View source for Biology:Cardamom

{{Short description|Spice}}
{{Infobox botanical product
| product = Cardamom
| image = 02017 0119 Kardamom, Winter in den Beskiden.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Cardamom powder and pods
| plant = ''[[Biology:Elettaria cardamomum|Elettaria cardamomum]]'', ''[[Biology:Amomum subulatum|Amomum subulatum]]''
| part = Seed
| uses = Flavouring, spice, medicine
}}
[[File:Elettaria_cardamomum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-057.jpg|thumb|True cardamom plant (''Elettaria cardamomum'')]]
[[File:Cardamom Seeds BNC.jpg|thumb|Cardamom seeds]]

'''Cardamom''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑr|d|ə|m|ə|m}}), sometimes '''cardamon''' or '''cardamum''',<ref>{{cite book |title=Cardamom (''Elettaria cardamomum''): Production, Processing and Properties
|last1=Ramadan|first1=Mohamed Fawzy|publisher=Springer International Publishing|year=2023|isbn=3-031-35426-5 }}</ref> is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera ''[[Biology:Elettaria|Elettaria]]'' and ''[[Biology:Amomum|Amomum]]'' in the family [[Biology:Zingiberaceae|Zingiberaceae]]. Both genera are native to the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] and Indonesia. They are recognized by their small seed pods: triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin, papery outer shell and small, black seeds; ''Elettaria'' pods are light green and smaller, while ''Amomum'' pods are larger and dark brown.

Species used for cardamom are native throughout tropical and subtropical Asia. The first references to cardamom are found in Sumer, and in the [[Philosophy:Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] literature of India.<ref>{{cite book|title=Spice Crops|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-0851996059|last=Weiss|first=E. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqqTdAwXev4C&q=cardamom+cultivation+sri+lanka&pg=PA299|year=2002|page=299|access-date=6 October 2020|archive-date=30 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630120842/https://books.google.com/books?id=RqqTdAwXev4C&q=cardamom+cultivation+sri+lanka&pg=PA299|url-status=live}}</ref> Nowadays it is also cultivated in Guatemala, Malaysia, and Tanzania.<ref>{{cite book|title=Spice Crops|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-0851996059|last=Weiss|first=E. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqqTdAwXev4C&q=cardamom+cultivation+sri+lanka&pg=PA300|year=2002|page=300|access-date=6 October 2020|archive-date=30 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630120842/https://books.google.com/books?id=RqqTdAwXev4C&q=cardamom+cultivation+sri+lanka&pg=PA300|url-status=live}}</ref> The German coffee planter Oscar Majus Klöffer introduced Indian cardamom to cultivation in Guatemala before [[Social:World War I|World War I]]; by 2000, that country had become the biggest producer and exporter of cardamom in the world, followed by India.<ref name="karun">[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Kerala-cardamom-trying-to-fight-off-its-Guatemalan-cousin/articleshow/34016620.cms Shenoy Karun, Kerala cardamom trying to fight off its Guatemalan cousin", ''The Times of India'', 21 April 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430141934/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Kerala-cardamom-trying-to-fight-off-its-Guatemalan-cousin/articleshow/34016620.cms |date=30 April 2014 }}; accessed 25 July 23014.</ref>

==Etymology==
The word "cardamom" is derived from the [[Social:Latin|Latin]] {{lang|la|cardamōmum}},<ref>{{citation |url= https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dcardamomum |title= cardamomum |first1= Charlton T. |last1= Lewis |first2= Charles |last2= Short |work= A Latin Dictionary |publisher= Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University |access-date= 20 February 2021 |archive-date= 28 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210928200709/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dcardamomum |url-status= live }}</ref> which is the Latinisation of the [[Social:Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|καρδάμωμον}} ({{transl|grc|kardámōmon}}),<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkarda%2Fmwmon |script-title=el:καρδάμωμον |language=grc |first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell |first2=Robert |last2=Scott |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024012517/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkarda%2Fmwmon |url-status=live }}</ref> a compound of {{lang|grc|κάρδαμον}} ({{transl|grc|kárdamon}}, "[[Biology:Garden cress|cress]]")<ref>{{citation |title=κάρδαμον |first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell |first2=Robert |last2=Scott |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dka%2Frdamon |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017082936/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dka%2Frdamon |url-status=live }}</ref> and {{lang|grc|ἄμωμον}} ({{transl|grc|ámōmon}}), which was probably the name for a kind of Indian spice plant.<ref>{{citation |title=ἄμωμον |language=grc |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Fmwmon |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406122104/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Fmwmon |url-status=live }}</ref>

