View source for Biology:Egyptian vulture

{{Short description|Species of Old World vultures of the genus Neophron}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Egyptian vulture
| image = Egyptian Vulture (18208369344).jpg
| image_caption = Adult ''N. p. percnopterus'' in northern India
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2019 |title=''Neophron percnopterus'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T22695180A154895845 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22695180A154895845.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
| display_parents=2
| genus = Neophron
| parent_authority = Savigny, 1809
| species = percnopterus
| authority = ([[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Biology:10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision_ref = <ref>Gill F, D Donsker & P Rasmussen (Eds). 2020. IOC World Bird List (v10.2).{{doi|10.14344/IOC.ML.10.2}}.</ref>
| subdivision =
* ''N. p. ginginianus'' {{small|(Latham, 1790)}}
* ''N. p. majorensis'' {{small|Donázar et al., 2002}}
* ''N. p. percnopterus'' {{small|(Linnaeus, 1758)}}
| range_map = NeophronMap.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution of the three subspecies
| synonyms = ''Vultur percnopterus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
}}

The '''Egyptian vulture''' ('''''Neophron percnopterus'''''), also called the '''white scavenger vulture''' or '''pharaoh's chicken''', is a small [[Biology:Old World vulture|Old World vulture]] in the monotypic [[Biology:Genus|genus]] '''''Neophron'''''. It is widely distributed from the [[Place:Iberian Peninsula|Iberian Peninsula]], [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]], [[Place:West Asia|West Asia]] and {{wipe|India}}. The contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on [[Earth:Carrion|carrion]] but are opportunistic and will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.

The [[Biology:Tool use by animals#In birds|use of tools is rare in birds]] and apart from the use of a pebble as a hammer, Egyptian vultures also use twigs to roll up wool for use in their nest. Egyptian vultures that breed in the temperate regions migrate south in winter while tropical populations are relatively sedentary. Populations of this species declined in the 20th century and some island populations are endangered by hunting, accidental poisoning, and collision with power lines.

== Taxonomy and systematics ==
The Egyptian vulture was [[Biology:Species description|formally described]] by the Swedish naturalist [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[Biology:10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Biology:Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[Biology:Binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''[[Biology:Vultur|Vultur]]  percnopterus''.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1758|p=87}} The genus ''Neophron'' was created by Jules-César Savigny in the first natural history volume of the ''Description de l'Égypte''' (1809).<ref>{{cite book |author=Savigny, Jules-César Savigny |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41329552 |title=Description de l'Égypte. Tome 1 |year=1809 |page=68 |chapter=Systeme des oiseaux de l'Egypte et de la Syrie|volume=1 }}</ref> The genus ''Neophron'' contains only a single extant species. A few prehistoric species from the [[Earth:Neogene|Neogene]] period in [[Earth:North America|North America]] placed in the genus ''[[Biology:Neophrontops|Neophrontops]]'' (the name meaning "looks like ''Neophron''") are believed to have been very similar to these vultures in lifestyle, but the genetic relationships are unclear.{{sfn|Feduccia|1974|p=}}{{sfn|Hertel|1995|p=}} A fossil species ''Neophron lolis'' has been described from the late Miocene of Spain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sánchez-Marco |first=Antonio |year=2022 |title=Two new Gypaetinae (Accipitridae, Aves) from the late Miocene of Spain |journal=Historical Biology |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=1534–1543 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2022.2053117|s2cid=247605500 |url=https://ddd.uab.cat/record/264387 }}</ref> The genus ''Neophron'' is considered to represent the oldest branch of the vultures which consists of separated (or polyphyletic) clades.{{sfn|Wink|Heidrich|Fentzloff|1996}} Along with its nearest evolutionary relatives, the lammergeier (''Gypaetus barbatus'') and the palm-nut vulture (''[[Biology:Palm-nut vulture|Gypohierax angolensis]]''), they are sometimes placed in a separate subfamily, the [[Biology:Old World vulture|Gypaetinae]].{{sfn|Wink|1995|p=}}{{sfn|Seibold|Helbig|1995|p=}}

===Subspecies===
There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002b|p=}} The nominate subspecies, ''N. p. percnopterus'', with a dark grey bill, has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and north-western India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter.

