View source for Biology:Cladophora

{{Short description|Genus of filamentous green algae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Cladophora.JPG
|image_alt=Cladophora
|image_caption=''Cladophora''
| taxon = Cladophora
| authority = Kütz., 1843
| subdivision_ranks = Kingdom: ''Plantae'' 
| subdivision =
*''Cladophora albida''
*''Cladophora aokii''
*''Cladophora brasiliana''
*''Cladophora catenata''
*''Cladophora coelothrix''
*''Cladophora columbiana''
*''Cladophora crispata''
*''Cladophora dalmatica''
*''Cladophora fracta''
*''Cladophora glomerata''
*''Cladophora graminea''
*''Cladophora montagneana''
*''Cladophora ordinata''
*''Cladophora prolifera''
*''Cladophora rivularis''
*''Cladophora rupestris''
*''Cladophora scopaeformis''
*''Cladophora sericea''
*''[[Biology:Cladophora socialis|Cladophora socialis]]''
*''[[Biology:Cladophora vagabunda|Cladophora vagabunda]]''
}}
[[File:Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz. (AM AK310111-1).jpg|thumb|{{center|''Cladophora glomerata'', showing branching filaments and cellular structures}}]]
'''''Cladophora''''' is a genus of reticulated [[Biology:Hypha|filament]]ous [[Biology:Ulvophyceae|Ulvophyceae]] ([[Biology:Green algae|green algae]]).

==Taxonomy== 
Cladophora fascicularis is a green macroalgae alga classified within the Chlorophyta division. Cladophora has over 183 species within its genus that are very hard to tell apart and classify, mainly because of the great variation in their appearances, which is affected by habitat, age and environmental conditions.<ref>Gestinari, L., et al. (2010). [http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2010/f/p00014p042f.pdf Distribution of ''Cladophora'' species (Cladophorales, Chlorophyta) along the Brazilian Coast.] ''Phytotaxa'' 14 22.</ref>

==Description and Appearance==

Cladophora coloring is bright green which reflects the [[Chemistry:Chlorophyll a|chlorophyll a]], and [[Chemistry:Chlorophyll b|chlorophyll b]], which are similar to higher plant ratios and that also contains [[Chemistry:Β-Carotene|β-carotene]] and [[Chemistry:Xanthophyll|xanthophyll]]s.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

The Thallus branches are smaller than the main axis, dichotomous, rough in texture, and have narrow tips. The cells within cladophora have multiple pyrenoids, are large and multiple nucleated and have many parietal round [[Biology:Chloroplast|chloroplast]]s, which usually join into a net-like reticular formation.

Temperature, water currents and waves affect their metabolism and morphology, and branching patterns. At 15–20 °C branches appear alternate, they can also appear completely absent in temperatures below 25 °C.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Defense==
Thick walls called akinetes are made out of vegetative cells in times of short [[Biology:Photoperiodism|photoperiods]], low temperatures or nutrient unavailability.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3
</ref>

The cell walls of Cladophora species often contain [[Chemistry:Cellulose|cellulose]] and [[Chemistry:Pectin|pectin]], providing strength and flexibility.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref> Thick walls and sheaths are mucilaginous.

Due to their unique cell wall structure and metal-binding they can absorb toxic metal ions from water for purification, particularly in the context of nutrient and heavy metal absorption, attracting attention to Cladophora's potential in [[Earth:Phytoremediation|phytoremediation]].