The earliest attested form of the word {{lang|grc|κάρδαμον}} signifying "cress" is the Mycenaean Greek {{transl|gmy|ka-da-mi-ja}}, written in [[Social:Linear B|Linear B]] syllabic script,<ref>[http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=370 "ka-da-mi-ja"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515072743/http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=370 |date=15 May 2011 }} at Palaeolexicon</ref> in the list of flavourings on the "Spice" tablets found among palace archives in the House of the Sphinxes in [[History:Mycenae|Mycenae]].<ref>{{citation |editor-last=Chadwick |editor-first=John |year=1963 |title=The Mycenae Tablets, 3 |work=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |edition=New Series |volume=52 |issue=7}}</ref>

The modern genus name ''Elettaria'' is derived from the root {{transl|dra|ēlam}} attested in Dravidian languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burrow |first1=Thomas |last2=Emeneau |first2=M. B. |author-link2=Murray Barnson Emeneau |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:912.burrow |title=A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary |access-date=2014-08-02 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622073343/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:912.burrow |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Types and distribution==
The two main types of cardamom are:
* True or green cardamom (or white cardamom<ref>Bhide, Monica. [http://www.saveur.com/article/Kitchen/Queen-of-Spices "Queen of Spices"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524001402/http://www.saveur.com/article/Kitchen/Queen-of-Spices |date=24 May 2015 }}, ''Saveur'', 8 March 2010. Retrieved on 4 December 2014.</ref> when bleached) comes from the species'' [[Biology:Elettaria cardamomum|Elettaria cardamomum]]'' and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, ''Amomum krervanh''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Elet_car.html|title=Spice Pages: Cardamom Seeds (Elettaria cardamomum)|last=Katzer|first=Gernot|website=gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-04|archive-date=8 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208083032/http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Elet_car.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Biology:Black cardamom|Black cardamom]], also known as brown, greater, large, longer, or Nepal cardamom, comes from the species ''Amomum subulatum'' and is native to the eastern Himalayas and mostly cultivated in Eastern Nepal, Sikkim, and parts of Darjeeling district in West Bengal of India, and southern Bhutan.

The two types of cardamom, {{lang|grc|καρδάμωμον}} and {{lang|grc|ἄμωμον}}, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by [[Biography:Theophrastus|Theophrastus]]. He reports that some people believed they came from Media, others from India.<ref>''Theophrastus'' IX.vii.2</ref>

==Uses==
Both forms of cardamom are used as flavourings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as medicine. ''E. cardamomum'' (green cardamom) is used as a spice, a masticatory, or is smoked.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gardenguides.com/127456-uses-cardamom.html |title=The Uses of Cardamom |publisher=Garden Guides |date=2017-09-21 |access-date=2018-05-29 |archive-date=22 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022154003/http://www.gardenguides.com/127456-uses-cardamom.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Cardamom (Kerala, India).jpg|thumb|Intact and opened cardamom pods, showing the seeds (20mm Indian 1-rupee coin for scale)]]

===Food and beverage===
[[File:“Spiced” Tea – Flavoured by Cinnamon and Cardamom, Comilla, Bangladesh, 26 April 2014.jpg|thumb|Besides use as flavourant and spice in foods, cardamom-flavoured tea, also flavoured with cinnamon, is consumed as a hot beverage]]

