View source for Biology:Crocus

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the family Iridaceae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = 860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|Crocus sativus]]''
| image_alt = Crocus sativus growing on a saffron farm in Iran
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Crocus
| authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| type_species = ''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|Crocus sativus]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Biology:Section (botany)|Sections]]
| subdivision = 
* ''Crocus''
* ''Nudiscapus''
| synonyms_ref = {{sfn|WCLSPF|2022}}
| synonyms = 
*''Safran'' <small>Medik.</small>
*''Geanthus'' <small>Raf.</small>
*''Crociris'' <small>Schur</small>
}}

'''''Crocus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|oʊ|k|ə|s}}; plural: crocuses or croci) is a [[Biology:Genus|genus]] of seasonal [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]]s in the family [[Biology:Iridaceae|Iridaceae]] (iris family) comprising about 100 species of [[Biology:Perennial plant|perennials]] growing from [[Biology:Corm|corm]]s. They are low growing plants, whose flower stems remain underground, that bear relatively large white, yellow, orange or purple flowers and then become dormant after flowering. Many are cultivated for their flowers, appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. The flowers close at night and in overcast weather conditions. The crocus has been known throughout recorded history, mainly as the source of [[Biology:Saffron|saffron]]. Saffron is obtained from the dried [[Biology:Stigma (botany)|stigma]] of ''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|Crocus sativus]]'', an autumn-blooming [[Biology:Species|species]]. It is valued as a spice and dyestuff, and is one of the most expensive spices in the world. Iran is the center of saffron production. Crocuses are [[Earth:Native plant|native]] to woodland, scrub, and meadows from sea level to [[Earth:Alpine tundra|alpine tundra]] from the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], through [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]], central and southern [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], the islands of the Aegean, the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] and across [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]] to [[Place:Xinjiang|Xinjiang]] in western {{wipe|China}}. Crocuses may be propagated from seed or from daughter cormels formed on the corm, that eventually produce mature plants. They arrived in Europe from Turkey in the 16th century and became valued as an ornamental flowering plant.

==Description==
[[File:328 Crocus sativus L., C. vernus Wulf.jpg|thumb|''Crocus sativus'' & ''C. vernus'', Amédée Masclef,<br /> Atlas des plantes de France, 1891|alt=Illustration of two crocus species from 1891]]
[[File:A3c85202570a-CROCUS SATIVUS L.jpg|thumb|Crocus sativus, with ovary sectioned|alt=Botanical illustration of crocus sativus including vertical and crosssection of ovary]]
;General
''Crocus'' display the general characteristics of family [[Biology:Iridaceae|Iridaceae]], which include basal cauline (arising from the aerial stem) leaves that sheath the stem base, [[Biology:Hermaphrodite|hermaphrodite]] flowers that are relatively large and showy, the perianth petaloid with 2 whorls of 3 tepals each and septal nectaries. The flowers have 3 stamens and a gynoecium of 3 united carpels and an inferior ovary, 3 locules and axile placentation with fruit that is a loculicidal capsule.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|pp=295–296}}

''Crocus'' is an acaulescent (lacking a visible lower stem above ground) diminutive seasonal cormous (growing from [[Biology:Corm|corm]]s) [[Biology:Perennial plant|herbaceous perennial]] geophytic genus.{{sfn|Meerow|2012|p=23}} The corms are symmetrical and globose or [[Biology:Glossary of botanical terms#oblate|oblate]] (round in shape with flatted tops and bottoms), and are covered with tunic leaves that are fibrous, membranous or coriaceous (leathery). The corms produce fibrous [[Biology:Root|root]]s, and contractile roots which adjust the corms depth in the soil, which maybe pulled as deep as {{convert|20|cm|in|0}} into the soil.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}The roots appear randomly from the lower part of the corm, but in a few species, from a basal ridge.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=297}}

;Leaves
Plants produce several basal linear bifacial green leaves that arise from the corms. These are adaxially (upper surface facing axis) flat or channelled with pale median stripes, while the opposite (abaxial) surface is strongly keeled, with two grooves on either side. The leaves have a distinctive shape in cross-section, being boat-shaped with two lateral arms with margins recurved inwardly towards the central ridged keel, forming the sides of the "boat". The keel may be square or rectangular, but is lacking in ''C. carpetanus''. The pale central stripe is caused by [[Biology:Ground tissue|parenchymatous]] cells which lack [[Biology:Chloroplast|chloroplast]]s and may contain air spaces.{{sfn|Rudall|Mathew|1990}} The leaves are from {{convert|5 to 30|mm|in|frac=32}} wide and {{convert|10 to 118|cm|in|0}} long. The leaf-like bracts are membranous, while the smaller bracteoles are either membranous or absent.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}} The leaf bases are surrounded by up to 5 membranous sheaths called cataphylls, a specialised leaf. The bases of the cataphylls form the corm tunic, and their number varies from 3 to 6, and enclose the true leaves (euphylls), bracts, bracteoles and flowering stalk.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2015}}

;Flowers
The number of [[Biology:Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]] ([[Biology:Flower|flower]] [[Biology:Plant stem|stems]]) vary from one to several and remain underground, emerging only at the fruiting stage, bearing flowers that are solitary or several, so that a true [[Biology:Scape (botany)|scape]] is absent. The flowers are pedicellate (attached to the peduncle by a short subterranean pedicel stalk). The pedicel is sometimes subtended (below pedicel) by a membranous, sheathing prophyll (leaf-like structure).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}

The showy, salver to cup-shaped, single or clustered actinomorphic flowers taper off into a narrow tube; the flowers emerge from the ground, and can be white, yellow, lilac to dark purple, or [[Biology:Variegation|variegated]] in [[Biology:Cultivar|cultivar]]s. The flower tube is long, cylindrical and slender, expanding apically. The floral tube is long and narrow with 6 lobes in 2 [[Biology:Whorl (botany)|whorls]]. The [[Biology:Perianth|perianth]] is 3+3 (3 sepals+3petals) and gamophyllous (with fused segments). The [[Biology:Tepal|tepal]] whorls are similar, equal or subequal with a smaller inner whorl, and cupped to outspread. The bracts are membranous, but the inner ones are sometimes lacking.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}

The 3 [[Biology:Stamen|stamen]]s are erect and linear and inserted in the throat of the perianth tube, with anthers shorter than the filaments. [[Biology:Pollen|Pollen]] grains are inaperturate (apertures absent) but sometimes spiraperturate (spiral shaped).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=307}} Each flower has a single [[Biology:Stigma (botany)|style]] which is exserted (projecting beyond the corolla tube) and slender distally with three to many branches. The branches are highly variable, being short or long, and simple, bifurcate (dividing in two) or multifid and sometimes distally flattened. The inferior [[Biology:Ovary (botany)|ovary]] has 3 carpels with axile placentation. It remains underground, and as the [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s ripen, the [[Biology:Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] (stem of the flower) grows longer - so the [[Biology:Fruit|fruit]] is above the soil surface.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Ali|Mathew|2011}}

;Fruit and seed
The fruit is a small membranous  capsule, ellipsoid or oblong-ellipsoid in shape and the many [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s are globose to ellipsoid. The seed surface is highly variable, including papillate (covered in small protuberances), digitiform (finger-like) and other epidermal cell types. In some species the seeds are arillate, with fleshy appendages. Crocus seeds have both inner and outer [[Biology:Seed#seed coat|integuments]] and in some species the outer epidermis may display long papillae. Embryo-sac development is Polygonum type. [[Biology:Dehiscence (botany)|Dehiscence]] (splitting of the capsule to release the seed) is of the loculicidal type in which it splits through the wall of the locules leaving the septa that separate them intact.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|pp=306,309–310}}{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}{{sfn|Koocheki|Khajeh-Hosseini|2020}}

;Karyology
''Crocus'' has extensive [[Medicine:Aneuploidy|aneuploidy]] (abnormal number of chromosomes), with some uncertainty as to the base number of chromosomes. The chromosome numbers shows extreme variability, ranging from 2n=6 to 2n=70 even within a single species.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=307}}

;Phytochemistry
The Iridaceae contain a wide range of phenolic compounds. However, [[Chemistry:6-Hydroxyflavone|6-Hydroxyflavone]]s are found only in ''Crocus'', which is also characterised by the presence of [[Chemistry:Crocin|crocin]]s, water-soluble yellow [[Biology:Carotenoid|carotenoid]]s, in the floral tissues. Crocin is a diester of [[Chemistry:Crocetin|crocetin]], responsible for the colour of the styles and stigma of ''C. sativus'', and hence saffron.{{sfn|NCBI|2022a}}{{sfn|NCBI|2022b}} A few species contain mangiferin, a {{chem name|glucosylxanthone}}.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=311}}{{sfn|Mohtashami et al|2021}}

While the flowers may vary dramatically between species, there is little variation in the leaves,{{sfn|Harris|2022}} but sufficient variability in corm tunics that they may be used as an aid in differentiating taxa.{{sfn|Serviss et al|2016}}

:{| style="background-color:transparent; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" 
|-valign="middle"
|{{multiple image | header = ''Crocus'' Structures  | align = center | direction = | total_width= 800| float = |perrow=4
| image1=Crocus sieberi - tricolor.jpg| caption1 = [[Biology:Corm|Corm]]s with net-like papery tunic| alt1 = Crocus corms| width1={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}} 
| image2=Krokus (Crocus) met dauwdruppels 02.JPG| caption2=Closed flower with leaves |alt2= Flower with leaves | width2={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image3=Crocus vernus 20150308.jpg| caption3= Flower with 3 stamens surrounding central style and stigma|alt3= Flower of Crocus vernus | width3={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image4=Crocus-sp.-4637.jpg| caption4= 3 stamens and style |alt4=  3 stamens and style| width4={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image5=Krokus (Crocus) 03.JPG| caption5= Central stigma in opening flower|alt5= Stigma seen in centre of opening flower | width5={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image6=Krokus (Crocus) 07.JPG| caption6=  Exserted style & trifid stigma projecting above corolla|alt6=Style and stigma projecting above petals of flower  | width6={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image7=Crocus (146424425).jpeg| caption7= Lateral view|alt7= Side view of flower showing stamens and style projecting above corolla| width7={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image8=Crocus sp., capsules (2).jpg| caption8= Capsules (seedpods) with seeds|alt8= Crocus seedpods| width8={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
}}
|[[File:Crocusplant.jpg|thumb|none|270px|alt=Photograph of whole crocus plant from roots to flower]]
|-
|}