==Phytoremediation==

Some Cladophora species, including Cladophora fascicularis, have been investigated for their use in phytoremediation. Cladophora fascicularis may contribute to improving water quality in contaminated aquatic ecosystems. This algae is additionally, biologically active. Cladophora possesses unprecedented capacities to filter toxins from water such as [[Chemistry:Heavy metals|heavy metals]] and pollutants and efficiently absorb nutrients, including [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]] and [[Chemistry:Phosphorus|phosphorus]].<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

The ''Cladophora'' species can be a major nuisance, however, causing major alterations to [[Earth:Benthic zone|benthic]] conditions linked particularly with increased [[Chemistry:Phosphorus|phosphorus]] loading.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Seasonal Blooms==

Cladophora is known for its blooming activities which are seasonal, (early spring to summer) and indicate their [[Earth:Eutrophication|eutrophic]] abilities as well as that pollution may be present in the environment that they are growing within.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Dense Mats==

Cladophora form a branched filamentous chlorophyte structure with large cylindrical cells forming long, regularly branched growths. The filaments can be quite long and may form dense mats or tufts in aquatic environments. When Cladophora becomes detached from the rocky substrate that it grows upon,  it can then build up on shorelines, making their reticular formations, (dense mats) visible to onlookers. When dense mats form,  this can affect light penetration and oxygen levels in aquatic ecosystems. Mats may also serve as habitat and food for various aquatic organisms.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Growth and Habitat==

Cladophora, exist in multiple ecosystems which include both tropical and moderate climates, freshwater, wastewater, and marine water ecosystems, and in multiple biomes, which include lakes, ponds, dam reservoirs, large rivers and the coastal [[Earth:Littoral zone|littoral]] zones as well as in areas of oceanic depth (which determines temperatures and light availability as well as oxygen availability, which can become a limiting factor). This taxon needs [[Chemistry:Nitrate|nitrate]]s, and orthophosphates, as well as hard water conditions with pH levels between 7–10, high light intensity and nutrient densities that are rich in nature. Cladophora may attach to submerged surfaces like rocks or other aquatic substrates, enabling it to grow more rapidly through optimization of space availability, (another limiting factors and source of infraspecific, intraspecies and interspecies competition).

==Global Distribution== 
In Europe, only 15 known subtypes of cladophora are freshwater. Cladophora exists in Africa, Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, Europe, the Atlantic Islands, North America, New Zealand, as well as the Caribbean. In some Asian countries, almost 5% of human diets are algae, and its consumption is popular in France, Thailand, as well as the Hawaiian Islands.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Life Cycle and Sexual Reproduction==

'''Life Cycle and Asexual Reproduction:''' 
This plant is annual and can reproduce through both sexual and asexual mechanisms. Some species have isogametic capacities but little is known about this and it seems to be a rare occurrence present in few species. The few cases that have occurred were in apical and sub apical un-specialized cells. Cladophora generally reproduces asexually using 2 flagellated [[Biology:Zoospore|zoospore]]s using mitotic division and distal cells of side branches.

'''Sexual reproduction:''' 
This occurs when the male and female gametes fuse, usually in water. The fusion of gametes results in the formation of a diploid zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes mitotic divisions to form a diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte phase is often short-lived and less conspicuous. It produces haploid spores through meiosis. Haploid spores are released from the sporophyte and can be dispersed by water currents or other means. Haploid spores germinate to form new haploid gametophytes, completing the life cycle. Reproductive cells, often referred to as zoospores, are typically motile and possess flagella, allowing them to move in water.
 
Unlike ''[[Biology:Spirogyra|Spirogyra]]'' the filaments of ''Cladophora'' branch and do not undergo conjugation.

There are two multicellular stages in its life cycle – a [[Biology:Ploidy|haploid]] [[Biology:Gametophyte|gametophyte]] and a [[Biology:Ploidy|diploid]] [[Biology:Sporophyte|sporophyte]] – which look highly similar. The only way to tell the two stages apart is to either count their [[Biology:Chromosome|chromosome]]s, or examine their offspring. The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes by [[Biology:Mitosis|mitosis]] and the diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by [[Biology:Meiosis|meiosis]]. The only visible difference between the gametes and spores of ''Cladophora'' is that the gametes have two [[Biology:Flagellum|flagella]] and the spores have four.

