View source for Biology:Disaster risk reduction

{{Short description|Preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk factors}}
[[File:Disaster Risk Reduction (10692926193).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Villages have adapted the design of houses to protect people from rising flood waters and small boats are used to transport people and food to sustain livelihoods. This kind of disaster risk reduction is an important Climate change adaptation]]

'''Disaster risk reduction''' ('''DRR''') is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing the risks of disaster. It aims to promote sustainable development by increasing the resilience of communities to any disasters they might face. DRR is normally used as policies intended to "define goals and objectives across different timescales and with concrete targets, indicators and time frames."<ref name=":0" />{{rp|16}} The concept is also called '''disaster risk management (DRM)'''.

Disaster risk reduction has been strongly influenced by mapping of natural disaster risks and research on vulnerability since the mid-1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2015 |editor-last=Shi |editor-first=Peijun |editor2-last=Kasperson |editor2-first=Roger |title=World Atlas of Natural Disaster Risk |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-45430-5 |journal=IHDP/Future Earth-Integrated Risk Governance Project Series |language=en-gb |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-45430-5 |isbn=978-3-662-45429-9 |issn=2363-4979 |s2cid=199492512}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blaikie |first1=Piers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CA8mT0vLFgC |title=At Risk: Natural hazards, people's risk and disasters |last2=Cannon |first2=Terry |last3=Davis |first3=Ian |last4=Wisner |first4=Ben |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415252157 |edition=2nd |location=London |author1-link=Piers Blaikie}}</ref>  Disaster risk reduction decreases the vulnerability of communities by [[Mitigation|mitigating]] effects of disasters, reducing severity and volume of risky events, and promoting improved [[Engineering:Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]].<ref name=":0" /> Since climate change is increasing the severity of hazardous events that can become disasters, DRR and [[Earth:Climate change adaptation|climate change adaptation]] are often associated together in development efforts.<ref name=":14" /> There is potential for disaster risk reduction initiatives in most sectors of development and [[Social:Humanitarian aid|humanitarian work]]. Strategies and implementation can come from community volunteers, local agencies, federal governments, and even international groups such as the United Nations.

The [[Social:Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] is an important international initiative that has helped 123 countries adopt both federal and local DRR strategies as of 2022.<ref name=":13" /> The [[International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction]], on October 13, has helped increase the visibility of DRR and promote a culture of prevention. Some of the main issues and challenges include the importance of communities and local organisations in disaster risk management, governance of disaster risk and how this relates to development, and gender sensitivity of disaster impacts and disaster prevention strategies.

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== Definitions and scope ==
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is defined by United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) as those actions which aim to "prevent new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of [[Sustainable development|sustainable development]]".<ref name=":0">UNGA (2016). [https://www.preventionweb.net/publication/report-open-ended-intergovernmental-expert-working-group-indicators-and-terminology Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction]. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).</ref>{{rp|16}}

[[File:Risk equation.png|thumb|upright=2.2|The ''risk equation'' shows that disaster risk is a product of [[Hazard|hazard]], exposure, and [[Climate change vulnerability|climate change vulnerability]] (where 'x' represents interaction between the components).<ref>Gill, J.C., Duncan, M., Ciurean, R., Smale, L., Stuparu, D., Schlumberger, J, de Ruiter M., Tiggeloven, T., Torresan, S., Gottardo, S., Mysiak, J., Harris, R., Petrescu, E. C., Girard, T., Khazai, B., Claassen, J., Dai, R., Champion, A., Daloz, A. S., ... Ward, P. 2022. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/533237/1/OR22051.pdf MYRIAD-EU D1.2 Handbook of Multi-hazard, Multi-Risk Definitions and Concepts.] H2020 MYRIAD-EU Project, grant agreement number 101003276, pp 75.</ref> ]]

Disaster risk is the potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could impact a society or community. Disaster risk results from the interaction of three factors: [[Hazard|hazard(s)]], [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerability]] and exposure.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|14}} This is illustrated in the ''risk equation''.

Disaster risk reduction is very wide-ranging: Its scope is much broader and deeper than conventional [[Social:Emergency management|emergency management]] and includes objectives that  align with many sectors of development and humanitarian work.