== Taxonomy ==

=== History ===
{{
multiple image | header = | align = right | direction = | total_width= 400| float = 
| image1=BL Egerton 747 f. 24v.jpg|caption1=''Croci oriental''<br />Tractatus de Herbis ca.&nbsp;1300–1330|alt1=Illustration of crocus from illuminated manuscript dated between 1300 and 1330| width1={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image2=Gercrocrop.jpg|caption2=Crocuses<br />John Gerard 1597|alt2=Illustration of crocus from John Gerard's Historie of Plants 1597]| width2={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image3=Hortus Eystettensis, 1640 (BHL 45339 209) - Classis Aestiva 57.jpg|caption3=Crocuses<br />''Hortus Eystettensis'' 1613|alt3=Crocuses and other flowers from the Hortus Eystettensis of 1613| width3={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
}}
The crocus was well known to the ancients,{{sfn|Caiola|Canini|2010}} being described at least as early as [[Biography:Theophrastus|Theophrastus]] (c. 371{{snd}}c. 287 BC),{{efn|As a perfume (ἀρωμάτων) "καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ κρόκινον· βέλτιστος δ’ ἐν Αἰγίνῃ καὶ Κιλικίᾳ (the saffron-perfume; the crocus which produces this is best in Aegina and Cilicia)". He also refers to the crocus as a spice (at 34), the word being interchangeable for either use{{sfn|Liddell|Scott|1996b}}}}{{sfn|Negbi|1989}} and was introduced into Britain by the Romans, where the saffron crocus was used as a dyestuff. It was reintroduced into Western Europe by the Crusaders. The crocus is mentioned in mediaeval and later herbals, one of the earliest being the 14th century ''Tractatus de Herbis.''{{sfn|BL|2022}}{{sfn|Pavord|2005|p=111}} William Turner (1548) states that the crocus is referred to as saffron in English, implying that only ''C. sativus'' was known at that time.{{sfn|Turner|1548}} However, by 1597 John Gerard writes of "sundry sorts" and uses the term saffron and crocus as interchangeable. He included both spring and autumn flowering crocus, but distinguished Wild Saffron (Crocus) from Meadow Saffron ([[Biology:Colchicum|Colchicum]]). He described eleven forms. Some of his specimens were obtained from Clusius.{{sfn|Gerard|1597}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} In the following century, [[Biography:John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]] in a more detailed account was more careful to include separate chapters for ''Colchicum'', with the common name of meadow saffron, from ''Crocus'' or saffron. Parkinson (1656) states that there are "divers sorts of saffrons" describing 27 spring flowering plants and 4 autumn flowering ones, pointing out that only one of those was the true saffron crocus, which he called ''Crocus verus sativus autumnalis''.{{sfn|Parkinson|1656}} Similar accounts are found in continental European herbals, including those of l'Obel in Flanders (1576){{sfn|l'Obel|1576}} and Besler's ''Hortus Eystettensis'' in Bavaria (1613).{{sfn|Besler|1640}}

The genus ''Crocus'' was first formally described by [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753, with three taxa, and two species, [[Biology:Crocus sativus|''C. sativus'']] ([[Biology:Type species|type species]]), var. ''officinalis'' (now treated as a synonym of ''C. sativus'') and var. ''vernus'' (now [[Biology:Crocus vernus|''C. vernus'']]) and ''C. bulbocodium'' (now ''[[Biology:Romulea bulbocodium|Romulea bulbocodium]]''). Thus Linnaeus recognised two taxa that are accepted as separate species in modern classifications, one vernal and one autumnal crocus, but incorrectly assumed they were only varieties of a single species, while his second species was actually from a closely related genus that was only recognised later (1772).{{sfn|Maratti|1772}} However, a subsequent re-examination of Linnaeus's specimens suggested the presence of several different species that he did not recognise as being separate.{{sfn|Peruzzi et al|2013}} Linnaeus' system, based on sexual characteristics, ''Crocus'' was classified as Triandra Monogynia (Three [[Biology:Stamen|stamen]]s, Single [[Biology:Gynoecium|pistil]]).{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753}} Linnaeus's system was supplanted by the "natural" system which used a [[Hierarchy|hierarchy]] of taxonomic ranks based on weighting of the importance of structural characteristics of the plant. Jussieu  (1789) placed the genus Crocus in his ''Ordo'' (family) Irides or ''Les iris'', as a member of the class ''Stamina epigyna'' (stamens inserted above the ovary) as part of the [[Biology:Monocotyledon|monocotyledon]]s, the first level of the division of the [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]]s.{{sfn|Jussieu|1789}} 
[[File:Linnaeus crocus.jpg|thumb|upright|center|Linnaeus's description of ''Crocus'' 1753|alt=Page from Linnaeus' 1753 work describing Crocus ]]
One of the first monographs of the genus appeared in 1809, by Haworth,{{sfn|Haworth|1820}} followed in 1829 by that of Sabine,{{sfn|Sabine|1830}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} and Herbert in 1847.{{sfn|Herbert|1847}} In 1853, [[Biography:John Lindley|Lindley]] continued the placement of ''Crocus'' as one of 53 genera in [[Biology:Iridaceae|Iridaceae]], which he included in a higher order of monocotyledons, the Narcissales.{{sfn|Lindley|1853|p=161}} Baker published a monograph on the genus in 1874, adopting a very different schema to that of Herbert.{{sfn|Baker|1874}} In 1883, Bentham and Hooker described the Irideae (Iridaceae) as having more than 700 species, and divided it into 3 tribes and further into subtribes. [[Biology:Tribe|Tribe]] Sysyrinchieae as having 2 subtribes, including Ixieae. The latter was [[Philosophy:Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] with four genera, ''Crocus'', ''[[Biology:Syringodea|Syringodea]]'', ''Galaxia'' (''[[Biology:Moraea|Moraea]]'') and ''[[Biology:Romulea|Romulea]]''.{{sfn|Bentham|Hooker|1883|p=693}} This circumscription has remained stable since, with the exception of ''Moraea'' which properly belongs in a separate tribe. The most influential monograph of the nineteenth century was that of Maw (1886), which forms the basis of modern understanding of the genus. Maw built on the work of Herbert, rejecting Baker's classification.{{sfn|Maw|1886|p=22}} The availability of molecular phylogenetic methods in the late twentieth century has shown that the Iridaceae properly belong within the order [[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]].{{sfn|APG I|1998}}

=== Botanical illustration ===

The scientific study of the genus in the late eighteenth century was accompanied by detailed descriptions with [[Biology:Botanical illustration|Botanical illustration]]s, such as those of [[Biography:William Curtis|William Curtis]] (1787) and Sims (1803),{{sfn|Sims|1803}} that appeared in Curtis' Botanical Magazine, with illustrations by Sydenham Edwards.{{sfn|Davies|2001}} Other illustrations are found in [[Monograph|monograph]]s such as those of Haworth (1809){{sfn|Haworth|1820}} and Sabine (1830), illustrated by Charles John Robertson.{{sfn|Sabine|1830}} The largest collection is found in the most comprehensive monograph, that of Maw (1886).{{sfn|Maw|1886}} Other sources include the portfolios of plates, such as the survey of the plants of France by Masclef (1891). At that time only ''C. sativus'' and ''C. vernus'' were included in the [[Earth:Flora|Flora]] of France.{{sfn|Masclef|1890–1893}} 
{{
multiple image | header = Botanical Illustration| align = center | direction = | total_width= 550| float = 
| image1=Crocus vernus Botanical Magazine 45.jpg|caption1=''Crocus''<br />Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1787|alt1=Illustration of a yellow crocus angustifolius from 1787| width1={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image2=Crocus-angustifolius.jpg|caption2=''[[Biology:Crocus angustifolius|C. angustifolius]]''<br />Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1803|alt2=Illustration of yellow Crocus angustifolius from 1803| width2={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image3=Crocus stellaris Haworth.jpg|caption3=''Crocus luteus''<br />A Haworth 1809|alt3=Illustration of yellow Crocus luteus from 1820| width3={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image4=Crocus bouquet Sabine.jpg|caption4=Crocus bouquet of 19 species<br />Sabine 1830|alt4=Bouquet of 19 different crocus species from 1830| width4={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image5=Crocus iridiflorus Maw.jpg|caption5=''C. iridiflorus''<br />Maw 1886|alt5=Hand painted lithograph of Crocus iridiflorus from 1886| width5={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
}}

=== Phylogeny ===

The genus ''Crocus'' belongs to the [[Biology:Monocotyledon|monocot]] family [[Biology:Iridaceae|Iridaceae]] (iris family), specifically the large subfamily [[Biology:Crocoideae|Crocoideae]]. Within that subfamily, crocus is placed on the [[Biology:Tribe|tribe]], Ixieae (synonym Croceae),{{efn|Goldblatt originally described this tribe in 2006,{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|2006}} but in 2011 renamed it Ixieae, having discovered that this name had precedence{{sfn|Goldblatt|Manning|2011}}}} one of five. The Ixieae are then subdivided into subtribes, with the genera ''Crocus'', ''[[Biology:Romulea|Romulea]]'' and ''[[Biology:Syringodea|Syringodea]]'' forming subtribe Romuleinae. The Romuleinae have been characterised within the Ixieae by progressively reduced aerial stems.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=312}}  solitary flowers on the stem branches and woody tunics on the corms. They also often have divided style branches. However, ''Crocus'' corm tunics are fibrous and membranous rather than woody as in ''Syringodea.'' Also, ''Crocus'' has a ridged and often keeled abaxial leaf surface, while that of ''Syringodea'' is rounded, and the midline adaxial translucency of ''Crocus'' is lacking in ''Syringodea''. ''[[Biology:Romulea|Romulea]]'' is principally distinguished from the other two genera by generally having aerial stems or at least an ovary at ground level, compared with the other acaulescent genera, other differences include unifacial rather than bifacial leaves and the pollen structure.{{sfn|Phillips|Rix|1989|p=31}}{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=312}}

Within the Romuleinae, ''Crocus'' is a [[Biology:Sister group|sister group]] to ''Syringodea'', the two genera forming a sister group to ''Romulea''.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|2006}}{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}

=== Subdivision ===

The genus Crocus consists of about 200 accepted species, which continue to increase, and has undergone a large number of [[Biology:Taxonomy|taxonomic]] classifications.{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} The genus has often been divided into [[Biology:Section (botany)|sections]], beginning with that of Haworth (1809){{sfn|Haworth|1820}} who described two sections based on the presence or absence of hairs in the throat of the flower, while Sabine was the first to realise the importance of the presence or absence of a basal spathe (prophyll) in dividing the genus into two sections,{{sfn|Sabine|1830}} a practice followed by Herbert.{{sfn|Herbert|1847}} However, Sabine's practice of using trinomials for [[Biology:Variety (botany)|varieties]] such as ''C. sulphureus concolor'' is no longer accepted, although Herbert somewhat similarly used varieties and subvarieties, e.g. ''C. vernus'' var.1 ''Communis'' subvar. 1. ''Obovatus''. Herbert also used geographical distribution as a basis of classification.{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} By the late 19th century Maw (1886),{{sfn|Maw|1886}} following Herbert, subdivided the genus into two divisions, the ''Involucrati'' and the ''Nudiflori'', and then further divided it into six sections and lastly by flowering times (spring or autumn). Although rejecting the concept of subvarieties, he placed even more emphasis on geography.{{sfn|Mathew|1986}}{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}{{sfn|Rix|2008}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}}

The most widely accepted system, that proposed by Brian Mathew in 1982{{sfn|Mathew|1983}} was based on Maw's system, but with less emphasis on flowering times. This mainly depended on three character states: 
* the presence or absence of a prophyll (a basal spathe);
* the aspect of the style;
* the [[Biology:Corm|corm]] tunic. 
and included 81 species, however, one of these, ''Crocus medius'' was later recognized as a [[Biology:Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of ''[[Biology:Crocus nudiflorus|Crocus nudiflorus]]''.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}

The genus, as described by Mathew, consisted of two subgenera, ''Crocirus'' (monotypic for ''[[Biology:Crocus banaticus|Crocus banaticus]]'') and ''Crocus'' including the remainder of the species, based on whether the anthers were introrse or extrorse ([[Biology:Dehiscence (botany)|dehiscence]] directed towards or away from centre of flower) respectively. Subgenus ''Crocus'' was then divided into two sections, ''Crocus'' and ''Nudiscapus'', based on the presence or absence of the prophyll. Each section was then further divided into six [[Biology:Series (botany)|series]] of ''Crocus'' and nine of ''Nudiscapus''. These series were defined by the division of the style, the corm tunic, flowering time, leaf structure, presence of a [[Biology:Bracteole|bracteole]] and anther colour. Mathew also introduced the concept of [[Biology:Subspecies|subspecies]], including 50 in all, by giving similar but different [[Biology:Form (botany)|forms]] subspecies status if geographically separated, resulting in about 140 distinct taxa.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}} The seven species and ten subspecies discovered since then have been integrated into revisions of this classification, though new species continue to be described,{{sfn|Raca et al|2020}}{{sfn|Ciftci et al|2020}}{{sfn|Randelovic et al|2012}}{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}} leading to estimates of at least 200 species.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2015}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}}