==Uses==

Cladophora can be eaten as a food item, can be either dried or fresh, (however it loses some of its nutritional value with increased processing and with genetic modification) used medicinally, it is considered a carbohydrate when consumed, it has pharmacological implications, it can be used for cosmetic application, used as a fertilizer, as an additive in feeds and it can be used as a [[Earth:Biofuel|biofuel]] in its raw form.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

'''Biofuel:''' Trans-esterification of Cladophora can be used to transform it into biodiesel. Alcohols and enzymes and Cladophora oils, are used to form this reaction, but production is often highly dependent on oil content.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

'''Pharmacology and Health Benefits:''' Cladophora has pharmacological uses as medication. Cladophora has antimicrobial, [[Chemistry:Antihistamine|antihistamine]], antiviral, antioxidant, anti-sclerosis, anti-inflammatory and weight loss properties as well as  [[Biology:Secondary metabolite|secondary metabolite]]s and bioactive components that have uses in diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and serves as a protection from parasites. However, as of December 2023, Cladophora has yet to be utilized commercially as a pharmacological agent.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

'''Commercial Use:''' There is an additional demand for cladophora for [[Biology:Biomass|biomass]] productivity with utilization commercially as material for value added products.<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3</ref>

==Cladophora balls==
''Cladophora'' balls are formed from the filaments of the Algae<ref>Burrows, E.M.1991. ''Seaweeds of the British Isles Volume 2 Chlorophyta.'' Natural History Museum, London. {{ISBN|0-565-00981-8}}</ref> which are photosynthetic. Large numbers of these balls were thrown ashore in Devon, England. They had an average diameter of 2.5&nbsp;cm and several million balls were found forming a layer.<ref>Bryant, J. and Irvine, Linda. 2016. Marimo, ''Cladophora'', ''Posidonia'' and Other Plant Balls. ''The Linnean.'' '''32''' (2) pp.11–14</ref>

This is not to be confused with [[Biology:Marimo|marimo]], which, though formerly part of ''Cladophora'', is now called ''Aegagropila linnaei''.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==Laotian Mekong weed==
[[Image:Kháy phen appetizer.jpg|thumb|left|Kháy phen served as an appetizer dish.]]
In Laos, ''Cladophora'' [[Biology:Species#Abbreviations|spp.]] (ໄຄ {{IPA-lo|kʰáj|}} "river weed" or more precisely ໄຄຫີນ {{IPA-lo|kʰáj hǐːn|}} "rock river weed") are commonly eaten as a delicacy and usually known in English under the name "Mekong weed". The algae grow on underwater rocks and thrive in clear spots of water in the [[Earth:Mekong|Mekong]] river basin. They are harvested 1 to 5 months a year and most often eaten in dry sheets (ໄຄແຜ່ນ {{IPA|[kʰáj pʰɛ̄ːn]}} kaipen -kháy sheets-), similar to Crispy Chinese Seaweed or Japanese [[Biology:Nori|nori]], though much cruder in their format. Luang Prabang's speciality is dry khai with sesame (kaipen), while Vang Vieng is famous for its roasted kháy sheets. They can be eaten in strips as an appetizer, with a meal or as a snack with Beer Lao. Luang Prabang kháy sheets kaipen are the most readily available form of Mekong weed and are famous throughout the country and in the neighbouring Isaan, though difficult to find beyond [[Place:Vientiane|Vientiane]]. Mekong weed can also be eaten raw, in soups, or cooked in steamed curries ({{lang-lo|ຫມົກໄຄ}}, {{IPA-lo|mók kʰáj|}}).{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==''Cladophora'' as an asset and a nuisance ==
The genus ''Cladophora'' is [[Biology:Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] and accordingly infestations cannot often be regarded logically as being invasive. Where they occur they may at various times be seen as beneficial, as a nuisance, or an outright pest.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Modest growth of ''Cladophora'' is generally harmless; the growth is an important food for many fish and other aquatic animals, as a buffer for the sequestration of nutrients in the water body and for protection of some aquatic organisms from solar [[Physics:Ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] radiation.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Where ''Cladophora'' becomes a pest is generally where special circumstances cause such drastic overgrowth that [[Biology:Algal bloom|algal bloom]]s develop and form floating mats. Typical examples include where hypertrophication or high mortality of rival organisms produce high concentrations of dissolved phosphorus. Extensive floating mats prevent circulation that is necessary for the aeration of deeper water and, by blocking the light, they kill photosynthesising organisms growing beneath. The mats interfere with the fishing industry by clogging nets and preventing the use of lines. Where they wash ashore the masses of rotting material reduce shoreline property values along water bodies such as the Great Lakes in the United States.<ref name=FFBHE>{{Cite web|url=https://www.glsc.usgs.gov/environmental-health/environmental-health-beach-management-decisions/beach-monitoring-human-health|title=Great Lakes Science Center&#124;}}</ref>