=== Disaster risk management ===
[[File:Disaster Risk Reduction, Lebanon (10692796606).jpg|thumb|Landmines are also a hazard that cause much loss of life and injury. Female de-miners in Lebanon set off to clear landmines.]]
Disaster management thinking and practice since the 1970s has included more focus on understanding why disasters happen. It has also focused on actions that can reduce risk before a disaster occurs. This has put more emphasis on mitigation and preparedness in addition to the response and recovery [[Social:Emergency management#Phases and personal activities|phases of disasters]]. It has been widely embraced by governments, disaster planners and civil society organisations.<ref>§ UN ISDR 2004, ''Living with Risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives'' (Geneva: UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), [http://www.unisdr.org/eng/about_isdr/bd-lwr-2004-eng.htm]</ref>

DRR is such an all-embracing concept that it has proved difficult to define or explain in detail, although the broad idea is clear enough. It is generally understood to mean the broad development and application of policies, strategies and practices to minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout society. Its policy goals and objectives are defined in disaster risk reduction strategies and plans.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|16}}

The term 'disaster risk management' (DRM) is often used in the same context and to mean much the same thing. That is, a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing risks of all kinds associated with hazards and human activities. DRM is more properly applied to the operational aspects of DRR: the practical implementation of DRR initiatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://community.wmo.int/activity-areas/drr |title=Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=n.d. |website=WMO Community Platform |publisher=World Meteorological Organization (WMO) |access-date=May 29, 2022|quote=Disaster risk management (DRM) comprises processes and actions to achieve [DRR] objective[s]}}</ref> In other words, disaster risk reduction is the policy objective of disaster risk management.<ref name=":0" />

=== Resilience ===

Resilience is scientifically defined as the efficiency with which a system can reduce the extent and duration of a disruption. The concept can take two forms: hard and soft resilience. Hard resilience refers to the strength of a structure to withstand pressure, while soft resilience is whether a system can recover from a disruptive event without changing its core function.<ref name=":4">Proag, Virenda (2014). "The concept of vulnerability and resilience". ''Procedia Economics and Finance''. '''18''': 369–376.</ref>

Alternatively, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.”<ref name=":9">United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. (2009). ''2009 UNISDR terminology on disaster risk reduction.'' United Nations.</ref>

=== Vulnerability ===
According to the UNISDR, vulnerabilities are "the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard."<ref name=":9" /> The most vulnerable people or communities are those who have the most difficulties accessing [[Earth:Resource|resource]]s they need to respond to an event.<ref name=":4" />

Vulnerability plays a critical role in the analysis of [[Risk|risk]], as the risk a structure faces is [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportional]] to its level of vulnerability. Risk is often defined by the likelihood of an event occurring and the vulnerability of the community to that event.<ref name=":32">Emanoel Omena Monte, Benício, Joel Avrush Goldenfum, Gean Paulo Miche, and José Rafael de Albuquerque Cavalcanti. January, 2021. “Terminology of natural hazards and disasters: A review and the case of Brazil.” ''International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction'', vol 52.</ref> The more vulnerable the community, the more risk they face.

=== Mitigation ===
[[Mitigation]] is the action taken before an event to reduce any possible negative outcomes or harmful effects.<ref name=":32" /> Natural risk assessments commonly use the term mitigation, while broader climate change reports tend to use [[Social:Adaptive capacity|adaptive capacity]] instead (mitigation holds another definition in the scope of climate change).<ref name=":9" /> Although related, adaptive capacity refers more to the potential to adjust a system, while mitigation is the actual implementation of adjustments.<ref name=":32" />

Mitigation is often used interchangeably with risk reduction, however the terms have a few key differences. Both aim to reduce the number of negative effects of hazards, but risk reduction focuses on reducing the likelihood of the event itself, while mitigation focuses on reducing the impact of the event.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Risk reduction |url=https://www.irmi.com/term/insurance-definitions/risk-reduction |access-date=October 20, 2023 |website=International Risk Management Institute IRMI}}</ref>

Mitigation planning helps local governments lessen the impacts of hazards within their communities.<ref name=":52">{{cite web|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA |year=2023 |title=Local Mitigation Planning Handbook |url=https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_local-mitigation-planning-handbook_052023.pdf}}</ref> No two locations have the same hazard risks and communities know their experiences best; for example, even if a hazard is not recorded in [[Government database|government data]], locals will take note of anything that occurs in their neighborhood. Policymakers can use community input to create more efficient mitigation plans.<ref name=":52" />

=== Sustainable development ===
[[Sustainable development]] was notorious for its "slippery nature" and ambiguities: multiple definitions have led to multiple interpretations in the agenda setting environment.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Elliot |first=J.A. |year=2009 |title=Sustainable Development |work=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography |pages=117–131 |doi=10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00124-3 |isbn=978-0-08-044910-4 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00124-3}}</ref> However in 1987, the Brundtland Report redefined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref name=":72">{{cite web |author=United Nations General Assembly |date=20 March 1987 |title=''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1 |url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |access-date=1 March 2010 |publisher=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> Now, the term has a clearer political interpretation.