Cardamom has a strong taste, with an aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a more smoky – though not bitter – aroma, with a coolness some consider similar to mint.{{Who|reason=The article does not say who considers cardamom similar to mint, claiming it's "some".|date=February 2023}}

Green cardamom is one of the most expensive spices by weight,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-is-cardamom-765160|title=Is Cardamom a Spice?|website=The Spruce Eats|access-date=2019-01-29|archive-date=30 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130053606/https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-is-cardamom-765160|url-status=live}}</ref> but little is needed to impart flavour. It is best stored in the pod, as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavour. Grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals {{frac|1|1|2}} teaspoons of ground cardamom.{{fact|date=September 2023}}

Cardamom is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. It is also often used in baking in the [[Place:Nordic countries|Nordic countries]], in particular in Sweden, {{wipe|Norway}}, and {{wipe|Finland}}, where it is used in traditional treats such as the Scandinavian Yule bread {{lang|gmq|Julekake}}, the Swedish {{lang|sv|kardemummabullar}} sweet bun, and Finnish sweet bread {{lang|fi|pulla}}. In the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]], green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, and as a traditional flavouring in coffee and tea. Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In some Middle Eastern countries, coffee and cardamom are often ground in a wooden mortar, a {{transl|ar|[[Biology:Mihbaj|mihbaj]]}}, and cooked together in a skillet, a {{transl|ar|mehmas}}, over wood or gas, to produce mixtures with up to 40% cardamom.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

[[File:Cardamom_(Elaichi)_from_India.jpg|thumb|Cardamom (Elaichi) from India]]

In Asia, both types of cardamom are widely used in both sweet and savoury dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in such spice mixes as Indian and Nepali masalas and Thai curry pastes. Green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in ''masala chai'' (spiced tea). Both are also often used as a garnish in basmati rice and other dishes. Individual seeds are sometimes chewed and used in much the same way as chewing gum. It is used by confectionery giant Wrigley; its Eclipse Breeze Exotic Mint packaging indicates the product contains "cardamom to neutralize the toughest breath odors". It is also included in aromatic bitters, gin, and herbal teas.

In Korea, Tavoy cardamom (''[[Biology:Amomum villosum|Wurfbainia villosa]]'' var. ''xanthioides'') and red cardamom (''[[Biology:Amomum tsao-ko|Lanxangia tsao-ko]]'') are used in tea called {{transl|ko|jeho-tang}}.

===Composition===
The [[Chemistry:Essential oil|essential oil]] content of cardamom seeds depends on storage conditions and may be as high as 8%. The oil is typically 45% α-terpineol, 27% [[Chemistry:Myrcene|myrcene]], 8% [[Chemistry:Limonene|limonene]], 6% [[Chemistry:Menthone|menthone]], 3% β-phellandrene, 2% 1,8-cineol, 2% [[Chemistry:Sabinene|sabinene]] and 2% [[Chemistry:Heptane|heptane]]. Other sources report the following contents: 1,8-cineol (20 to 50%), α-terpenylacetate (30%), sabinene, limonene (2 to 14%), and [[Chemistry:Borneol|borneol]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

In the seeds of round cardamom from Java (''Wurfbainia compacta''), the content of essential oil is lower (2 to 4%), and the oil contains mainly 1,8-cineol (up to 70%) plus β-pinene (16%); furthermore, α-pinene, α-terpineol and [[Chemistry:Humulene|humulene]] are found.<ref>Anwar, Farooq; Abbas, Ali; Alkharfy, Khalid M. and Gilani, Anwar-ul-Hassan (2015).  "Cardamom (''Elettaria cardamomum'' Maton) Oils". In Victor R. Preedy, (Ed.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=uNDUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 ''Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630120842/https://books.google.com/books?id=uNDUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 |date=30 June 2023 }}. Amsterdam: Academic Press. Chapter 33. pp. 295–301. {{ISBN|978-0-12-416641-7}}. {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-12-416641-7.00033-X}}.</ref>