==== Speciation ====

Crocus populations have extremely high infra-specific variability with a very diverse spectrum of morphological and phenotypical varieties, while many individual specimens from different species may closely resemble each other. Based on such morphological differences between isolated populations many new species have been named, but without a definition of new species based on molecular and/or karyological information, species can not be confirmed, creating difficulties in determining [[Biology:Speciation|speciation]] and hence the exact number of species.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2016}}{{sfn|Roma-Marzio et al|2018}} The situation is even more complex once hybridisation (combination of taxa) and [[Biology:Introgression|introgression]] (transfer of genetic material) are considered.{{sfn|Harrison|Larson|2014}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}}

==== Molecular phylogeny ====

The availability of molecular phylogeny methods revealed problems with the traditional systems based on [[Biology:Morphology|morphology]] alone. The first analysis of the complete genus was carried out by Mathew and colleagues in 2008 using nucleotide sequences from [[Biology:Plastid|plastid]] regions. In particular, the DNA data suggest there are no grounds for isolating ''C. banaticus'' in its own subgenus ''Crociris'', though it is a unique species in the genus. Because it has a prophyll at the base of the pedicel, it therefore would fall within section ''Crocus'', although its exact relationship to the rest of the subgenus remains unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}

Of the 15 series in the Mathew scheme, only seven were [[Biology:Monophyletic|monophyletic]], and in particular the largest series, ''Biflori'' and ''Reticulati'', which include a third of all species, were non-monophyletic. Another anomalous species, ''C. baytopiorum'', should now be placed in a series of its own, series ''Baytopi''. ''C. gargaricus'' subsp. ''herbertii'' has been raised to species status, as ''C. herbertii''. The autumn-flowering ''C. longiflorus'', the [[Biology:Type species|type species]] of series ''Longiflori'' (long regarded by Mathew as "a disparate assemblage"), appeared to lie within series ''Verni''. In addition, the position of ''C. malyi'' was currently unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}

DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series ''Reticulati'', ''Biflori'' and ''Speciosi'' are "probably inseparable", ''C. adanensis'' and ''C. caspius'' should probably be removed from ''Biflori'', ''C. adanensis'' falls in a clade with ''C. paschei'' as a sister group to the species of series ''Flavi'' and ''C. caspius'' appears to be sister to the species of series ''Orientales''.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}

The study showed "no support for a system of sections as currently defined", although, despite the many inconsistencies between Mathew's 1982 classification and the current hypothesis, "the main assignment of species to the sections and series of that system is actually supported". The authors state, "further studies are required before any firm decisions about a hierarchical system of classification can be considered" and conclude "future re-classification is likely to involve all infrageneric levels, subgenera, sections and series".{{sfn|Mathew et al|2009}} A further study, using the [[Biology:Internal transcribed spacer|internal transcribed spacer]] region (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA), together with a [[Biology:Chloroplast|chloroplast]] marker, broadly confirmed these findings.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}

''Crocus'' forms a monophyletic [[Biology:Clade|clade]], with a basal [[Biology:Polytomy|polytomy]] of four subclades. The first clade (A) corresponding to section ''Crocus'', but including ''C. sieberi'' and several closely related species (originally included in section ''Nudiscapus'' series ''Reticulati''). The remaining three clades (B-D) include all the remaining species of section ''Nudiscapus''. Of these, B and C are small, corresponding to series ''Orientales'' and ''Carpetani'' respectively, with all remaining series in the large D clade. The exception is ''C. caspius'', originally in series ''Biflori'', which [[Segregate (taxonomy)|segregates]] in clade B. Thus, although division of the genus into two sections is well supported, no single morphological character defines these two groups. The ''C. sieberi'' group are assumed to have lost their prophyll secondarily. Of the series, eight could be shown to be monophyletic; ''Crocus'', ''Kotschyani'' and ''Scardici'' (section ''Crocus'') and ''Aleppici'', ''Carpetani'', ''Laevigati'', ''Orientalis'' and ''Speciosi'' (section ''Nudiscapus''). Flowering season did not correspond to molecular groupings and nor did any of the previously used morphological characteristics, indicating a high degree of [[Biology:Homoplasy|homoplasy]], in which traits are gained or lost independently in different lineages. The remainder of the series could not be supported as natural groupings. Mathew's concept of subspecies status within ''C. biflorus'' could not be supported, each being considered a separate species, resulting in the genus having at least 150 species.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}

A more detailed molecular and morphological study of series ''Verni'' (section ''Crocus'') allowed it to be better characterised and circumscribed, as well as the closely related series ''Longiflori''. Series ''Verni'' ''sensu'' Mathew was found to consist of two groups, the first being ''C. vernus'' ''sensu'' Mathew and the other consisting of ''C. etruscus'', ''ilvensis'', ''kosaninii'' and ''longiflorus''. The taxonomic status of ''C. vernus'' had been uncertain for some time, given the observation that the name was more properly applied to ''C. albiflorus'',{{sfn|Peruzzi et al|2013}} requiring a new designation of ''C. neapolitanus'' for those previously known as ''C. vernus''. Subsequently ''C. vernus'' was split into 5 separate species. The incorporation of ''C. longiflorus'' into series ''Verni'' resulted in making series ''Longiflori'' no longer a legitimate taxonomic unit.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2015}}

In section ''Nudiscapus'', series ''Reticulati'' was polyphyletic with species intermingled with series ''Biflori'' and ''Speciosi'', requiring a recircumscription, confining ''Reticulati'' to 8 species, to obtain monophyly.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2014}} Among the thereby displaced species, are a number of very closely related taxa, referred to as the ''Crocus sieberi'' aggregate, which has been proposed as a new series ''Sieberi''.{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} Other new series, such as ''Isauri'' and ''Lyciotauri'', continue to be created out of the ''Biflori'' series.{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2014}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2013}}

Mathew's circumscription of ''Crocus'' introduced the rank of subspecies, of which the largest number (14) were those of ''Crocus biflorus'' <small>Miller</small>, the type species of series ''Biflori'', a number which continued to grow. Molecular methods identified these as a polyphyletic assemblage rather than closely related subordinate infraspecific taxa. This necessitated a complete taxonomic revision of series ''Biflori'', elevating each subspecies to species status.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2016}} A similar issue occurs with ''C. reticulatus'' ''sensu'' Mathew, who created two subspecies, resulting in 9 newly defined species.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2014}}

==== Sections and species ====
{{main|Biology:List of Crocus species}}
The classification of Brian Mathew (1982), as amended in 2009 divides the genus into two sections, further divided by series.{{sfn|Mathew et al|2009}} The number of series, continues to evolve. 
* Section ''Crocus'' <small>B.Mathew</small>
Species with a basal prophyll. [[Biology:Type species|Type species]] ''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|C. sativus]]'' <small>L.</small>
: 6 series
* Section ''Nudiscapus'' <small>B.Mathew</small>
Species without a basal prophyll. [[Biology:Type species|Type species]] ''[[Biology:Crocus reticulatus|C. reticulatus]]'' <small>Stev. ex Adams</small>
: 9 series

=== Similarly named species ===

Some crocus species, known as "autumn crocus", flower in late summer and autumn, during (autumnal) rains, after summer's heat and drought. The name '''autumn crocus''' is also often used as a common name for ''[[Biology:Colchicum|Colchicum]]'',{{sfn|Wyman|1986}} which is not a true crocus but in its own family ([[Biology:Colchicaceae|Colchicaceae]]) in the lily order [[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]]. The plants are toxic, but have medicinal uses. ''Colchicum'' are also known as '''meadow saffron''', though true [[Biology:Saffron|saffron]] is not toxic.{{sfn|GBIF|2022}} ''Crocus'' species have three stamens while ''Colchicum'' species have six;{{sfn|Armitage|2008|p=278}} crocus have one style, while ''Colchicum'' have three.{{sfn|Bowles|1985|p=154}}{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}

Some [[Biology:Pulsatilla|Pulsatilla]] species are also called "prairie crocus" (previously ''[[Biology:Pulsatilla patens|Anemone patens]])'' or "wild crocus", but they belong to the buttercup family ([[Biology:Ranunculaceae|Ranunculaceae]]).{{sfn|Runkel|Roosa|2009|p=7}}{{sfn|Skelly|1994}} Pulsatilla species, which are commonly called pasqueflowers, unlike crocuses have [[Biology:Rhizome|rhizome]]s, the foliage is covered with long soft hairs, and the flowers are produced on above-ground stems.{{sfn|Wencai | Bartholomew|2004}}{{sfn|Armitage|2008|p=843}}

=== Etymology ===

"Crocus", the name of the genus, is Late Middle English (late 14th century) and also denotes saffron. It is derived via Latin ''crocus ''from the [[Social:Ancient Greek|Greek]] κρόκος (''krokos''),{{sfn|Liddell|Scott|1996a}} which is itself probably a loan word from a Semitic language, related to [[Social:Hebrew language|Hebrew]] כרכום ''karkōm'',{{sfn|Pankhurst|Hyam|1995|p=134}} Aramaic ܟܟܘܪܟܟܡܡܐ ''kurkama'', and [[Social:Arabic language|Arabic]] {{lang|ar|كركم}} ''kurkum'', meaning saffron (''Crocus sativus''), "saffron yellow" or [[Biology:Turmeric|turmeric]] (see ''[[Biology:Curcuma|Curcuma]]''), another yellow dye.{{sfn|OED|2022}} The word ultimately traces back to the [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] ''kunkumam'' ({{lang|sa|कुङ्कुमं}}) for "saffron". The English name is a learned 16th-century adoption from the Latin ''safranum'', but Old English already had ''croh'' for saffron, introduced by the Romans.{{sfn|Maw|1886}}{{sfn|Harper|2022}}{{sfn|Sharifi|2010}}

== Distribution and habitat ==
Crocuses are distributed from the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], from the [[Place:Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]] and [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]], through central and southern [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], the islands of the Aegean, the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] and across [[Place:Central Asia|central]] and southwest Asia to [[Place:Xinjiang|Xinjiang]] in western {{wipe|China}}, but most species are restricted to Turkey and Asia Minor and the [[Place:Balkans|Balkans]], with the [[Place:Balkans#Balkan Peninsula|Balkan Peninsula]] having the largest number of species (at least 31),{{sfn|Randelovic et al|2012}} forming the centre of diversity, however they are widely [[Earth:Introduced species|introduced]].{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}{{sfn|WCLSPF|2022}}{{sfn|Flora Italiana|2022}}{{sfn|Innes|1985}} The distribution of species is described over five contiguous areas from west to east (''see map'').{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}} 
{{multiple image
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}}
Habitats range from sea level to as high as subalpine altitudes, and in a wide range of habitats from woodlands to meadows and deserts, often on stony mountain slopes with good drainage.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=19}}{{sfn|Harris|2022}} The majority of species are native to areas with cold winters and hot summers with little rain, and active growth is typically from fall to mid-spring.{{sfn|Koocheki|Khajeh-Hosseini|2020}} The natural habitats of crocus species are threatened by human activities, including urbanization, industrialization, and other land disturbances and recreational uses. They are negatively impacted by uncontrolled gathering and heavy grazing by livestock.{{sfn|Sevinç Kravkaz| Vurdu|2010}}