Sustainable development balances between [[Finance:Economic development|economic development]], environmental protection, and social well-being. The economic systems aims to improve [[Finance:Economic growth|economic growth]], equity, and [[Physics:Efficiency|efficiency]]; social systems work towards [[Social:Empowerment|empowerment]], social cohesion, and [[Social:Cultural diversity|cultural diversity]]; and the biological/environmental system promotes [[Biology:Genetic diversity|genetic diversity]], [[Finance:Productivity|productivity]], and resilience.<ref name=":1" /> In 2015 the Sustainable Development Goals were adopted as part of the broad intergovernmental agreement on development to 2030. Many of these objectives tie directly into disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development plans often mention DRR.<ref name=":8" />

=== Climate change adaptation ===
See also: [[Earth:Climate change adaptation|Climate change adaptation]]

[[Earth:Climate change|Climate change]], through rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and increasing sea levels, affects the nature of hydro meteorological hazards that can give rise to a [[Earth:Meteorological disasters|disaster.]] Examples of such hazards are [[Earth:Drought|drought]]s, [[Earth:Flood|flood]]s, and [[Physics:Cyclone|cyclone]]s. Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since the 1990s.<ref>Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P. Wester, 2022: Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003.</ref>

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Disaster risks, response and preparedness}}

== Effects of climate change ==
Hazards such as [[Earth:Drought|drought]]s, [[Earth:Flood|flood]]s, and [[Physics:Cyclone|cyclone]]s are naturally occurring phenomena.<ref name=":10">Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P. Wester, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter01.pdf Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, {{doi|10.1017/9781009325844.003.}}</ref> However, [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]] has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. A disaster is a result of a natural hazard impacting a [[Social:Social vulnerability|vulnerable community]]. Poor planning or development or a lack of preparation are human failures which make communities vulnerable to climate hazards.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |date=14 September 2017 |title=Why natural disasters aren't all that natural |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/why-natural-disasters-arent-all-natural |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=www.preventionweb.net |language=en}}</ref>  When the impact of these events becomes too extreme, they are often called disasters. Disasters are defined by their influence on people: if a hazard overwhelms or negatively affects a community, it is considered a disaster.<ref>Zibulewsky, Joseph (April 14, 2001). "Defining disaster: the emergency department perspective". ''National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved October 21, 2023.</ref> As of 2008, there were on average 400 disaster events per year, more than double the amount since the 1980s.<ref name=":14">McBean, Gordon and Caroline Rogers. 2010. “Climate hazards and disasters: the need for capacity building.” ''WIREs Climate Change'' vol 1. 871-884. DOI: 10.1002/wcc.77</ref>

Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences. As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation.<ref name=":6">IPCC, 2023: Sections. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 35-115, doi: 10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647</ref> According to a UN report, 91% of deaths from hazards from 1970 to 2019 occurred in developing countries.<ref name=":7" /> These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.
==International Governance==
[[File:Chennai damage 5.jpg|thumb|Chennai damage after 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake]]
There have been growing calls for greater clarity about components of DRR and about indicators of progress toward resilience — a challenge that the international community took up at the UN's World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Japan, in 2005, only days after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The WCDR began the process of pushing international agencies and national governments beyond the vague rhetoric of most policy statements and toward setting clear targets and commitments for DRR.

=== Hyogo Framework for Action ===
The first step of the WCDR's  process was formally approving the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015) (HFA). The HFA was the first internationally accepted framework for DRR. It set out an ordered sequence of objectives (outcome – strategic goals – priorities), with five priorities for action attempting to 'capture' the main areas of DRR intervention. The UN's biennial Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/GP/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109131347/https://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/GP/|url-status=dead|title=Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction|archivedate=November 9, 2018}}</ref> provided an opportunity for the UN and its member states to review progress against the Hyogo Framework. It held its first session 5–7 June 2007 in [[Place:Geneva|Geneva]], Switzerland, where UNISDR is based. The subsequent Global Platforms were held in June 2009, May 2011 and May 2013, all in [[Place:Geneva|Geneva]].