==World production==
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:15em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Top ten producers of cardamom – 2017
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; width:100%;"| Country
!  style="background:#ddf; width:100%;"| Production ([[Tonne|tonne]]s)
|-
| {{GTM}} || 36,259
|-
| {{IDN}} || 34,385
|-
| {{IND}} || 30,000
|-
| {{NPL}} || 6,521
|-
| {{LAO}} || 3,013
|-
| {{GRD}} || 2,775
|-
| {{BTN}} || 1,086
|-
| {{TZA}} || 738
|-
| {{LKA}} || 555
|-
| {{HND}} || 490
|-
| '''World''' || '''115,822'''
|-
|colspan=2| <small>Source: FAOSTAT of the {{wipe|United Nations}}<ref name=faostat>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Crops/World regions/Production quantity (pick lists) of cardamom for 2017|date=2022|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistical Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=10 September 2022|archive-date=12 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112130804/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|url-status=live}}</ref></small>
|}
[[File:Cardamom,_khari_boali_market.jpg|thumb|Cardamom sale ₹2000/kg at khari boali market, Delhi]]
By the early 21st century, Guatemala became the largest producer of cardamom in the world, with an average annual yield between 25,000 and 29,000 tonnes. The plant was introduced there in 1914 by Oscar Majus Kloeffer, a German coffee planter.<ref name="karun"/><ref name=re-emergence /> {{wipe|India}}, formerly the largest producer, since 2000 has been the second worldwide,<ref name=re-emergence>{{cite news | first1= Lorena | last1= Álvarez | first2= Vernick | last2= Gudiel | date= 14 February 2008 | title= Cardamom prices leads to a re-emergence of the green gold | url= http://www.elperiodico.com.gt/es/20080218/economia/48732/ | periodical= El Periodico | language= es | access-date= 18 February 2008 | archive-date= 11 May 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511204823/http://www.elperiodico.com.gt/es/20080218/economia/48732/ | url-status= dead }}</ref> generating around 15,000 tonnes annually.<ref>{{cite news | first= Alexis | last= Batres | date= 6 August 2012 | title= Looking for new markets | location= Guatemala | url= http://www.elperiodico.com.gt/es/20120806/economia/216088/ | periodical= El Periodico | language= es | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013503/http://www.elperiodico.com.gt/es/20120806/economia/216088/ | archive-date= 19 April 2014}}</ref>

Increased demand since the 1980s, principally from {{wipe|China}}, for both ''A. villosum'' and ''A. tsao-ko'', has been met by farmers living at higher altitudes in localized areas of China, Laos, and Vietnam, people typically isolated from many other markets.<ref>Buckingham, J.S. & Petheram, R.J. (2004). ''Cardamom cultivation and forest biodiversity in northwest Vietnam''. Agricultural Research and Extension Network, Overseas Development Institute, [[Place:London|London]].</ref><ref>Turner, Sarah; Bonnin, Christine and Michaud, Jean (2017) ''Frontier Livelihoods: Hmong in the Sino-Vietnamese Borderlands''. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 104–124. {{ISBN|0295741732}}</ref><ref>Aubertine, C. (2004) "Cardamom (''Amomum'' spp.) in Lao PDR: the hazardous future of an agroforest system product", in ''Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest products systems''. Vol. 1-Asia, Center for International Forestry Research. Bogor, Indonesia.</ref>

=== History ===
[[File:Chinese_Materia_Medica_illustration,_Ming;_Cardamom_of_Yizhou_Wellcome_L0039306.jpg|thumb|Chinese drawing and description of cardamom from the {{transl|zh|Bencao Pinhui Jingyao}} (1505), by imperial physician Liu Wentai]]

Cardamom production began in ancient times, and has been referred to in ancient [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] texts as {{transl|sa|ela}}.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=215}} The Babylonians and Assyrians recognized the health benefits of the spice early on, and trade in cardamom opened up along land routes and by the interlinked Persian Gulf route controlled from Dilmun as early as the third millennium BCE Early Bronze Age,<ref>Nicole Boivin ''et al.'' (2009). "Archaeological, linguistic and historical sources on ancient seafaring" in Michael D. Petraglia ''et al.''. eds. ''The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory''. p. 262. {{ISBN|9048127181}}</ref> into western Asia and the Mediterranean world.