<gallery>
File:Crocus alatavicus, 2011.jpg|''Crocus alatavicus''
File:Crocus aleppicus 1.JPG|''Crocus aleppicus''
File:Crocus ancyrensis002.jpg|''Crocus ancyrensis''
File:Crocus banaticus.jpg|''Crocus banaticus''
File:Crocus biflorus 03.jpg|''Crocus biflorus''
File:Crocus cancellatus04.jpg|''Crocus cancellatus''
File:Crocus carpetanus.jpg|''Crocus carpetanus''
File:Crocus cartwrightianus 'Albus'02.jpg|''Crocus cartwrightianus'' 'Albus'
File:Crocus caspius.jpg|''Crocus caspius''
File:Crocus chrysanthus 'Zwanenburg Bronze'.jpg|''Crocus chrysanthus''<br />'Zwanenburg Bronze'
File:Albertacce Crocus corsicus.jpg|''Crocus corsicus''
File:Crocus etruscus02.JPG|''Crocus etruscus'' 'Zwanenburg'
File:Crocus flavus ssp flavus 04.jpg|''[[Biology:Crocus flavus|Crocus flavus]]''
File:Crocus goulimyi3.jpg|''Crocus goulimyi''
File:Crocus graveolens, Çukurova University Campus, Adana, Turkey - 20060109.jpg|''Crocus graveolens''
File:Crocus HyemalisTavor1.JPG|''Crocus hyemalis''
File:Crocus imperati De Jager group 01.JPG|''Crocus imperati'' 'De Jager'
File:Crocus kotschyanus2.jpg|''Crocus kotschyanus''
File:Crocus laevigatus Fontenayi 03.JPG|''Crocus laevigatus'' 'Fontenayi'
File:Crocus longiflorus5.jpg|''Crocus longiflorus''
File:Crocus malyi sveti 1.JPG|''Crocus malyi''
File:Crocus minimus02.jpg|''Crocus minimus''
File:Flor_de_Safrà_Blanc_(Crocus_nevadensis).jpg|''Crocus nevadensis''
File:Crocus nudiflorus4.jpg|''Crocus nudiflorus''
File:Crocus olivieri 01.JPG|''Crocus olivieri''
File:Crocus pallasii 2.jpg|''Crocus pallasii''
File:Crocus pulchellus02.jpg|''Crocus pulchellus''
File:Crocus serotinus clusii flower.jpg|''Crocus serotinus'' subsp. ''clusii''
File:Flors alpines al cim de la muntanya de Parcent.jpg|''Crocus serotinus'' subsp. ''salzmannii''
File:W 7592.JPG|''Crocus scharojanii''
File:Crocus tournefortii Flowers.jpg|''Crocus tournefortii''
File:Crocus at north of the montagne sainte Victoire by JM Rosier 1.JPG|''Crocus versicolor''
</gallery>

== Ecology ==
[[File:Germination of Crocus aureus.png|thumb|Successive stages of germination from seed to seedling (G Maw)|alt=Illustrations of germinating crocus seed]]
The [[Biology:Biological life cycle|life cycle]] of ''Crocus'' species begins with the [[Biology:Seed|seed]], [[Biology:Germination|germinating]] to a [[Biology:Seedling|seedling]], and a mature plant in 3–5 years, however seeds may remain dormant in the soil for several years. The germination stages was first described and illustrated by Maw in his 1886 monograph.{{sfn|Maw|1886}} In its first year, the crocus produces only a single leaf and creates a [[Biology:Corm|corm]] covered by a thin tunic, about 5–8&nbsp;mm in size, dependent on the species. In the northern hemisphere, the autumnal crocuses flower between September and November. The vernal (spring) crocuses flowering time depends both on climate and habitat, but is usually mid-winter to spring. Leaves may be synanthous (produced during flowering) or hysteranthous (when the flowers wither away).{{sfn|Jelitto et al|1990}} In the summer, with hot and dry conditions the plant becomes dormant, with all the above ground parts dying back. Colder temperatures in winter then activate the corms.{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2015}} Propagation occurs sexually by seed and asexually by small corms, called cormels or cormlets, produced in the axils of the corms (between tunic scales and body of corm).{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}} As the fruit capsule ripens, it emerges from the soil at the base of the flowering stem before [[Biology:Dehiscence (botany)|dehiscing]] (splitting open) and releasing the seeds.{{sfn|Toogood|2019}} Seed dispersal may be enhanced by ants, at least in species with arillate seeds.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=311}}

At night and in overcast weather, the [[Biology:Perianth|perianth]] closes. The [[Biology:Ovary (botany)|ovary]] produces [[Biology:Nectar|nectar]] which attracts [[Biology:Bee|bee]]s (particularly female [[Biology:Bumblebee|bumblebee]]s) and [[Biology:Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]].{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=308}}

=== Pests and diseases ===

Cultivated plants may have their corms consumed by mice and other [[Biology:Rodent|rodent]]s,{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=17}} including [[Biology:Vole|vole]]s, squirrels,{{sfn|Heilman|2010|pp=36–7}} and [[Biology:Chipmunk|chipmunk]]s. They are also attacked by mildew, gray mold, botrytis, and fusarium rot. Root rot may also occur, caused by ''Stromatinia gladioli'' and ''[[Biology:Pythium|Pythium]]'' species - the nematode ''[[Biology:Pratylenchus penetrans|Pratylenchus penetrans]]'' may also cause root rot.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=35}} Viruses that are known to infect ''Crocus'' spp include: [[Biology:Potyvirus|Potyvirus]]es, especially bean yellow mosaic virus and  also [[Biology:Tobacco rattle virus|tobacco rattle virus]], [[Biology:Tobacco necrosis virus A|tobaccos necrosis virus]], and [[Biology:Cucumber mosaic virus|cucumber mosaic virus]].{{sfn|Caiola |Faoro|2011}} The foliage may experience rot, rust, and scab diseases and be fed upon by aphids, mites, snails, and slugs.{{sfn|Hill|Hill|2012}} The foliage is eaten by [[Biology:Hare|hare]]s, [[Biology:Rabbit|rabbit]]s, and [[Biology:Deer|deer]]; the flowers are sometimes removed by birds, including [[Biology:Crow|crow]]s, [[Biology:Jackdaw|jackdaw]]s, and [[Biology:Magpie|magpie]]s.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=36}}
{{clear}}

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Cueilleuse de safran, fresque, Akrotiri, Grèce.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Chemistry:History of saffron|Saffron]] gatherers in Minoan fresco, Santorini c.&nbsp;1650BC|alt=Minoan Fresco of Saffron Gatherer]]
[[File:Saffron Field.JPG|thumb|upright|Saffron fields in Iran|alt=Photograph of field of saffron crocus growing in Iran]]

=== Saffron ===
{{main|Biology:Saffron}}
The economic importance of the genus is largely dependent on the single species, ''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|Crocus sativus]]'', now known only in cultivation.{{sfn|Janick et al|2010}} ''C. sativus'' is grown for the production of [[Biology:Saffron|saffron]], an orange-red derivative of its dried [[Biology:Stigma (botany)|stigma]], and among the most expensive spices in the world.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}} The estimated worldwide production of ''C. sativus'' plants is 205 tons.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} About 180,000 stigmas from 60,000 flowers are required to produce {{convert|1|kg|lb|1}} saffron, which sells for about $10,000US (2018). Modern saffron production is widely cultivated in [[Place:Kashmir|Kashmir]], Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and the Mediterranean from Spain to Asia Minor.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} An important center is the eponymous town of Krokos, in the Kozani region of Greece. The saffron product, Krokos Kozanis is a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin).{{sfn|European Commission|2022}}{{sfn|Negbi|1999}} production is largely indigenous and Iran accounts for 65% of global production, covering 72,162&nbsp;ha.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}}

Saffron is thought to have been used in embalming in Ancient Egypt. it is mentioned in the Old testament, in the Song of Songs as a precious spice and has featured as a dye and fragrance throughout written history, with mention in [[Religion:Iliad|The Iliad]].{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}}

Cultivation and harvesting of ''C. sativus'' for saffron was first documented in the Mediterranean, notably on the island of Crete. Frescos showing them are found there at the [[History:Bronze Age|Bronze Age]] Minoan site of Knossos, as well as from the comparably aged Akrotiri site on the Aegean island of [[Biography:Santorini|Santorini]],{{sfn|Trakoli|2021}}{{sfn|Palyvou |2005|p=71}} and formed an important part of the Minoan economy and culture and had both a sacred role and use as a psychoactive drug and [[Chemistry:Food additive|food additive]].{{sfn|Dewan|2015}}{{sfn|Betancourt|2007}}{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} Women still gather crocuses in the Akrotiri region.{{sfn|Palyvou |2005|p=17}}

=== Horticulture and floriculture ===

Crocuses were described in Turkish gardens in the early sixteenth century,{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=72}} gathered from the far reaches of the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]],{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=169}} where they were seen by visiting European botanists and explorers, among the first of whom was Pierre Belon who arrived in Constantinople in 1547. The first crocus seen in the Netherlands, where crocus species were not native, were from corms brought to Vienna in 1562 from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. A few corms were forwarded to Carolus Clusius at the botanical garden in Leiden.{{sfn|Harris|2022}} These were almost certainly cultivated varieties rather than wild species.{{sfn|Harvey|1976}} European visitors to Turkey continued to bring back specimens for gardens in their own country. Prominent among the latter were the gardens at Middelburg in the Netherlands. Jehan Somer, a Middelburg merchant, brought back crocuses among his other specimens in 1592, where they attracted the attention not only of Clusius but of the early Dutch flower painters, notably Ambrosius Bosschaert.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}}{{sfn|Goldgar|2008|p=22}} By 1620, new garden varieties had been developed, and featured in contemporary illustrations, such as that of Crispijn van de Passe in his ''Hortus floridus'' of 1614.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}} There are accounts of crocus gardens in the seventeenth century, such as the Saffron Garth of Walter Stonehouse at Darfield, Yorkshire.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=204}}

Crocuses are among the most important ornamental [[Biology:Geophytes|geophytes]] in the global flower industry,{{sfn|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012|p=xv}} ranking sixth in terms of Dutch bulb production (2003–2008) with 463–668&nbsp;[[Hectare|ha]] under cultivation.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=2}} The crocus is one of the most popular flowers found in the garden in the late winter and early spring.{{sfn|Harris|2022}} About 30 of the species are cultivated, among the most popular being ''C. chrysanthus, C. flavus, C. sieberi, C. tommasinianus and C. vernus'', together with hundreds of cultivars derived from them.{{sfn|Harris|2022}}{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} Both fall and spring blooming crocuses are cultivated for their flowers.{{sfn|Viette et al|2015}} Among the first flowers to bloom in spring, their flowering time can vary from fall to the late winter blooming ''C. tommasinianus''; the earliest fall blooming species, ''C. scharojanii'', may flower during the last weeks of July.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=68}}

The varieties cultivated for decoration in gardens and pots mainly represent six species: ''C. vernus'', ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. flavus'', ''C. sieberi'', ''C. speciosus'' and ''C.&nbsp;tommasinianus''. During the horticulture production year 2009/2010, more than 70 cultivars were grown in Holland, covering an area of 366 [[Hectare|hectare]]s; the most common ones were 'Flower Record' and 'King of the Stripes' which accounted for 42 hectares, other species grown included ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. tommasinianus'', and ''C. flavus'' - all are spring blooming plants.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=81}} But the most commonly grown plants are the Dutch hybrids with large flowers in a rich palette of colors.{{sfn|Bush-Brown et al|1996}}