Subtitled "Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters," the HFA emphasizes how resilience to hazards is needed for community development and planning.<ref name=":5">UNISDR. (2012) ''Towards a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction.'' United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.</ref>

=== Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction ===
The [[Social:Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework]] places the responsibility of reducing disaster risk primarily on federal governments through seven targets divided into two categories: substantial reductions and increases. It aims to reduce disaster mortality, people affected, economic loss, and damage to infrastructure and services. The remaining targets work to increase access to warning systems, aid to developing countries, and the number of countries with disaster risk reduction strategies.<ref name=":2">"What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?" ''United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction''. Retrieved October 12, 2022.</ref> Since the adoption of the [[Social:Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework]] in 2015, the number of countries with national DRR strategies has increased dramatically, from 55 to 123 countries in 2022.<ref name=":13">UNDRR (2023). [https://sendaiframework-mtr.undrr.org/publication/report-midterm-review-implementation-sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030 The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030]. UNDRR: Geneva, Switzerland.</ref>{{rp|22}}

The framework also details four priorities for action to be accomplished by 2030:<ref name=":2" />

# Understanding disaster risk
# Strengthening disaster risk governance
# Investing in disaster risk reduction
# Enhancing disaster preparedness
These priorities acknowledge current shortcomings of DRR efforts, such as the lack of communication between local and federal governments and private programs, as well inequities faced by women and people with disabilities in the realm of disaster response.

==== Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery ====
{{Excerpt|Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery}}

=== International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction ===
The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s an International decade for natural disaster reduction. The United Nations' Secretary-General had been tasked with overseeing research into the relationship between disasters and development, and in 1987 reported that there was room for improvement from the international community.<ref name=":3">United Nations General Assembly Session 42 ''Resolution'' ''169''. ''International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction'' '''A/RES/42/169''' (1987) Retrieved October 18, 2023.</ref> Due to the increasing numbers of international deaths and damages due to climate related hazards, especially in developing countries, the United Nations believed dedicating a decade to the topic would substantially improve policies at local, regional, and federal levels.

The 1987 General Assembly session proposed 5 goals to guide policy efforts:<ref name=":3" />

# Improve the capacity to mitigate effects of natural disasters, especially in developing countries
# Devise plans to apply preexisting knowledge of disasters from diverse perspectives
# Foster programs aimed to close knowledge gaps
# Disseminate information about current measures being applied
# Develop programs to prevent and mitigate disasters specific to each hazard and location
Before the start of the decade in 1989, The General Assembly discussed plans for the decade in more detail and created the International Framework of Action for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.<ref name="UN_ARES442362" /> This framework restates the goals, and adds further guidelines for national governments, the United Nations Systems, and the Secretary-General to follow.

Federal governments were encouraged to participate in the decade, formulate national mitigation programs, create scientific committees, encourage local action, inform the Secretary-General of their actions, increase public awareness, monitor the impact of disasters on [[Medicine:Health care|health care]], and improve availability of emergency supplies.<ref name="UN_ARES442362" /> The proposed role of the United Nations System focused on holding countries accountable for these goals, as well as providing resources or policy plans countries may need for implementation. However, many of the tasks given to the United Nations fall to the Secretary-General.

During the 1990s, there were three Secretary-Generals: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Boutros Boutros-Ghalil, and Koji Annan.<ref>"UN Secretariat Documentation". ''Dag Hammarskjöld Library''. October 4, 2023. Retrieved October 18, 2023.</ref> Over the decade, these secretaries were tasked with establishing and leading a number of committees for the decade, including a scientific and technical committee on the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, a special high-level council to provide general advice and promote awareness, and a secratariat that would handle daily activities and support the other committees.<ref name="UN_ARES442362" /> These groups, as well as leaders of each country, would report their progress to the Secretary-General, who would oversee all progress and report to the General Assembly every two years on the progress of the decade's goals.[[File:Amazing-natural-disasters.jpg|thumb|Different kinds of disasters]]

=== International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction ===
The United Nations General Assembly designated October 13th as the [[International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction]] (IDDRR) to encourage citizens and [[Social:Government|government]]s alike to foster more disaster-resilient communities. The day was created in 1989 as part of the United Nations' proclamation of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Originally, the IDDRR was on the second Wednesday of October and intended to highlight the goals of the decade for disaster reduction.<ref name="UN_ARES442362">{{UN document|docid=A-RES-44-236|type=Resolution|body=General Assembly|session=44|resolution_number=236|accessdate=October 17, 2023|date=22 December 1989|title=International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction}}</ref> In 2009 the day was officially set as October 13, rather than the  second Wednesday of the month.<ref name="A-64-200">{{UN document|docid=A-64-200|type=Resolution|body=General Assembly|session=64|resolution_number=200|accessdate=October 17, 2023|title=International Strategy for Disaster Reduction|date=21 December 2009}}</ref>