The ancient Greeks thought highly of cardamom, and the Greek physicians Dioscorides and [[Biography:Hippocrates|Hippocrates]] wrote about its therapeutic properties, identifying it as a digestive aid. Due to demand in ancient Greece and Rome, the cardamom trade developed into a handsome luxury business; cardamom was one of the spices eligible for import tax in [[Place:Alexandria|Alexandria]] in 126 CE. In medieval times, Venice became the principal importer of cardamom into the west, along with pepper, cloves and [[Biology:Cinnamon|cinnamon]], which was traded with merchants from the [[Place:Levant|Levant]] with salt and meat products.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=216}}

In China, ''Amomum'' was an important part of the economy during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).<ref name="pickersgill">{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=158 |isbn=0415927463}}</ref> In 1150, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi noted that cardamom was being imported to [[Place:Aden|Aden]], in Yemen, from India and China.<ref name="pickersgill"/>

The Portuguese became involved in the trade in the 16th century, and the industry gained wide-scale European interest in the 19th century.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=216}}

=== Production practices ===
According to Nair (2011), in the years when India achieves a good crop, it is still less productive than Guatemala.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=267}} Other notable producers include Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, and Vietnam.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=267}}

Much production of cardamom in India is cultivated on private property or in areas the government leases out to farmers.{{sfn|Kusters|Belcher|2004|p=136&ndash;46}} Traditionally, small plots of land within the forests (called ''eld-kandies'') where the wild or acclimatised plant existed are cleared during February and March. Brushwood is cut and burned, and the roots of powerful weeds are torn up to free the soil. Soon after clearing, cardamom plants spring up. After two years the cardamom plants may have eight-to-ten leaves and reach {{convert|1|ft|cm|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}} in height. In the third year, they may be {{convert|4|ft|cm|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=on}} in height.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=514}} In the following May or June the ground is again weeded, and by September to November a light crop is obtained. In the fourth year, weeding again occurs, and if the cardamoms grow less than {{convert|6|ft|cm|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=on}} apart a few are transplanted to new positions. The plants bear for three or four years; and historically the life of each plantation was about eight or nine years. In Malabar the seasons run a little later than in Mysore, and – according to some reports – a full crop may be obtained in the third year. Cardamoms grown above {{convert|2000|ft|m|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}} elevation are considered to be of higher quality than those grown below that altitude.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=514}}

Plants may be raised from seed or by division of the [[Biology:Rhizome|rhizome]]. In about a year, the seedlings reach about {{convert|1|ft|cm|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}} in length, and are ready for transplantation. The flowering season is April to May, and after swelling in August and September, by the first half of October usually attain the desired degree of ripening. The crop is accordingly gathered in October and November, and in exceptionally moist weather, the harvest protracts into December.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=514}}  At the time of harvesting, the scapes or shoots bearing the clusters of fruits are broken off close to the stems and placed in baskets lined with fresh leaves. The fruits are spread out on carefully prepared floors, sometimes covered with mats, and are then exposed to the sun. Four or five days of careful drying and bleaching in the sun is usually enough. In rainy weather, drying with artificial heat is necessary, though the fruits suffer greatly in colour; they are consequently sometimes bleached with steam and sulphurous vapour or with ritha nuts.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=514}}

The industry is highly labour-intensive, each hectare requiring considerable maintenance throughout the year. Production constraints include recurring climate vagaries, the absence of regular re-plantation, and ecological conditions associated with deforestation.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=270}}