Both sexual and asexual means are used to increase the number of plants; seeds and multiplication of corms are the most common means of production, but tissue culture can be used,{{sfn|Rana|2021}} most commonly for saffron crocus. New corms are formed on top of the older corm which withers away, and cormels are produced from axillary buds.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=81}} The production of new plants begins with harvested corms in late June to early July, after being graded by corm size the corms are stored around 22 Celsius until early October when they are moved to 17 Celsius until planted later in October and November; flowering occurs in March and the flowers are not removed. Crocuses are also forced to produce flowering plants out of season and the most common species used are ''C. vernus'' and ''C. flavus'', and most of the corms used for forcing come from the Netherlands.{{sfn|De Hertogh|1992}}

Spring flowering types are planted in fall, while fall-blooming types in late summer; typically, the corms are placed 3 to 4 inches deep in well-draining soil in areas with full sun exposure. They do not thrive in heavy clay soils or those that are damp, especially during their summer dormancy period.{{sfn|Tenenbaum|2003}} Commercial crops are produced on raised beds and slopes, to ensure adequate drainage, while horticulturalists often plant on sand beds for the same purpose.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=20}} Spring flowering types also do well in areas with deciduous trees, where they flower and produce leaves before the trees completely leaf-out. Crocuses are grown in USDA winter zones 3–8.{{sfn|Burrell|Hardiman|2002}}  Not all species are hardy in the upper zones; ''C. sativus'' is winter hardy in USDA zones 6 through 8, and ''C. pulchellus'' is hardy in zones 5 through 8.{{sfn|Hill|Hill|2012}}

Some are suitable for naturalizing in grass, but mowing off the foliage before it turns yellow produces short lived plants. Some crocuses, especially ''C. tommasinianus'' and its selected forms and hybrids (such as 'Whitewell Purple' and 'Ruby Giant'), seed prolifically and are ideal for naturalizing. They can, however, become weeds in rock gardens, where they will often appear in the middle of choice, mat-forming alpine plants, and can be difficult to remove. Crocus flowers and leaves are protected from frost by a waxy cuticle; in areas where snow and frost occasionally occur in the early spring, it is not uncommon to see early flowering crocuses blooming through a light late snowfall.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=17}}
<gallery>
image:Large flowering of purple crocuses.jpg|field of flowering purple crocuses
image:CrocusEABowles.jpg|''Crocus'' 'E.A. Bowles',  <br /> a ''C. chrysanthus'' hybrid
Image:Frühlingsblumen Krokus.jpg|Crocus cultivars
File:Krokusse violett.jpg|Purple crocuses with closed flowers
File:Krokusse im Schnee.jpg|Crocuses appearing through the snow

</gallery>

===Autumn crocus===

Autumn-flowering species of crocus that are [[Earth:Horticulture|cultivated]] include:{{sfn|Jelitto et al|1990}}
{|
|- valign=top
| 
*''C. banaticus'' (syn. ''C. iridiflorus'') zones 4-8
*''C. cancellatus'' zones 6-7
*''C. cartwrightianus'' zone 8
*''C. goulimyi'' zone 7-8
*''C. hadriaticus'' zone 8
*''[[Biology:Crocus kotschyanus|C. kotschyanus]]'' (syn. ''C. zonatus'') zones 5-8
|
*''C. laevigatus'' zones 8-9 
*''C. ligusticus'' (syn. ''C. medius'' ) zone 5-6
*''C. longiflorus''  zones 6-7 
*''C. niveus'' zones 6-8
*''C. nudiflorus'' zones 5-8 
*''[[Biology:Crocus ochroleucus|C. ochroleucus]]'' zones 6-8
| 
*''C. pulchellus'' zones 6-8
*''[[Biology:Crocus sativus|C. sativus]]'' (saffron crocus) zones 5-8
*''C. scharojanii''  zones 6-8
*''C. serotinus'' zones 6-8
*''C. speciosus'' zones 3-8
*''C. tournefortii'' zone 8
*''C. vallicola''
|}

''C. laevigatus'' has a long flowering period which starts in late autumn or early winter and may continue into February.

''[[Biology:Colchicum autumnale|Colchicum autumnale]]'' is commonly known as autumn crocus, but is a member of the plant family [[Biology:Colchicaceae|Colchicaceae]], and not considered a true crocus (of the family Iridaceae).<!--Source in section Similarly named species-->

== Uses ==

The corms of crocuses have been used as foodstuffs in Syria.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=314}} The carotenoids found in the styles of ''Crocus'' species, particularly ''C. sativus'' have been shown to inhibit cancer cell proliferation, and have led to interest in potential pharmaceutical applications.{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}

== Culture ==

The crocus or krokos has been known since ancient times, and used in [[Engineering:Decorative arts|decorative arts]], such as the Minoan wall paintings in Santorini from ca.&nbsp;1,600 BC.{{sfn|Trakoli|2021}} Representations of the saffron crocus appear frequently in Minoan art{{sfn|Dewan|2015}} and pervade Aegean art from the Early Bronze Age to the [[History:Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] period.{{sfn|Day|2011}} Theophrastos (4th century BC) described the saffron crocus as being valued as a spice and dye, while [[Biography:Homer|Homer]] compares a sunrise to the flower colour.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|pp=3–4}} Saffron coloured robes were much admired by women in antiquity{{sfn|Smith|1859|pp=214,384,856,892}} and gave the garment Crocota its name.{{sfn|Smith|1859|pp=369–370}} The oil was also valued as a cosmetic.{{sfn|Smith|1859|p=1214}} According to Greek legend Crocus or Krokus ({{lang-gr|Κρόκος}}), was a mortal youth the gods turned into a plant bearing his name, the crocus, after his death caused by his great desire and unfulfilled love for the shepherdess [[Unsolved:Smilax (mythology)|Smilax]].{{sfn|Lehner|Lehner|2003}} Other versions state that as he died three tears fell into the flower becoming its three stigmata.{{sfn|Schmitz|1850}}{{sfn|European Commission|2022}}

Crocuses occur in many flower paintings, one of the earliest being that of Ambrosius Bosschaert's ''Composed Bouquet of Spring Flowers'' (1620). In this painting the cream-colored crocus feathered with bronze at the base of the bouquet reflected varieties on the market at that time. Bosschaert, working from a preparatory drawing to paint his composed piece spanning the whole of spring, exaggerated the crocus so that it passes for a tulip, but its narrow, grass-like leaves give it away.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} 
  
The crocus is used in many contexts to symbolically denote spring and new beginnings. For instance, it was used as the emblem of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup in {{wipe|Poland}} to symbolise the emergence of new talent.{{sfn|FIFA|2018}}
{{
multiple image | header = Crocus in Art| align = center | direction = | total_width= 450| float = 
| image1 =Tacuinum Sanitatis Crocus.jpg|caption1 = Woman picking saffron crocus<br />c.1400<br />(Tacuinum Sanitatis)|alt1=Illustration of a woman picking saffron crocuses from around 1400| width1={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}} 
| image2 =Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 03.jpg| caption2 = ''Composed Bouquet of Spring Flowers''<br />Ambrosius Bosschaert c.1620| alt2 = Flower painting by Ambrosius Bosschaert 1620| width2={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}} 
| image3 =Illustration of Crocus Wellcome L0064357.jpg| caption3=Saffron crocus<br />Crispijn van de Passe, 1614| alt3= Saffron crocus from 1614 book | width3={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
| image4 =Decorative Landscape with Crocuses by Grant Wood, 1912.jpg| caption4=Decorative Landscape with Crocuses<br />Grant Wood, 1912| alt4= Painting of crocuses by Grant Wood from 1912 titled Decorative Landscape with Crocuses | width4={{#expr: (150 * 1500 /1155) round 0}}
}}
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==

{{refbegin|30em}}

=== Books ===

* {{cite book |last1=Betancourt |first1=Philip P. |title=Introduction to Aegean Art |date= 2007 |publisher=INSTAP Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-62303-086-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4cIEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldgar |first1=Anne |title=Tulipmania: Money, Honor, and Knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age |date=15 September 2008 |publisher=[[Organization:University of Chicago Press|University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-30130-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gViwLbCJ7X0C }}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Kubitzki|editor-first1=Klaus|editor-last2=Huber|editor-first2=Herbert|editor-link2=Herbert Huber (botanist)|series=The families and genera of vascular plants |volume=3 |title=Flowering plants. Monocotyledons: Lilianae (except Orchidaceae)  |year=1998|publisher=[[Physics:Springer-Verlag|Springer-Verlag]]|location=Berlin |isbn=3-540-64060-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC |last1=Goldblatt|first1=P|last2=Manning|first2=J C|last3=Rudall|first3=P|authorlink3=Paula Rudall|chapter=Iridaceae: 61 Crocus L.|pages=330–331|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|1998}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Grey-Wilson |first1=C. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |others=Illustrated by Marjorie Blamey  |year=1981 |title=Bulbs: the bulbous plants of Europe and their allies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxRIAAAAYAAJ|location=London |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-00-219211-8 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Heilman |editor1-first=Christine |title=Simple Steps to Success: Pests and Diseases |date=2010 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society; Dorling Kindersley |location=NY |isbn=978-0-7566-6996-6 |edition=US |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-loMXA1N_YC }}
* {{cite book |last1=Innes |first1=Clive |title=The World of Iridaceae: A Comprehensive Record |date=1985 |publisher=Holly Gate International |location=Ashington, Sussex|isbn=978-0-948236-01-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCAmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jelitto |first1=Leo |last2=Schacht |first2=Wilhelm |last3=Fessler |first3=Alfred |title=Hardy Herbaceous Perennials |trans-title=Die Freiland-Schmuckstauden|others=trans. Michael E Epp|date=1990 |orig-year=1950 Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart|publisher=Timber Press |location={{wipe|Portland, Oregon}}|isbn=978-0-88192-159-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utVnAQAACAAJ|edition=3rd.|volume=1 A–K |chapter=Crocus L. Iridaceae|pages=168–174|ref={{harvid|Jelitto et al|1990}}}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/hardyherbaceousp0000jeli here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book|editor-first1=Rina |editor-last1=Kamenetsky |editor-first2=Hiroshi |editor-last2=Okubo |title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC|year=2012 |publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Koocheki|editor-first1=Alireza|editor-last2=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor-first2=Mohammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8i2DwAAQBAJ|title=Saffron: Science, Technology and Health|date=2020|publisher=[[Company:Woodhead Publishing|Woodhead Publishing]]|series=Food Science, Technology and Nutrition|isbn=978-0-12-818740-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lehner |first1=Ernst |last2=Lehner |first2=Johanna |title=Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1MsNIoiFOcC&pg=PA56|date=2003 |origyear=1960 Tudor Publishing|publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-42978-6|chapter=The Crocus|page=56  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |title=The Crocus: A Revision of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) |date=1983 |origyear=1982|publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon|isbn=978-0-917304-23-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQwmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Negbi|editor-first=Moshe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLSGgd9sEOUC|title=Saffron: Crocus sativus L.|date=1999|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-30366-5}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Ozturk|editor-first1=Munir|editor-last2=Hakeem|editor-first2=Khalid Rehman|editor-last3=Ashraf|editor-first3=Muhammad|editor-last4=Ahmad|editor-first4=Muhammad Sajid Aqeel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eC1bDwAAQBAJ|title=Global Perspectives on Underutilized Crops|date=2018|publisher=[[Company:Springer Nature|Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-319-77776-4|last1=Kafi|first1=Muhammad|last2=Kamili|first2=Azra N|last3=Husaini|first3=Amjad N|display-authors=et al|chapter=An expensive spice saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Case Study from Kashmir, Iran and Turkey|pages=109–150|ref={{harvid|Kafi et al|2018}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Palyvou |first1=Clairy |title=Akrotiri, Thera: An Architecture of Affluence 3,500 Years Old |date= 2005 |publisher=INSTAP Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |isbn=978-1-62303-068-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAQVEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book|last1=Pavord|first1=Anna|title=The naming of names the search for order in the world of plants.|date=2005|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |location=New York|isbn=978-1-59691-965-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qksX1BeWkqcC}}{{link note|note= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wvP92qGbI08C additional excerpts] }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ranđelović |first1=Novica |last2=Hill |first2=David A. |title=The Genus Crocus L. in Serbia |date=1990 |publisher=Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts |location=Belgrade|isbn=978-86-7025-117-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4wGSAAACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |title=Anatomy of the Monocotyledons: VIII Iridaceae |date=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0198545040 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2-4zQEACAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Tsimidou|editor-first1=Maria Z.|editor-last2=Polissiou|editor-first2=Moschos|editor-last3=Fernández|editor-first3=José Antonio|title=Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Saffron: Forthcoming Challenges in Cultivation, Research and Economics, Krokos, Greece, May 20 2009|url=https://www.ishs.org/ishs-book/850|date=2010|publisher=[[Organization:International Society for Horticultural Science|ISHS]] 850|isbn=978-90-6605-732-6|last1= Sevinç Kravkaz|first1=I.|last2= Vurdu|first2=H.|chapter=Botany of Crocus ancyrensis through Domestication|pages=61–65}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Runkel|first1=Sylvan T.|last2=Roosa|first2=Dean M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyLjHnUap0UC|title=Wildflowers of the Tallgrass Prairie: The Upper Midwest|date= 2009|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=978-1-58729-844-8|edition=2nd.|orig-year=1989}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ruksans|first=Janis|title=Crocuses: A Complete Guide to the Genus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pqFWjcZphMC&pg=PA17|date=2011|publisher=Timber Press|isbn=978-1-60469-106-1}}{{link note|note=[https://www.amazon.ca/Crocuses-Complete-Guide-Janis-Ruksans/dp/1604691069 ''excerpts available here'']}}