The IDDRR supports the themes of the Sendai Framework, especially after the Midterm Review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The 2023 IDDRR, just months after this report, intended to bolster the framework's new plan for accelerated disaster resistance by highlighting inequalities in disaster preparedness. The 2023 IDDRR used the tagline "Fighting Inequality for a Resilient Future" and hashtags #ResilienceForAll, #BreakTheCycle, and #DDRDay to spread awareness on social media.<ref name=":7">{{cite web|publisher=United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction |year=2023 |title=Concept Note: International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction 2023. |accessdate=October 17, 2023 |url=https://www.undrr.org/quick/79692}}</ref>

=== Sustainable Development Goals ===
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a renowned example of sustainability policy. The United Nations adopted these 17 SDGs addressing problems ranging from poverty to education to climate change. The intersectionality between these issues means that each issue can only be solved if development is made to the others as well.<ref name=":8">{{cite web |title=The 17 Goals |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |accessdate=22 October 2023 |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref>

DRR is applicable and relevant to several of the SDGs:

SDG11 (sustainable cities and communities) lists DRR as a ''means of implementation''. Targets 11.5 and 11.B call for more investment into disaster risk resilience strategies and policies, and 11.B aims to assess DRR strategies in accordance with the [[Social:Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=United Nations |title=Issue Brief SDG 11 |work=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25763/SDG11_Brief.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref>

[[Earth:Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG13]] (climate action) also uses DRR as a ''means of implementation''. Target 13.1 aims to strengthen resilience to climate related hazards, and measures the number of local and federal governments who have adopted DRR strategies.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNSD) |year=2022 |title=The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2022: Climate Action |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-13.pdf}}</ref>

Numerous other SDGs also rely on DRR strategies as an interdisciplinary method of achieving their goals. For example, SDG9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) aims to build infrastructure that is resilient to hazards, and SDG1 (end poverty) asserts that many impoverished people have the highest vulnerability to disasters.<ref name=":8" /> DRR implementation has long lasting effects on a wide range of social issues due to these related factors.

==Issues and challenges==

===Communities and their organizations===
Traditional emergency management/civil defense thinking makes two misleading assumptions about communities. First, it sees other forms of social organisation (voluntary and community-based organisations, informal social groupings and families) as irrelevant to emergency action. Spontaneous actions by affected communities or groups (e.g., search and rescue) are viewed as irrelevant or disruptive, because they are not controlled by the authorities. The second assumption is that disasters produce passive 'victims' who are overwhelmed by crisis or dysfunctional behavior (panic, looting, self-seeking activities) and need to be controlled — in some cases, through the imposition of martial law. <ref>§ Quarantelli EL 1998, ''Major Criteria for Judging Disaster Planning and Managing and their Applicability in Developing Societies (University of Delaware: Disaster Research Center'', Preliminary Paper 268).</ref><ref>§ Dynes RR 1994, 'Community Emergency Planning: False Assumptions and Inappropriate Analogies'. ''International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters'' 12(2): 141–158.</ref>

An alternative viewpoint emphasises the importance of communities and local organisations in disaster risk management. In this strategy, local people and organisations are the main actors in risk reduction and disaster response. Community-based disaster risk management responds to local problems and needs, capitalises on local knowledge and expertise, is cost-effective, improves the likelihood of sustainability through genuine 'ownership' of projects, strengthens community technical and organisational capacities, and empowers people by enabling them to tackle these and other challenges.<ref>§ Maskrey A 1989, ''Disaster Mitigation: A Community-Based Approach'' (Oxford: Oxfam).</ref> Understanding the social capital already existent in the community can greatly help reducing the risk at the community level.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aldrich|first1=Daniel P.|last2=Meyer|first2=Michelle A.|title=Social Capital and Community Resilience|journal=American Behavioral Scientist|date=February 2015|volume=59|issue=2|pages=254–269 |doi=10.1177/0002764214550299 |s2cid=145471345}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sanyal|first1=Saswata|last2=Routray|first2=Jayant Kumar|title=Social capital for disaster risk reduction and management with empirical evidences from Sundarbans of India.|journal=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction|date=2016-08-27|volume= 19|pages=101–111|doi=10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.08.010|bibcode=2016IJDRR..19..101S |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895740}}</ref>