=== Cultivation ===
[[File:Cardamom plants, India.jpg|thumb|Terraced cardamom plants in India]]
[[File:Cardamom (5193854049).jpg|thumb|Labeled varieties of cardamom in storage containers]]
In 1873 and 1874, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) exported about {{convert|9000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} each year. In 1877, Ceylon exported {{convert|11108|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, in 1879, {{convert|17732|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, and in the 1881–82 season, {{convert|23127|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Owen|1883|p=1}} In 1903, {{convert|4000|acre|ha|order=flip}} of cardamom growing areas were owned by European planters. The produce of the [[History:Travancore|Travancore]] plantations was given as {{convert|650000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, or just a little under that of Ceylon. The yield of the Mysore plantations was approximately {{convert|200000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, and the cultivation was mainly in Kadur district. The volume{{clarify|date=August 2022}} for 1903–04 stated the value of the cardamoms exported to have been Rs. 3,37,000 as compared with Rs. 4,16,000 the previous year.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=516}} India, which ranks second in world production, recorded a decline of 6.7 percent in cardamom production for 2012–13,<ref name="Kulkarni2013">{{cite news|last1=Kulkarni|first1=Mahesh|date=2 September 2013|title=Cardamom output to fall for second year in a row|work=Business Standard|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/cardamom-output-to-fall-for-second-year-in-a-row-113090200103_1.html|access-date=14 November 2014|archive-date=29 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012314/http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/cardamom-output-to-fall-for-second-year-in-a-row-113090200103_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and projected a production decline of 30–40% in 2013–14, compared with the previous year due to unfavorable weather.<ref name="Krishnakumar2014">{{cite news|last1=Krishnakumar|first1=P. K.|date=6 August 2014|title=Cardamom production set to fall 40%|work=The Economic Times|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-08-06/news/52514668_1_guatemalan-production-indian-cardamom-pc-punnoose|access-date=14 November 2014|archive-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218030727/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-08-06/news/52514668_1_guatemalan-production-indian-cardamom-pc-punnoose|url-status=live}}</ref> In India, the state of Kerala is by far the most productive producer, with the districts of Idukki, Palakkad and Wynad being the principal producing areas.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=216}} Given that a number of bureaucrats have personal interests in the industry,{{cn|date=November 2021}} in India, several organisations have been set up to protect cardamom producers such as the Cardamom Growers Association (est. 1992) and the Kerala Cardamom Growers Association (est. 1974). Research in India's cardamom plantations began in the 1970s while Kizhekethil Chandy held the office of Chairman of the Cardamom Board.<ref name="rajbhavan.gujarat.gov.in">{{cite web|title=Prof. K.M. Chandy &ndash; Governor of Gujarat|url=http://www.rajbhavan.gujarat.gov.in/uniquepage.asp?id_pk=65|access-date=15 November 2014|publisher=Raj Bhavan, Gujarat Government|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425123726/http://www.rajbhavan.gujarat.gov.in/uniquepage.asp?id_pk=65|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kerala Land Reforms Act imposed restrictions on the size of certain agricultural holdings per household to the benefit of cardamom producers.{{sfn|Kusters|Belcher|2004|p=136&ndash;46}}

In 1979–1980, Guatemala surpassed India in worldwide production.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=267}} Guatemala cultivates ''[[Biology:Elettaria cardamomum|Elettaria cardamomum]]'', which is native to the Malabar Coast of India.<ref name="Milian2014">{{cite web|last1=Milian|first1=Spencer L.|date=29 June 2014|title=Cardamom &ndash; The 3Gs &ndash; Green Gold of Guatemala|url=http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Cardamom%20-%20The%203Gs%20--%20Green%20Gold%20of%20Guatemala_Guatemala_Guatemala_7-11-2014.pdf|access-date=15 November 2014|publisher=[[Organization:USDA|USDA]] [[Organization:Foreign Agricultural Service|Foreign Agricultural Service]]|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023401/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Cardamom%20-%20The%203Gs%20--%20Green%20Gold%20of%20Guatemala_Guatemala_Guatemala_7-11-2014.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Alta Verapaz Department produces 70 percent of Guatemala's cardamom.<ref name="Milian2014" /> Cardamom was introduced to Guatemala before World War I by the German coffee planter Oscar Majus Kloeffer.<ref name="Karun2014">{{cite news|last1=Karun|first1=Shenoy|date=21 April 2014|title=Kerala cardamom trying to fight off its Guatemalan cousin|work=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Kerala-cardamom-trying-to-fight-off-its-Guatemalan-cousin/articleshow/34016620.cms|access-date=14 November 2014|archive-date=8 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308062306/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Kerala-cardamom-trying-to-fight-off-its-Guatemalan-cousin/articleshow/34016620.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> After World War II, production was increased to 13,000 to 14,000 tons annually.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=216}}