==== Gardening, horticulture and floriculture ====

* {{Cite book|last=Armitage|first=Allan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kA6VgfxsstIC|title=Herbaceous Perennial Plants: A Treatise on their Identification, Culture, and Garden Attributes|date=2008|publisher=Cool Springs Press|isbn=978-1-61058-380-0|edition=3rd|chapter=Crocus|pages=301–308}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bowles |first1=E. A. |title=A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum for Gardeners |date=1985 |origyear=1924|publisher=Waterstone |isbn=978-0-947752-26-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9tFAAAAYAAJ }}{{link note|note=1st ed. Available [https://archive.org/details/handbookofcrocus00bowl here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Hanson|editor-first=Beth|title=Spring-blooming Bulbs: An A to Z Guide to Classic and Unusual Bulbs for Your Spring Garden|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4lbhOI13sC&pg=PA70|date=2002|publisher=Brooklyn Botanic Garden|isbn=978-1-889538-54-9|series=21st-Century Gardening, No. 173|last1=Burrell|first1=C Colston|last2=Hardiman|first2=Lucy|chapter=Encyclopedia of Spring-Blooming Bulbs: Crocus pp.&nbsp;68–70|pages=52–100}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bush-Brown |first1=Louise |last2=Bush-Brown |first2=James |last3=Irwin |first3=Howard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nk6AQAAIAAJ|
title=America's Garden Book |date= 1996 |origyear=1939|publisher=[[Company:Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |location=New York|isbn=978-0-02-860995-9|chapter=Crocus Spp. and Cvs.|page=388 |ref={{harvid|Bush-Brown et al|1996}} }}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/americasgardenbo00bush_0 here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Larson|editor-first=Roy A.|title=Introduction to Floriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYDNCgAAQBAJ|date=1992|origyear=1980|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Company:Academic Press|Academic Press]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-4832-6998-6|last=De Hertogh|first=August|chapter=Bulbous and tuberous plants|pages=197–223}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hill |first1=Lewis |last2=Hill |first2=Nancy|title=The Flower Gardener's Bible: A Complete Guide to Colorful Blooms All Season Long: 400 Favorite Flowers, Time-Tested Techniques, Creative Garden Designs, and a Lifetime of Gardening Wisdom|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_5KHXvqyOYC&pg=PA249|date=2012|origyear=2003|edition=10th Anniversary|publisher=Storey Publishing|location=North Adams, MA|isbn=978-1-60342-807-1|chapter=Crocus|page=249}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |title=Flowering Bulbs for the Garden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Sk8PQAACAAJ|date=1987 |publisher=[[Organization:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]| isbn=978-0-600-35175-7  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Roger |last2=Rix |first2=Martyn |title=The Random House Book of Bulbs |date=1989 |publisher={{wipe|Random House}} |isbn=978-0-679-72756-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_7wAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Toogood|editor-first=Alan|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhfEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265|title=Propagating Plants: How to Create New Plants for Free|chapter=Crocus|page=265|date=2019|origyear=1999|publisher=Dorling Kindersley (Penguin)|isbn=978-1-4654-9898-4|edition=Revised}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Viette|first1=Andre|last2=Viette|first2=Mark|last3=Heriteau|first3=Jacqueline|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPf6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|title=Mid-Atlantic Getting Started Garden Guide: Grow the Best Flowers, Shrubs, Trees, Vines & Groundcovers|date=2015|edition=Revised|origyear=2003|publisher=Cool Springs Press|isbn=978-1-59186-435-6|chapter=Crocus|page=47|ref={{harvid|Viette et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mathew|first1=Brian|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass|date=2011|origyear=1984|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-76147-5|pages=270–277|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC|volume= 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|chapter=Crocus Linnaeus}}
* {{cite book |last1=Willes |first1=Margaret |title=The Making of the English Gardener: Plants, Books and Inspiration, 1560-1660 |date= 2011 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-16382-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAxLU3bo3kwC }}

==== Dictionaries and encyclopedias ====

* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/ |chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/crocus|access-date=11 January 2022 |date=2022}}, (link note|note=''see also'' Online Etymology Dictionary
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |others=Revised by Henry Stuart Jones|title=A Greek-English Lexicon 2 vols.|url=https://archive.org/details/b31364949_0001 |date=1996|edition=9th|publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-864226-8|access-date=10 January 2022}}, {{link note|note= ''see also'' A Greek–English Lexicon}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996a|title=κρόκος , ὁ|volume=1|page=998|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkro%2Fkos}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996b|title=ἀρωμα^τ|volume=1|page=254|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da)rwmati%2Fzw}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Mabberley|first=D. J.|title=The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdoUPtqKCIC|date=1997|origyear=1987|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-521-41421-0|chapter=Crocus|page=194}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pankhurst|first1=Roger|last2=Hyam|first2=Richard|title=Plants and their names: a concise dictionary|date=1995|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-866189-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywIPQgAACAAJ}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/plantstheirnames0000hyam here] at [[Internet Archive]]}} 
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Skelly |first1=Carole J. |title=Dictionary of Herbs, Spices, Seasonings, and Natural Flavorings |date=1994 |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-51420-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ|chapter=Pulsatilla|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT444}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Tenenbaum|editor1-first=Frances|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=557KJL0TC48C&pg=PA118|title=Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants|date=2003|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-618-22644-3|chapter=Crocus|pages=118–119}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wyman |first1=Donald |title=Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia |date=1986 |origyear=1971|publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-02-632070-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSExQDJtQ7AC |edition=2nd.|chapter=Crocus|pages=272–274}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Crocus|website=Oxford English Dictionary|date=20 September 2007 |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-920687-2|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus|accessdate=10 January 2022|ref={{harvid|OED|2022}}|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110231351/https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|last=Schmitz|first=Leonhard|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 2 vols.|volume=I: Abaeus-Dysponteus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=P896|page=896|year=1850|publisher=Taylor and Walton|location=London}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LscPAAAAYAAJ|year=1859|edition=2nd.|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston}}

==== Historical sources (chronological) ====

;Antiquity
* {{cite book|last1=Theophrastus|editor1-last=Hort|editor1-first=Arthur|title=Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία: (Περὶ ὀσμῶν; ''De Odoribus'')|trans-title=Enquiry into Plants: Concerning odours|volume=II|pages=324–489|date=1916|orig-date=4th century BC|publisher=William Heinemann and G.P. Putnam's Sons |series=Loeb Classical Library |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-674-99077-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/theophrastusiien00theo/page/350/mode/2up|chapter=6. Of the various parts of plants used for perfumes, and of the composition of various notable perfumes, section 27 }}{{link note|note=also available [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Theophrastus/De_odoribus*.html here] on Penelope}}
;14th century 
* {{cite web |last1=BL |title=Detailed record for Egerton 747 (ca. 1300–1330)|url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8319&CollID=28&NStart=747|website=Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts |access-date=20 January 2022 |date=2022}}
;16th century
* {{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=William |title=The Names of Herbes |date=1548|edition=1881 |publisher=English dialect society |location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYIrUD8lP90C |chapter=Crocus|page=31}}
* {{cite book|last1=l'Obel|first1=Matthias de|title=Plantarum, seu, Stirpium historia. Cui annexum est aduersariorum volumen   |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7094#/summary|date=1576|publisher=Christophori Plantini|location=Antwerp|language=latin|chapter=Crocus|page=53|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/37879#page/737/mode/1up}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gerard |first1=John |title=The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes |date=1597 |edition=1st |publisher=John Norton |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749 |chapter=80. Of Saffron|pages =123–131|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749/page/122/mode/2up}} ([[Internet Archive]] version: also here at Botanicus and here at [[Social:Biodiversity Heritage Library|Biodiversity Heritage Library]])
;17th century
* {{cite book |last1=Besler |first1=Basilius |title=Hortus Eystettensis, sive, Diligens et accurata omnium plantarum, florum, stirpium: ex variis orbis terrae partibus, singulari studio collectarum, quae in celeberrimis viridariis arcem episcopalem ibidem cingentibus, olim conspiciebantur delineatio et ad vivum repraesentatio et advivum repraesentatio opera|date=1640 |origyear=1613|location=Nürnberg|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/45339#/summary|language=latin}}
* {{cite book|last=Parkinson|first=John|title=Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, or, A Choise Garden of All Sorts of Rarest Flowers with their Nature, Place of Birth, Time of Flowering, Names, and Vertues to Each Plant, Useful in Physic or Admired for Beauty: To which is Annext a Kitchin-Garden Furnished with All Manner of Herbs, Roots, and Fruits, for Meat or Sauce Used with Us, with the Art of Planting an Orchard... All Unmentioned in Former Herbals|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/69836|location=London|publisher=Printed by R.N. and are to be sold by Richard Thrale at his shop at the signe of the Cross-Keys at S. Pauls-gate, going into Cheap-side|year=1656|chapter=Crocus saffron|pages=160–170}}
;18th century
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753|volume=1|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/48/mode/1up|page=36|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm}}, ''see also'' [[Biology:Species Plantarum|Species Plantarum]]
* {{cite book |last1=Maratti |first1=Giovanni Francesco |title=Plantarum Romuleae, et Saturniae in agro Romano existentium: specificas notas describit inventor |date=1772 |publisher=Typis Archangeli Casaletti |location=Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ik0aAAAAYAAJ |language=la}}
* {{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |title=Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in Horto regio parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV |location=Paris |year=1789 |oclc=5161409 |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125|language=la|chapter=Crocus|page=59|chapter-url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/154/mode/1up}}
;19th century
* {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|title=The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system|publisher=Bradbury & Evans|location=London|date=1853|orig-year=1846|edition=3rd.|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/95459#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bentham|first1=G.|last2=Hooker|first2=J.D.|title=Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita|volume=III Part II|year=1883|publisher=L Reeve & Co.|location=London|page=693|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/254/mode/1up|chapter=Crocus}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |title=A monograph of the genus Crocus. With an appendix on the etymology of the words crocus and saffron by C.C. Lacaita |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co.|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/15481}}
** {{cite journal |last1=Nature |title=The Crocus |journal=Nature |date=February 1887 |volume=35 |issue=902 |pages=348–349 |type=Review|doi=10.1038/035348a0|bibcode=1887Natur..35..348. |s2cid=4091523 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Masclef |first1=Amédée |title=Atlas des plantes de France 3 vols |date=1890–1893|volume=3|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/146304|pages=328}}