[[Biology:Quagga mussel|Quagga mussel]] populations have increased tremendously during the same time frame as the blooming of ''Cladophora'', though their ecological relationships are not yet clear and may be complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/29561884.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193630/http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/29561884.html|title=The beach speaks for itself|date=June 29, 2008|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>

==Diversity==
Species include:
*''Cladophora albida''
*''Cladophora aokii''
*''Cladophora brasiliana''
*''Cladophora catenata''
*''Cladophora coelothrix''
*''Cladophora columbiana''
*''Cladophora crispata''
*''Cladophora dalmatica''
*''Cladophora fracta''
*''Cladophora glomerata''
*''Cladophora graminea''
*''Cladophora montagneana''
*''Cladophora ordinata''
*''Cladophora prolifera''
*''Cladophora rivularis''
*''Cladophora rupestris''
*''Cladophora scopaeformis''
*''Cladophora sericea''
*''[[Biology:Cladophora socialis|Cladophora socialis]]''
*''[[Biology:Cladophora vagabunda|Cladophora vagabunda]]''

''[[Biology:Marimo|Aegagropila linnaei]]'' (marimo) was formerly placed here as ''Cladophora aegagropila''

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
<ref>Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2023). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway (taxonomic information republished from AlgaeBase with permission of M.D. Guiry). Cladophora fascicularis (Mertens ex C.Agardh) Kützing, 1843. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=239135 on 2023-11-07
</ref>
*{{cite web|last=Guiry|first=M.D.|last2=Guiry|first2=G.M.|year=2008|title=Cladophora|work=[[Biology:AlgaeBase|AlgaeBase]]|publisher=World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway|url=http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=37|access-date= 2009-02-06}}
{{Refend}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.algaebase.org/generadetail.lasso?genus_id=37 |title=''Cladophora'' Kützing 1843: 262 |work=[[Biology:AlgaeBase|AlgaeBase]] |author=T. J. Entwisle|author2=M. D. Guiry |date=2005-11-12}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20110516162453/http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/greens/angie/index.htm ''Cladophora'' Index.] Monterey Bay Aquarium
*Marsin, P. and J. Tomasz. (2005). Introductory studies on the morphology of the genus ''Cladophora'' from the Gulf of Gdańsk. ''Ocean. Hydrob. Studies'', 34(Supl.3): 187-193
<ref>Michalak, I., Messyasz, B. Concise review of Cladophora spp.: macroalgae of commercial interest. J Appl Phycol 33, 133–166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02211-3

</ref>

==External links==
*[http://www.algaebase.org/search/pictures/?currentMethod=imgs&fromSearch=yes&displayCount=20&query=Cladophora Images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224120711/http://www.algaebase.org/search/pictures/?currentMethod=imgs&fromSearch=yes&displayCount=20&query=Cladophora |date=2017-02-24 }} of ''Cladophora'' at [[Biology:AlgaeBase|AlgaeBase]]

<ref>Cladophora and Water Quality of Lake Michigan: A Systematic Survey of Wisconsin Nearshore Areas (2004) [PDF]

</ref>
<ref>Western Lake Michigan Nearshore Survey of Water Chemistry and Cladophora Distribution, 2004–2007 [PDF]
</ref>

{{Taxonbar|from=Q311264}}

[[Category:Cladophoraceae]]
[[Category:Cladophorales genera]]

{{Sourceattribution|Cladophora}}