In addition to Guatemala and India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania are also significant growers of cardamom.{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=215}} The average annual income for a plantation-owning household in 1998 was US$3,408.{{sfn|Kusters|Belcher|2004|p=136&ndash;46}} Although the typical harvest requires over 210 days of labor per year, most cardamom farmers are better off than many other agricultural workers, and there are a significant number of those from the upper strata of society involved in the cultivation process.{{sfn|Kusters|Belcher|2004|p=136&ndash;46}} Increased demand since the 1980s, principally from China, for both ''[[Biology:Amomum villosum|Wurfbainia villosa]]'' and ''[[Biology:Amomum tsao-ko|Lanxangia tsao-ko]]'', has provided a key source of income for poor farmers living at higher altitudes in localized areas of China, Laos, and Vietnam, people typically isolated from many other markets. Laos exports about 400 tonnes annually through Thailand according to the FAO.<ref>{{cite web|title=5.4 Edible plant products|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0782e/v0782e07.htm|access-date=14 November 2014|publisher=FAO|archive-date=27 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127161903/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0782e/v0782e07.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Trade ===
Cardamom production's demand and supply patterns of trade are influenced by price movements, nationally and internationally, in 5 to 6-year cycles.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=277}} Importing leaders mentioned are Saudi Arabia and Kuwait,{{sfn|Parthasarathy|Chempakam|Zachariah|2008|p=41}} while other significant importers include {{wipe|Germany}}, [[Religion:Iran|Iran]], {{wipe|Japan}}, Jordan, {{wipe|Pakistan}}, Qatar, [[Place:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, and the former [[Place:Soviet Union|USSR]].{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=278}} According to the [[Organization:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]], 80 percent of cardamom's total consumption occurs in the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]].{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=278}}

In the 19th century, {{wipe|Mumbai}} and Madras were among the principal distributing ports of cardamom. India's exports to foreign countries increased during the early 20th century, particularly to the United Kingdom, followed by Arabia, Aden, Germany, Turkey, Japan, Persia and Egypt. However, some 95% of cardamom produced in India is for domestic purposes,<ref>Giriappa, S. {{Google books|2k66AAAAIAAJ|Plantation Economy in India}}</ref>{{sfn|Kusters|Belcher|2004|p=136&ndash;46}} and India is itself by far the most important consuming country for cardamoms in the world.{{sfn|Watt|1908|p=517}} India also imports cardamom from Sri Lanka. In 1903–1904, these imports came to {{convert|269132|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, valued at Rs. 1,98,710. In contrast, Guatemala's local consumption is negligible, which supports the exportation of most of the cardamom that is produced.{{sfn|Nair|2011|p=267&ndash;268}} In the mid-1800s, Ceylon's cardamom was chiefly imported by Canada.{{sfn|Bell|1843|p=387}} After [[Biology:Saffron|saffron]] and [[Biology:Vanilla|vanilla]], cardamom is currently the third most expensive spice,{{sfn|Parthasarathy|Chempakam|Zachariah|2008|p=41}} and is used as a spice and flavouring for food and liqueurs and in medicine.{{sfn|Owen|1883|p=1}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode=packed>
File:Black and green cardamom.jpg|Black and green cardamom
File:Cardamom Plant ( One year Old).jpg|Cardamom plant (one year old)
File:Leaves of Cardamom.jpg|Leaves of cardamom
File:Cardamom Flowers and Blooms.jpg|Cardamom flowering stems
File:Flower of cardamom.jpg|Cardamom flower
File:Pollen grain of Cardamom.png|Pollen grain of Cardamom

