardi'', and ''[[Biology:Conotrachelus|Conotrachelus]] nenuphar''. These four are the most common targets for development of IPM practices. {{as of|2019|lc=yes}}, IPM research has also taken an interest in ''[[Biology:Drosophila suzukii|Drosophila suzukii]]'' and arthropods like [[Biology:Aphid|aphid]]s (that vector diseases such as scorch virus and [[Biology:Blueberry shoestring virus|shoestring virus]]) and cicadellids (vectoring the [[Biology:Phytoplasma|phytoplasma]] that causes blueberry stunt). Managing pests down to the cosmetic level is necessary in this fruit because they are a premium type product.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

Changes in locale and environment – to new geographies, and into greenhouses – has required new pest management regimes, including innovative IPM. Conversely, importing foreign potential enemies into North America may yield good results: ''Operophtera brumata'' is a pest of blueberries and [[Biology:Birch|birch]]es which is successfully parasitized by ''[[Biology:Cyzenis albicans|Cyzenis albicans]]'' despite the lack of historical, natural contact between the two. The same results were obtained with ''[[Biology:Scirtothrips|Scirtothrips]] citri'' and ''[[Biology:Beauveria bassiana|Beauveria bassiana]]''. Results are available for ''[[Biology:Choristoneura rosaceana|Choristoneura rosaceana]]'' and overwhelming numbers of ''[[Biology:Trichogramma|Trichogramma]] minutum'', and ''[[Biology:Cyclocephala longula|Cyclocephala longula]]'' overwhelmed by ''[[Biology:Steinernema|Steinernema]] scarabaei''. This has also been attempted with flower thrips and potential predators but with inconclusive results.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

{{anchor|Quarantine}}

=====International quarantine=====
''Rhagoletis mendax'' is a quarantine pest in phytosanitary regimes of some countries around the world.<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

=====Resistant cultivars=====
Insect resistance was not a priority in [[Biology:Breeding program|breeding program]]s until about the year 2000, and is still not a high priority. However it may become more common as it becomes easier, especially using marker-assisted breeding. ''V. ashei'' is naturally more resistant than ''V. corymbosum'' to ''[[Biology:Scaphytopius|Scaphytopius]] magdalensis''. ''V. ashei'' is less resistant than ''V. darrowii'' to ''[[Biology:Prodiplosis|Prodiplosis]] vaccinia''. There is variation between cultivars of ''V. ashei'' in resistance to ''[[Biology:Oberea myops|Oberea myops]]''. There is variation in resistance among cultivars of ''V. corymbosum'' to ''[[Biology:Acrobasis vaccinii|Acrobasis vaccinii]]'' and ''[[Biology:Japanese beetle|Popillia japonica]]''. Wild ''V.'' spp. have greater resistance than highbush cultivars to ''I. pepperi''. There is significant variation between highbush cultivars in abundance of various [[Biology:Tephritidae|Tephritidae]], [[Biology:Thrips|thrips]], and [[Biology:Glassy-winged sharpshooter|''Homalodisca vitripennis'']].<ref name="Rodriguez-Saona-et-al-2019" />

==Production==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:center;"
|+ Blueberry production – 2021
|-
! Country
! Production<br /><small>([[Tonne|tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{USA}} || 351,130
|-
| {{PER}} || 227,971
|-
| {{CAN}} || 146,551
|-
| {{CHI}} || 122,795
|-
| {{MEX}} || 66,482
|-
| {{ESP}} || 61,230
|- 
| '''World''' || '''1,113,261'''
|-
| colspan="2" |<small>Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="fao">{{Cite web |title=Blueberry production in 2021; Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists) |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|date=2023 |access-date=27 November 2023 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) }}</ref></small>
|}

In 2021, world production of blueberries (lowbush and highbush combined) was 1.1 million [[Tonne|tonne]]s, led by the United States with 32% of global production, Peru with 20%, and {{wipe|Canada}} with 13% (table).<ref name=fao/>

In 2019, Canada was the largest producer of wild blueberries, mainly in Quebec and the Atlantic provinces,<ref name="canblue">{{Cite web |date=August 9, 2019 |title=Canadian blueberries |url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/buying-canadian-food-products/canadian-blueberries/?id=1426167712421 |access-date=February 21, 2020 |publisher=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada |archive-date=June 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609140233/http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/buying-canadian-food-products/canadian-blueberries/?id=1426167712421 |url-status=live }}</ref> but Canadian production of wild blueberries decreased since 2017 by transitioning to the more profitable cultivated highbush blueberries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 31, 2018 |title=Blueberries: transitioning from wild to cultivated production |url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/science-and-innovation/agriculture-and-agri-food-research-centres-and-collections/atlantic-provinces/charlottetown-research-and-development-centre/blueberries-transitioning-from-wild-to-cultivated-production/?id=1517263014132 |access-date=March 18, 2019 |publisher=Charlottetown Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada |archive-date=December 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216235645/http://agr.gc.ca/eng/science-and-innovation/agriculture-and-agri-food-research-centres-and-collections/atlantic-provinces/charlottetown-research-and-development-centre/blueberries-transitioning-from-wild-to-cultivated-production/?id=1517263014132 |url-status=live }}</ref> British Columbia produced 93% of the Canadian highbush blueberry crop in 2019.<ref name=canblue/>

==Regulations==
===Canada===

Canada No. 1 blueberries are all similar in size, shape, weight, and color—the total product can be no more than ten percent off-color and three percent otherwise defective.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Canadian Food Inspection Agency |date=March 2, 2018 |title=Grades and Requirements for Blueberries; In: Canadian Grade Compendium; Volume 2 – Fresh Fruit or Vegetables |url=http://inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/acts-and-regulations/list-of-acts-and-regulations/documents-incorporated-by-reference/canadian-grade-compendium-volume-2/eng/1519996239002/1519996303947?chap=2#s6c2 |access-date=July 12, 2019 |website=inspection.gc.ca |archive-date=April 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429100550/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/acts-and-regulations/list-of-acts-and-regulations/documents-incorporated-by-reference/canadian-grade-compendium-volume-2/eng/1519996239002/1519996303947?chap=2#s6c2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Biology:List of culinary fruits|List of culinary fruits]]
*[[Biology:List of vegetables|List of vegetables]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

*Retamales, J. B., Hancock, J. F. (2012). ''Blueberries'' (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. {{ISBN|978-1-84593-826-0}}
*{{Cite book |last=Sumner, Judith |title=American Household Botany: A History of Useful Plants, 1620–1900 |publisher=Timber Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-88192-652-3 |page=125}}
*Wright, Virginia (2011). ''The Wild Blueberry Book''. Down East Books. {{ISBN|978-0-89272-939-5}}.

==External links==

*[http://extension.umaine.edu/blueberries/factsheets/production/wild-blueberry-culture-in-maine Wild Blueberry Culture in Maine, by David E. Yarborough, University of Maine, February 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721214914/http://extension.umaine.edu/blueberries/factsheets/production/wild-blueberry-culture-in-maine/ |date=July 21, 2015 }}
*[https://njaes.rutgers.edu/blueberry-bulletin/ ''The Blueberry Bulletin'']

{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q13178}}

[[Category:Shrubs]]
[[Category:Vaccinium]]

{{Sourceattribution|Blueberry}}