Low community involvement can increase the severity of disaster.<ref name=":11">Nahayo, Lamek, Christophe Mupenzi, Alphonse Kayiranga, Fidele Karamage, Felix Ndayisaba, Enan Muhire Nyesheja, and Lanhai Li. “Early Alert and Community Involvement: Approach for Disaster Risk Reduction in Rwanda.” ''Natural hazards (Dordrecht)'' 86, no. 2 (2017): 505–517.</ref> Community volunteers provide crucial resources to recovery efforts, such as access to communication, search and rescue efforts, supply distribution, housing and food provision, and technological assistance.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12">Satizábal, Paula; Cornes, Isabel; de Lourdes Melo Zurita, María; Cook, Brian R. (January 2022). "The power of connection: Navigating the constrains of community engagement for disaster risk reduction". ''International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction''. '''68''' (102699) – via Science Direct.</ref> Government agencies rarely "consider the needs and desires of communities" or ask for community input when implementing their DRR strategies.<ref name=":12" /> A case study in Rwanda showed that only 14.7% of policy utilized "community's traditional knowledge" when creating plans, despite expressed interest from the community.<ref name=":11" />[[File:Disaster-risk-reduction-progress.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Disaster risk reduction progress score for some countries]]
===Governance===
In most countries, [[Risk management|risk management]] is decentralized to local governments. In urban areas, the most widely used tool is the local development plan (municipal, comprehensive or general plan), followed by emergency and risk reduction plans that local governments are required to adopt by law and are updated every 4–5 years. Larger cities prefer stand-alone plans, called, depending on the context, [[Earth:Sustainability|sustainable]], [[Mitigation|mitigation]], or green plans. In rural areas, the mainstreaming of risk reduction policies into municipal (county or district) development plans prevails.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tiepolo |first1=Maurizio |title=Relevance and Quality of Climate Planning for Large and Medium-Sized Cities of the Tropics |series=Green Energy and Technology |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-319-59096-7 |pages=199–226 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-59096-7_10 }}</ref> In many contexts, especially South of the Sahara, this process clashes with the lack of funds or mechanisms for transferring resources from the central to the local budget. Too often plans do not integrate local, scientific and technical knowledge. Finally, they entrust the implementation of policies to individual inhabitants without having fully involved them in the decision-making process. The authentic representativeness of the communities and gender participation in the decision-making process still remain an objective of the local development plans instead of being the way to build them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tiepolo |first1=Maurizio and Braccio, Sarah |title=Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Local Development Plans for Rural Tropical Africa: A Systematic Assessment |journal=Sustainability |date=2020 |volume=12 |issue=2196 |page=2196 |doi=10.3390/su12062196 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Gender ===
Disaster risk is not gender-neutral. Studies have shown that women and girls are disproportionately impacted by disasters. Following the 2004 [[Tsunami|tsunami]] in the [[Earth:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]], 77% and 72% of the deaths in the districts of North Aceh and Aceh Besar, Indonesia, were female. And in India 62% of people who died were female.<ref>Neumayer, E and Plümper, T. (2007) 'The gendered nature of natural disastersL the impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in making disaster risk reduction gender-sensitive: policy and practical guidelines life expectancy 1981–2002', Annals of the Association of American Geographers97(3): 551–566.</ref> This is due to socially-constructed gender roles that determine what norms and behaviors are acceptable for women and men, and girls and boys. In particular, women tend to take responsibility for home-based tasks and can be reluctant to leave their assets in the case of hazard warning; and often do not learn survival skills that can help in disasters, such as learning to swim or climb.

A gender-sensitive approach would identify how disasters affect men, women, boys and girls differently and shape policy that addresses people's specific vulnerabilities, concerns and needs.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Virginie |last1=Le Masson |first2=Lara |last2=Langston |publisher=Overseas Development Institute |date=March 2014 |title=How Should the new international disaster risk framework address gender equality? |url=http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/CDKN_Gender_DRR_PolicyBrief_Final_WEB.pdf}}</ref>

== Cost and financing ==

=== Costs of DRR ===
The economic costs of climate-related disasters are on the rise. Recent global costs have averaged above US$330 billion/year (over 2015-2021).<ref name=":16"> UNDRR (2023). [https://www.undrr.org/publication/report-midterm-review-implementation-sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030 The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.] UNDRR: Geneva, Switzerland.</ref>{{rp|21}}The insurance sector estimated that weather- and climate-related disasters contributed to $165 billion of economic losses worldwide in 2018 and $210 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Natural catastrophes and man-made disasters in 2018: "secondary" perils on the frontline |url=https://www.swissre.com/dam/jcr:c37eb0e4-c0b9-4a9f-9954-3d0bb4339bfd/sigma2_2019_en.pdf |website=SwissRe Institute SIGMA}}</ref> <ref name=":16" />{{rp|50}} These figures are likely to be underestimates because of under-reporting and technical difficulties in estimating losses. Disaster risks are expected to significantly increase in future and may have cascading economic impacts, including on the financial system and repayment of [[Finance:Sovereign default|national debts]].<ref name=":16" />{{rp|49}}