File:Cardamom-Dried-Seeds01.jpg |Cardamom fruit and seeds
File:Elettaria cardamomum Capsules and seeds.jpg|Green cardamom pods and seeds
File:Green Cardamom.JPG|Jar of green cardamom
File:Cardamom.JPG|White cardamom pods in a bowl
File:Elettaria cardamomum capsules.jpg|Cardamom pods as used as a spice in India
</gallery>

==See also==
* ''[[Biology:Aframomum corrorima|Aframomum corrorima]]'', known as Ethiopian cardamom

==References==
{{Source-attribution|G. Watt's "The Commercial Products of India: Being an Abridgement of "The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India."" (1908)}}

{{Source-attribution|T. C. Owen's "Notes on Cardamom Cultivation" (1883)}}{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=Jacob|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z_Q3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA387|title=Pharmaceutical Journal: A Weekly Record of Pharmacy and Allied Sciences|publisher=John Churchill|year=1843|edition=Public domain|volume=II, No. 1|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Cumo|first=Christopher Martin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja7WAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA216|title=Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From Acacia to Zinnia &#91;3 Volumes&#93;|date=25 April 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-775-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kusters|first1=Koen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9x-8pK3K64C&pg=PA136|title=Forest Products, Livelihoods and Conservation|last2=Belcher|first2=Brian|publisher=Center for International Forestry Research|year=2004|isbn=978-979-3361-23-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Nair|first=K. P. Prabhakaran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKAj76qmOJoC&pg=PA267|title=Agronomy and Economy of Black Pepper and Cardamom: The "King" and "Queen" of Spices|publisher=Elsevier|year=2011|isbn=978-0-12-391865-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Owen|first=T. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aKs1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1|title=Notes on Cardamom Cultivation|publisher=A. M. & J. Ferguson|year=1883|edition=Public domain}}
* {{cite book|last1=Parthasarathy|first1=V. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WY08iuJyawC&pg=PA41|title=Chemistry of Spices|last2=Chempakam|first2=Bhageerathy|last3=Zachariah|first3=T. John|publisher=CABI|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84593-420-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Watt|first=Sir George|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151821|title=The Commercial Products of India: Being an Abridgement of "The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India."|publisher=J. Murray|year=1908|edition=Public domain|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151821/page/n520 514]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130605061344/http://cardamomhq.com/ CardamomHQ: In-depth information on Cardamom]
* Mabberley, D.J. ''The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Higher Plants''. {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}, 1996, {{ISBN|0-521-34060-8}}
* [http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Elet_car.html Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Cardamom]
* [http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/cardamom_landing.html Plant Cultures: botany and history of Cardamom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827194620/http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/cardamom_landing.html |date=27 August 2008 }}
* Pham Hoang Ho 1993, ''Cay Co Vietnam [Plants of Vietnam: in Vietnamese]'', vols. I, II & III, Montreal.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061121233008/http://www.odi.org.uk/agren/papers/newsletter_50.pdf Buckingham, J.S. & Petheram, R.J. 2004, ''Cardamom cultivation and forest biodiversity in northwest Vietnam''], Agricultural Research and Extension Network, Overseas Development Institute, London UK.
* Aubertine, C. 2004, Cardamom (Amomum spp.) in Lao PDR: the hazardous future of an agroforest system product, in '''Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest products systems vol. 1-Asia'', [[Organization:Center for International Forestry Research|Center for International Forestry Research]]. Bogor, Indonesia.
{{Taxonbar|from=Q18360378}}

[[Category:Alpinioideae]]
[[Category:Plant common names]]

{{Sourceattribution|Cardamom}}