=== Chapters ===

* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=De Hertogh|first1=August A|last2=van Scheepen|first2=Johan|last3=Le Nard|first3=Marcel|last4=Okubo|first4=Hiroshi|last5=Kamenetsky|first5=Rina|title=Globalization of the flower bulb industry |pages=1–16 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA1|ref={{harvid|De Hertogh et al|2012}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Meerow|first1=Alan W|title=Taxonomy and phylogeny |pages=17–56 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA17}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Okubo|first1=Hiroshi|last2=Sochacki|first2=Dariusz|title=Botanical and horticultural aspects of major ornamental geophytes: II Crocus |pages=79–82 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA79}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}

=== Articles ===

* {{cite journal |last1=Caiola |first1=Maria Grilli |last2=Canini |first2=Antonella |title=Looking for Saffron's (Crocus sativus L.) Parents |journal=Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–14 |url=http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/2010/FPSB_4(SI2)/FPSB_4(SI2)1-14o.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Caiola |first1=Maria Grilli |last2=Faoro |first2=Franco |title=Latent virus infections in Crocus sativus and Crocus cartwrightianus |journal=Phytopathologia Mediterranea |date=2011 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 | jstor=26458691}}
* {{cite journal |last=Challenger|first=Charlie|title= The Pleasures of Crocus |url=https://www.rnzih.org.nz/pages/crocus.htm|journal=The New Zealand Garden Journal (Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=12–17|date=March 1986}}
* {{cite journal| last1=Davies|first1= Kevin L.|title=The life and work of Sydenham Edwards FLS, Welshman, Botanical and Animal Draughtsman 1768-1819| url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1225327/1225824/35#?xywh=-1752%2C-197%2C5933%2C3913|journal=Minerva - The Journal of Swansea History|volume=9 |pages=30–58|year= 2001}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Jo |title=Crocuses in context: A Diachronic Survey of the Crocus Motif in the Aegean Bronze Age |journal=Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens |date=2011 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=337 |doi=10.2972/hesperia.80.3.0337|s2cid=165105395 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dewan |first1=Rachel |title=Bronze Age Flower Power: The Minoan Use and Social Significance of Saffron and Crocus Flowers |journal=Chronika |date=2015 |volume=5 |pages=42–55 |url=http://www.chronikajournal.com/resources/Dewan%202015.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Richard G. |last2=Larson |first2=Erica L. |title=Hybridization, Introgression, and the Nature of Species Boundaries |journal=Journal of Heredity |date=1 December 2014 |volume=105 |issue=S1 |pages=795–809 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esu033|pmid=25149255 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=John H. |title=Turkey as a Source of Garden Plants |journal=Garden History |date=1976 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.2307/1586521 |jstor=1586521 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586521 |issn=0307-1243}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Janick |first1=Jules |last2=Daunay |first2=Marie Christine |last3=Paris |first3=Harry |title=Horticulture and Health in the Middle Ages: Images from the Tacuinum Sanitatis |journal=HortScience |date=November 2010 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=1592–1596 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.45.11.1592|s2cid=86510163 |ref={{harvid|Janick et al|2010}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kandeler |first1=R. |last2=Ullrich |first2=W. R. |title=Symbolism of plants: examples of European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JANUARY: Crocus |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |date=25 November 2008 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=6–8 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ern360|pmid=19213723 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |title=George Maw and his monograph |journal=The Kew Magazine |date=1986 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=186–189 |jstor=45066517 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mohtashami |first1=Leila |last2=Amiri |first2=Mohammad Sadegh |last3=Ramezani |first3=Mahin |last4=Emami |first4=Seyed Ahmad |last5=Simal-Gandara |first5=Jesus |title=The genus Crocus L.: A review of ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |date=November 2021 |volume=171 |page=113923 |doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113923|ref={{harvid|Mohtashami et al|2021}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Negbi |first1=Moshe |title=Theophrastus on geophytes |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=May 1989 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=15–43 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01708.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pastor-Férriz |first1=Teresa |last2=De-los-Mozos-Pascual |first2=Marcelino |last3=Renau-Morata |first3=Begoña |last4=Nebauer |first4=Sergio G. |last5=Sanchis |first5=Enrique |last6=Busconi |first6=Matteo |last7=Fernández |first7=José-Antonio |last8=Kamenetsky |first8=Rina |last9=Molina |first9=Rosa V. |title=Ongoing Evolution in the Genus Crocus: Diversity of Flowering Strategies on the Way to Hysteranthy |journal=Plants |date=3 March 2021 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=477 |doi=10.3390/plants10030477|pmid=33802494 |pmc=7999489 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rix |first1=Alison |title=George Maw, Joseph Hooker and the genus Crocus |journal=Curtis's Botanical Magazine |date=May 2008 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=176–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8748.2008.00616.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |title=Leaf Anatomy in Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=Kew Bulletin |date=1990 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=535–544 |doi=10.2307/4110516|jstor=4110516 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sharifi |first1=G. |title=Etymology, history and application of saffron (Crocus sativus l.) in ancient Iran |journal=Acta Horticulturae |date=January 2010 |issue=850 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.850.53}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Trakoli |first1=Anna |title=Minoan Art, The 'Saffron Gatherers', c1650 BC |journal=Occupational Medicine |date=16 June 2021 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=124–126 |doi=10.1093/occmed/kqab019|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite news|last1=Rana |first1=Yudhvir |title=Himachal Pradesh set for commercial cultivation of saffron |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/himachal-pradesh-set-for-commercial-cultivation-of-saffron/articleshow/83685219.cms|date = 20 June 2021|access-date=13 January 2022|newspaper=The Times of India}}

==== Phylogeny and taxonomy ====

* {{Cite journal|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|year=1998 |title=An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279592674|journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=531&ndash;553 |jstor=2992015 |doi=10.2307/2992015|ref={{harvid|APG I|1998}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Aghighiravan |first1=Fatemeh |last2=Shokrpour |first2=Majid |last3=Nazeri |first3=Vahideh |last4=Naghavi |first4=Mohammad Reza |title=Phylogenetic Assessment of Some Species of Crocus Genus Using DNA Barcoding |journal=Journal of Genetic Resources|date=July 2019 |volume=5 |issue=2 |doi=10.22080/jgr.2019.2408}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Çiftçi |first1=Almila |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Mollman |first3=Rachel |last4=Yildirim |first4=Hasan |last5=Erol |first5=Osman |title=Notes on Crocus L. Series Flavi Mathew (Iridaceae) and a new species with unique corm structure|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340455322|journal=Phytotaxa |date=6 April 2020 |volume=438 |issue=2 |pages=65–79 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.438.2.1|s2cid=216439891 |ref={{harvid|Ciftci et al|2020}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |title=Phylogeny and classification of Iridaceae|journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |date=1990 |volume=77 |issue=4|pages=607–627 |doi=10.2307/2399667 |jstor=2399667 |url=http://www.botanicus.org/page/1459055}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |title=Phylogeny and Classificationof the Iridaceae and the Relationships of Iris |journal=Annali di Botanica |date=2000 |volume=58 |pages=13–28  |url=https://rosa.uniroma1.it/rosa04/annali_di_botanica/article/view/9059 |issn=2239-3129}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |last2=Davies |first2=Jonathan |last3=Manning |first3=John |last4=van der Bank |first4=Michelle |last5=Savolainen |first5=Vincent |authorlink3=John Charles Manning|title=Phylogeny of Iridaceae Subfamily Crocoideae Based on a Combined Multigene Plastid DNA Analysis |journal=Aliso |date=2006 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=399–411 |doi=10.5642/aliso.20062201.32|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|2006}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |last2=Manning |first2=J. C. |title=Systematics of the southern African genus Ixia (Iridaceae). 3. Sections Hyalis and Morphixia |journal=Bothalia|date=13 December 2011 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=83–134 |doi=10.4102/abc.v41i1.35|s2cid=84534897 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Meng |first2=Shuchun |last3=Rutten |first3=Twan |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny of Crocus (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution |journal=[[Biology:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=617–627 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733 |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al| 2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Peruzzi |first2=Lorenzo |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Karamplianis |first4=Theophanis |last5=Constantinidis |first5=Theophanis |last6=Ranđelović |first6=Vladimir |last7=Ranđelović |first7=Novica |last8=Jušković |first8=Marina |last9=Pasche |first9=Erich |last10=Blattner |first10=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny, geographic distribution, and new taxonomic circumscription of the Crocus reticulatus species group (Iridaceae) |journal=Turkish Journal of Botany |date=2014 |volume=38 |pages=1182–1198 |doi=10.3906/bot-1405-60|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2014}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Tomović |first3=Gordana |last4=Ranđelović |first4=Vladimir |last5=Ranđelović |first5=Novica |last6=Blattner |first6=Frank R. |last7=Peruzzi |first7=Lorenzo |title=Phylogeny, karyotype evolution and taxonomy of Crocus series Verni (Iridaceae) |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |date=January 2015 |volume=301 |issue=1 |pages=309–325 |doi=10.1007/s00606-014-1074-0|s2cid=18507508 |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2015}}}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Kerndorff|first2=Helmut|last3=Pasche|first3=Erich|last4=Peruzzi|first4=Lorenzi|date=11 May 2016|title=Neotypification of the name Crocus biflorus Mill. (Iridaceae) and its consequences in the taxonomy of the genus|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.260.2.3|journal=Phytotaxa|volume=260|issue=2|pages=131–143|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.260.2.3|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus isauricus Siehe ex BowleS (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2014 |journal=Stapfia|volume=101 |pages=3–18 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0101_0003-0018.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2014}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Lifecycle, Morphology, Phenotypic Characteristics, and Taxonomical Relevant Parameters |date=2015 |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=27–65 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0027-0065.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus lyciotauricus Kerndorff & Pasche (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2015a |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=67–80 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0067-0080.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015a}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff|first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Taxonomical Problems and How to Determine a Species Nowadays? |date=2016 |journal=Stapfia|volume=105 |pages=42–5o |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_105_0042-0050.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |last2=Petersen |first2=Gitte |last3=Seberg |first3=Ole |title=A reassessment of ''Crocus'' based on molecular analysis |journal=The Plantsman |series=New Series|date=2009 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=50–57|ref={{harvid|Mathew et al|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Blattner |first2=Frank R. |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Erol |first4=Osman |last5=Harpke |first5=Dörte |title=Phylogeny of the saffron-crocus species group, Crocus series Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Biology:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=October 2018 |volume=127 |pages=891–897 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.036|pmid=29936028 |s2cid=49409790 |ref={{harvid|Nemati et al|2018}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peruzzi |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Garbari |first3=Fabio |title=Lectotypification of the name Crocus sativus var. vernus L. (Iridaceae) and its consequences within Crocus ser. Verni |journal=Taxon |date=22 October 2013 |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=1037–1040 |doi=10.12705/625.7|ref={{harvid|Peruzzi et al|2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Petersen |first1=Gitte |last2=Seberg |first2=Ole |last3=Thorsøe |first3=Sarah |last4=Jørgensen |first4=Tina |last5=Mathew |first5=Brian |title=A Phylogeny of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) Based on Sequence Data from Five Plastid Regions |journal=Taxon |date=2008 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=487–499 |doi=10.2307/25066017 |jstor=25066017 |ref={{harvid|Petersen et al|2008}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Roma-Marzio |first1=Francesco |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Peruzzi |first3=Lorenzo |title=Rediscovery of Crocus biflorus var. estriatus (Iridaceae) and its taxonomic characterisation |journal=Italian Botanist |date=9 May 2018 |volume=6 |pages=23–30 |doi=10.3897/italianbotanist.6.28729|s2cid=91370762 |ref={{harvid|Roma-Marzio et al|2018}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Serviss|first1=Brett E.|last2=Peck|first2=James H.|last3=Benjamin|first3=Kristen R.|date=2016|title=Crocus flavus: a new genus and species of non-native Iridaceae for the Arkansas (U.S.A.) flora|jstor=44858594|journal=Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas|volume=10|issue=2|pages=513–516|ref={{harvid|Serviss et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Yilmaz |first1=Aykut |title=The Evaluations and Comparisons of Nuclear and Chloroplast DNA Regions Based on Species Identification and Phylogenetic Relationships of Crocus L. Taxa |journal=Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology |date=1 June 2021 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=1504–1518 |doi=10.21597/jist.791414|s2cid=234849841 |doi-access=free }}