Spending on DRR has proved difficult to quantify for many countries. Global estimates of costs are therefore not available. However an indication of the costs for developing countries is given by the $215 - US$387 billion per year (up to 2030) estimated costs for [[Earth:Climate change adaptation|climate adaptation]]. DRR and climate adaptation share similar goals and strategies and governing entities have similar mandates including advocating for increased finance to address climate risks.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|49}}

DRR activities are part of the national strategies and budget planning in most countries. However the priorities for DRR are often lower than for other development priorities. This has an impact on public sector budget allocations. For many countries, less than 1% of the national budget is available for DRR activities.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|51}} This can lead to an over-reliance on international development funding for some activities, which may not align fully with national priorities and needs. Other barriers include complex application processes and strict eligibility requirements that hamper access to international funding.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|51}}

=== Financing needs and finance flows ===
Only around 90% of international funding for DRR is currently spent on responding to and recovering from disasters, rather than managing their future risks. Most of this funding is spent on the settlements, infrastructure and service development sectors. Moreover, only a very small percentage, around 0.5%, of total international [[Finance:Official development assistance|development aid]] is currently spent on the pre-disaster phase of disaster risk reduction.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|50}} This is despite the finding that every dollar spent on risk reduction saves between $5 and $10 in economic losses from disasters.<ref name="boston.com">[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/03/23/a_needless_toll_of_natural_disasters/ "A Needless Toll of Natural Disasters"], Op-Ed, ''Boston Globe'', 23 March 2006, by Eric Schwartz (UN Secretary General's Deputy Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery</ref> A case study of Niger showed positive cost and benefit results for preparedness spending across 3 different scenarios (from the absolute level of disaster loss, to the potential reduction in disaster loss and the discount rate), estimating that every $1 spent results in $3.25 to $5.31 of benefit.<ref>[http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/7955-dare-prepare-taking-risk-seriously ''Dare to prepare: taking risk seriously''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213230305/http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/7955-dare-prepare-taking-risk-seriously|date=2013-12-13}} Kellett, J. and Peters, K. (2013) Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved 10 December 2013</ref>

The [[Organization:Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery|Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery]] (GFDRR) is a multi-donor partnership supporting low and middle-income countries in managing paired risks of natural hazards and climate change. Between 2007 and 2022, GFDRR provided $890 million in technical assistance, analytics, and capacity building support to more than 157 countries. For example, GFDRR supported Maputo, Mozambique to develop detailed vulnerability maps to inform government funding decisions.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|54}}In 2022, the GFDRR committed $21.1 million in new grants and $3.3 million in additional funds to scale up existing activities.<ref name=":15">GFDRR (2023) [https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gfdrr-annual-report-2022 GFDRR Annual Report 2022]. February 28, 2023</ref> GFDRR also works to mobilise additional funding through the World Bank and other development banks' engagement. It estimates that each dollar of GFDRR financing influences at least 100 dollars in climate resilient development impact.<ref name=":15" />

Innovations in financing DRR include the establishment of risk disclosure initiatives to understand whether companies are managing their exposure to disaster risks. They include regulatory frameworks to incentivise private investments in risk reduction and resilience. There has also been innovation in new financing instruments such as resilience bonds and use of green bonds.<ref name=":16" />{{rp|49}}

== Examples ==

=== Bangladesh ===
Based on the Climate Risk Index,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eckstein |first=David, V. Künzel, L. Schäfer and M. Winges |date=2019 |title=GLOBAL CLIMATE RISK INDEX 2020 Who Suffers Most from Extreme Weather Events? Weather-Related Loss Events in 2018 and 1999 to 2018 |url=https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/20-2-01e%20Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202020_10.pdf |access-date=Nov 27, 2020}}</ref> Bangladesh is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to different types of disasters because of climatic variability, extreme events, high population density, high incidence of poverty and social inequity, poor institutional capacity, inadequate financial resources, and poor infrastructure.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Shaw |first1=Rajib |title=National Perspectives of Disaster Risk Reduction in Bangladesh |date=2013 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54252-0_3 |work=Disaster Risk Reduction Approaches in Bangladesh |pages=45–62 |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Rajib |access-date=2020-11-27 |place=Tokyo |publisher=Springer Japan |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-4-431-54252-0_3 |isbn=978-4-431-54252-0 |last2=Islam |first2=Aminul |last3=Mallick |first3=Fuad |editor2-last=Mallick |editor2-first=Fuad |editor3-last=Islam |editor3-first=Aminul}}</ref> Bangladesh commenced its disaster preparedness following the cyclone of 1991 and has now a comprehensive National Plan for Disaster Management which provides mechanisms at both national and sub-national levels.<ref>Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief: [https://modmr.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/modmr.portal.gov.bd/policies/0a654dce_9456_46ad_b5c4_15ddfd8c4c0d/NPDM(2016-2020)%20-Final.pdf National Plan for Disaster Management (2016-2020)] Building Resilience for Sustainable Human Development</ref>

=== European Union ===
[[File:Panel on Disaster Risk Reduction in the age of Climate Change.jpg|thumb|Panel on Disaster Risk Reduction in the age of Climate Change during a 2012 European Union Development Day]]
In addition to providing funding to humanitarian aid, the European Commission's Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG-ECHO) is in charge of the EU Civil Protection Mechanism <ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Civil Protection Mechanism |url=https://ec.europa.eu/echo/what/civil-protection/mechanism_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310211751/http://ec.europa.eu/echo/what/civil-protection/mechanism_en |archive-date=2015-03-10 |access-date=2021-07-28 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> to coordinate the response to disasters in Europe and beyond and contributes to at least 75% of the transport and/or operational costs of deployments. Established in 2001, the Mechanism fosters cooperation among national civil protection authorities across Europe. Currently 34 countries are members of the Mechanism; all 27 EU Member States in addition to Iceland, {{wipe|Norway}}, Serbia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]] and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Mechanism was set up to enable coordinated assistance from the participating states to victims of natural and man-made disasters in Europe and elsewhere.

=== United States ===
The United States has a government organization designated to address [[Social:Emergency management|emergency management]]. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) created a model to measure hazardous events. This assessment plan, the FEMA model, uses history, vulnerability, maximum threat, and probability of each potential disaster to predict potential damage. Each hazard is then given a rating on the scale using these criteria and comparisons to other hazards to determine the priority of mitigation efforts.<ref>Yanilmaz, Sumeyye; Baskak, Dilber; Yucesan, Melih; Gul, Muhammet (December 2021). "Extension of FEMA and SMUG models with Bayesian best-worst method for disaster risk reduction". ''International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction''. '''66''' (102631) – via Science Direct.</ref>

As of May 2023, FEMA has updated their Local Mitigation Planning Handbook, which provides a framework for local governments to follow in the case of hazardous events. This strategy contains 4 steps: organize resources, assess risks, develop mitigation strategies, and implement plans.<ref name=":52" /> These steps are broad, as they are designed to be applied to a wide variety of hazards. FEMA also has more specific policy plans, such as their Hazard Mitigation Field Book (HMFB) on Roadways. This document focuses on preventing road [[Earth:Erosion|erosion]], [[Earth:Inundation|inundation]], and debris pileup caused by damaged [[Engineering:Culvert|culvert]]s, embankments, and road surfaces. The HMFB uses a project identification diagram to realize each issue and a selection matrix to match that problem with an effective solution using duration, feasibility, design, and environmental considerations.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA |year=2010 |title=Hazard Mitigation Field Handbook: Roadways |url=https://permanent.fdlp.gov/gpo60360/b797_hazmit_handbook.pdf}}</ref>  
{{Excerpt|Federal Emergency Management Agency|Pre-disaster mitigation programs|paragraphs=1,3}}

==See also==
{{Div col|small=no}}
* [[Business continuity planning]]
* Center for Natural Hazards Research
* Disaster response
* [[Social:Emergency management|Emergency management]]
* [[Unsolved:Global catastrophic risk|Global catastrophic risk]]
* International Day for Disaster Reduction
* Natural disaster
* [[Risk management]]
* Vulnerability
* Hazard map
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://pedrr.org/ Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction]
* [http://gcu.edu.pk/DRM_Soci.htm Disaster Risk Management Society, GC University, Lahore.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711185541/http://gcu.edu.pk/DRM_Soci.htm |date=2018-07-11 }}
* [http://www.ADPC.net Asian Disaster Preparedness Center]
* [http://www.fao.org/disasterriskreduction FAO –  Platform for East and Central Africa]
* [http://www.emdat.be EM-DAT: The International Disaster Database]
* [http://www.gfdrr.org Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery]
* [http://www.undrr.org United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction]
* [http://www.preventionweb.net Preventionweb – Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters]
* [http://www.worldbank.org/hazards/ The World Bank, Hazards Management Unit]
* [http://www.unspider.org/ United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Disaster Risk Reduction}}
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]

{{Sourceattribution|Disaster risk reduction}}