==== Novel taxa ====

* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Kerndorff |first2=Helmut |last3=Raca |first3=Irena |last4=Pasche |first4=Erich |title=A New Serbian Endemic Species Of The Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=Biologica Nyssana |date=23 September 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=7–13 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.962907|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2017}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=H |last2=Pasche |first2=E |title=Zwei bemerkenswerte Taxa des Crocus biflorus-Komplexes (Iridaceae) aus der Nordosttürkei |trans-title=Two remarkable taxa of the Crocus biflorus complex (Iridaceae) from northeastern Turkey|journal=Linzer Biologische Beitraege |date=31 July 1997 |issue=1 |pages=591–600 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/LBB_0029_1_0591-0600.pdf|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=H |last2=Pasche |first2=E |title=Two new taxa of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from Turkey |journal=Stapfia |date=2011 |volume=95 |pages=2–5 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0095_0002-0005.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=H |last2=Pasche |first2=E |last3=Harpke|first3=D|last4=Blattner|first4=FR|title=Seven New Species of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from Turkey |journal=Stapfia |date=2012|volume=97 |pages=3–16 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0097_0003-0016.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2012}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=H |last2=Pasche |first2=E |last4=Harpke|first4=D|last3=Blattner|first3=FR|title=  Fourteen New Species of Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) from West, South-West and South-Central Turkey|journal=Stapfia |date=2013|volume=99 |pages=145–158 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0099_0145-0158.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Miljković |first1=Milica |last2=Ranđelović |first2=Vladimir |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=A new species of Crocus (Iridaceae) from southern Albania (SW Balkan Peninsula) |journal=Phytotaxa |date=9 June 2016 |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=39–49 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.265.1.3|ref={{harvid|Miljkovic et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Papanicolaou |first1=K. |last2=Zacharof |first2=E. |title=Crocus in greece new taxa and chromosome numbers |journal=Botaniska Notiser |date=17 January 1980 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=155–164 |url=https://eurekamag.com/research/005/068/005068709.php }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peruzzi |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |title=Crocus ilvensis sp. nov. (sect. Crocus, Iridaceae), endemic to Elba Island (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy) |journal=Nordic Journal of Botany |date=February 2011 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=6–13 |doi=10.1111/j.1756-1051.2010.01023.x|ref={{harvid|Peruzzi et al |2011}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Raca |first1=Irena |last2=Harpke |first2=Dörte |last3=Shuka |first3=Lulëzim |last4=Ranđelović |first4=Vladimir |title=A new species of Crocus ser. Verni (Iridaceae) with 2 n = 12 chromosomes from the Balkans |journal=Plant Biosystems |date=19 October 2020 |volume=156 |pages=36–42 |doi=10.1080/11263504.2020.1829735|s2cid=225006706 |ref={{harvid|Raca et al|2020}}}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Ranđelović|first1=Novica|last2=Ranđelović|first2=Vladimir|last3=Hristovski|first3=Nikola|date=April 2012|title=Crocus jablanicensis (Iridaceae), a new species from the Republic of Macedonia, Balkan Peninsula|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235660562|journal=Annales Botanici Fennici|volume=49|issue=1–2|pages=99–102|doi=10.5735/085.049.0116|jstor=23728141|s2cid=84237883|issn=0003-3847|ref={{harvid|Randelovic et al|2012}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Ingo |title=Crocus brachyfilus (Iridaceae), a new species from southern Turkey |journal=Willdenowia |date=2014 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=45–50 |doi=10.3372/wi.44.44107 |jstor=24750912 |s2cid=86431711 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24750912 |issn=0511-9618|doi-access=free }}

==== Historical accounts ====

* {{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=John Gilbert|title=A Classified Synonymic List of all the Known Crocuses, with their Native Countries, and References to the Works where they are Figured|journal=Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society of London|date=1874 |volume=4 |issue=14|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/152500#page/129/mode/1up|pages=111–119 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Curtis|first1=William |title=Crocus vernus|journal=Curtis's Botanical Magazine |date=1787 |volume=2|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7351#page/102/mode/1up|page=T45 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haworth |first1=Adrian |title=On the Cultivation of Crocuses, with a short Account of the different Species known at present. February 7, 1809 |journal=Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London|date=1820 |volume=1 |pages=122–139 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/151339#page/145/mode/1up |publisher=M. Bulmer & Co.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=William |title=A History of the Species of Crocus |journal=The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London |date=1847 |volume=2 |pages=249–293 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/43585461#page/267/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sabine|first1=Joseph |title=An Account and Description of the Species and most remarkable Varieties of Spring Crocuses, cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society. January 6, 1829 |journal=Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London|date=1830 |volume=7 |pages=III: 419–432; IV: 433–498|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/155840#page/482/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sims|first1=John |title=Crocus susianus. Cloth of Gold Crocus|journal=Curtis's Botanical Magazine |date=1803 |volume=18|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14296#page/139/mode/1up|page=T652 }}

=== Websites ===

* {{cite web |last1=European Commission |title=Krokos Kozanis PDO |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis-pdo_en |website=Food, Farming, Fisheries: EU Quality Food and Drink |date=2022|access-date=4 January 2022}}
* {{cite web |title=Elenco delle specie - Genere: Crocus - Famiglia: Iridaceae  |url=http://luirig.altervista.org/flora/taxa/floraspecie.php?genere=Crocus |website=Flora Italiana |access-date=5 January 2022 |date=2022|ref={{harvid|Flora Italiana|2022}}}}
* {{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Stephen|title= Crocus species (Iridaceae)|url=https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/plants400/Profiles/cd/crocus |website=Oxford University Plants 400|publisher=Department of Plant Sciences, [[Organization:University of Oxford|Oxford University]]| date=2022|access-date=8 January 2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=FIFA |title=Emblem and match schedule for Poland 2019 unveiled |url=https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/u20worldcup/fifa-u-20-world-cup-poland-2019/news/emblem-and-match-schedule-for-poland-2019-unveiled |website=Tournaments |publisher=FIFA |access-date=14 January 2022 |date=14 December 2018}}
* {{cite web |last1=Porcher |first1=Michel H. |title=Sorting Crocus names |url=https://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Crocus.html |website=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database |publisher=Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, University of Melbourne|access-date=22 January 2022 |date=25 June 2013}}
* {{cite web |last1=Sözen |first1=İbrahim |title=The Country Of Crocuses |url=http://crocusmania.blogspot.com/ |website=Crocusmania |access-date=23 January 2022 |language=tr |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Boland |first1=Todd |title=Crocus to Brighten the Spring Garden |url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/977/ |website=Dave's Garden |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=20 September 2008}}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |title=CID 5281233, Crocin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocin |website=[[Biology:PubChem|PubChem]] |publisher=National Library of Medicine |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022a|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |title=CID 5281232, Crocetin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocetin |website=[[Biology:PubChem|PubChem]] |publisher=National Library of Medicine |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022b|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{anchor|Distribution}}{{cite journal |title=Distribution area of the genus Crocus subdivided into five different geographic regions (A-E) |journal=[[Biology:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages= 617–627: Supplementary material|type=Map }}

=== Organisations and collections ===

* {{cite web|last=IBS|title=Crocus|url=http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903060316/http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-date=3 September 2013|publisher=[[Organization:International Bulb Society|International Bulb Society]]|access-date=15 January 2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=PBS |title=Crocus |url=https://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Crocus |website=Photographs and Information |access-date=21 January 2022 |date=5 March 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Bowles |title=Crocus Collection |website=E. A. Bowles of Myddelton House Society|url=https://www.eabowlessociety.org.uk/crocus |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Lonsdale |first1=John |title=Crocus |url=http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |website=The Lonsdale Collection |publisher=The Alpine Garden |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225192223/http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |archive-date=25 February 2014}} 
* {{cite web |last1=Lonsdale |first1=John |title=Crocuses |url=http://edgewoodgardens.net/crocuses/ |website=The Lonsdsale Garden |publisher=Edgewood Gardens |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Goode |first1=Tony |title=Crocus Pages |url=http://archive.alpinegardensociety.net/plants/Crocus/ |publisher=Alpine Garden Society |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=2022}}

==== Databases and flora ====

* {{cite web |title=''Crocus''|work=[[Biology:World Checklist of Selected Plant Families|World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] |publisher=[[Organization:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=327117|access-date=4 January 2022|ref={{harvid|WCLSPF|2022}} }} 
** [http://wcsp.science.kew.org/qsearch.do?page=quickSearch&plantName=Crocus List of Crocus species]
* Flora of China
** {{cite web |last1=  Zhao  |first1=Yu-tang |last2=Noltie|first2= Henry J. |last3=  Mathew|first3=Brian F.|title= Crocus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 36. 1753.|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=108403 |page=313|access-date=6 January 2022|year=2004|ref={{harvid|Zhao et al|2004}}}}, in Flora of China online vol. 24
** {{cite web |last1=  Wencai   |first1= Wang|last2= Bartholomew|first2=  Bruce|title= Pulsatilla Miller, Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4. [1136]. 1754.|url= http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=127637|page=329|access-date=10 January 2022|year=2004}}, in Flora of China online vol. 6
* {{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=S. I. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |title=Crocus L. |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/40016737?projectid=32 |website=Flora of Pakistan |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=7 January 2022 |date=2011}}
* {{cite web|last1=GBIF|title=Crocus L.|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2747303|accessdate=9 January 2022|ref={{harvid|GBIF|2022}}}}

{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{Taxonbar|from=Q157806}}

[[Category:Crocus| ]]
[[Category:Iridaceae genera]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]

{{Sourceattribution|Crocus}}