[[File:Egyptian Vulture N.p.Ginginianus Keoladeo Ghana National Park Bharatpur Rajasthan India 18.02.2013.jpg|thumb|left|''N. p. ginginianus'' in flight, {{wipe|India}}]]

The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies ''N. p. ginginianus'', the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill.{{sfn|Peters|1979|p=304}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} The subspecies name is derived from Gingee in southern India from where the French explorer Pierre Sonnerat described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and it was given a Latin name by John Latham in his ''Index Ornithologicus'' (1790).{{sfn|Jardine|Selby|1826|p=}}{{sfn|Latham|1787|p=7}}

A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, ''N. p. majorensis'' in 2002. Known locally as the ''guirre'' they are genetically more distant from ''N. p. percnopterus'', significantly greater even than ''N. p. ginginianus'' is from ''N. p. percnopterus''. Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and consistently larger in size. The subspecies name ''majorensis'' is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name for the island of [[Earth:Fuerteventura|Fuerteventura]]. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the "Majos", the main native Guanche tribe there.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002b|p=}}{{sfn|Kretzmann|Capote|Gautschi|Godoy|2003|p=}} One study in 2010 suggested that the species established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans.{{sfn|Agudo|Rico|Vilà|Hiraldo|2010|p=}}

Nikolai Zarudny and Härms described a subspecies, ''rubripersonatus'', from Baluchistan in 1902. This was described as having a deeper reddish orange skin{{sfn|Hartert|1920}} on the head and a yellow-tipped dark bill. This has rarely been considered a valid subspecies but the intermediate pattern of bill colouration suggests intermixing of subspecies.{{sfn|Zarudny|Härms|1902|p=}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}}

===Etymology===
The genus name is derived from [[Religion:Greek mythology|Greek mythology]]. Timandra was the mother of Neophron. Aegypius was a friend of Neophron and about the same age. It upset Neophron to know that his mother Timandra was having a love affair with Aegypius. Seeking revenge, Neophron made advances towards Aegypius' mother, Bulis. Neophron succeeded and enticed Bulis into entering the dark chamber where his mother and Aegypius were to meet soon. Neophron then distracted his mother, [[Social:Trickster|tricking]] Aegypius into entering the chamber and sleeping with his own mother Bulis. When Bulis discovered the deception she gouged out the eyes of her son Aegypius before killing herself. Aegypius prayed for revenge and [[Religion:Zeus|Zeus]], on hearing the prayer, changed Aegypius and Neophron into vultures.{{sfn|Grimal|1996|p=}} "Percnopterus" is derived from Greek for "black wings": "περκνός" (''perknos'', meaning "blue-black") and πτερόν (''pteron'', meaning wing).{{sfn|Koenig|1907|p=}}{{sfn|Thompson|1895|p=146}}

== Description ==
[[File:Neophron percnopterus - 01.jpg|thumb|left|Adult ''N. percnopterus'' in captivity showing white plumage.]]

The adult's [[Biology:Plumage|plumage]] is white, with black flight feathers in the wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil. Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white plumage.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}}{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}} It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic colouration.{{sfn|van Overveld|de la Riva|Donázar|2017}} The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The neck feathers are long and form a hackle. The wings are pointed, with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped. The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} The claws are long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed at the base.

The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian ''ginginianus''. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study, particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in ''rubripersonatus''.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}}{{sfn|Whistler|1922}} The facial skin is yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}} Females average slightly larger and are about 10–15% heavier than males.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} The adult plumage is attained only after about five years.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}}
{{Infobox bird| collapsible = yes
| state = collapsed
|pop1=Nominate{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}}
|data1={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|massunit=g
|wingm=470–536
|wingf=460–545
|culmen=31–34
|tailm=220–251
|tailf=240–267
|tarsus=75–87
|weight=1600–2400
}}
|pop2=''ginginianus''{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}}
|data2={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|wingm=393–490
|wingf=455–505
|tarsus=72–85
|tail=228–251
}}
|pop3=''majorensis''{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}
|data3={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|massunit=g
|wing=485–554
|tarsus=73.5–93
|tail=240–285
|weight=1900–2850
}}
}}
The adult Egyptian vulture measures {{convert|47|–|65|cm|in}} from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller ''N. p. ginginianus'' males are about {{convert|47|–|52|cm|in}} long while females are {{convert|52|–|55.5|cm|in}} long.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Birds from Spain weigh about {{convert|1.9|kg|lbs}} while birds of the Canary Island subspecies ''majorensis'', representing a case of [[Biology:Island gigantism|island gigantism]], are heavier with an average weight of {{convert|2.4|kg|lbs}}.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}} The Egyptian vulture is one of the smallest true [[Biology:Old World vulture|Old World vulture]], the only smaller species appears to be the marginally lighter [[Biology:Palm-nut vulture|palm-nut vulture]] (which may be an outlier from other vultures).<ref>Zuberogoitia, I., Zabala, J., Martínez, J. A., Martínez, J. E., & Azkona, A. (2008). ''Effect of human activities on Egyptian vulture breeding success''. Animal Conservation, 11(4), 313-320.</ref><ref name=CRC2>{{cite book |title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses |edition=2nd |editor-first=John B. Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4200-6444-5}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Biology:Hooded vulture|hooded vulture]] is only scarcely larger than the Egyptian species.<ref name=CRC2 />

== Distribution and movements ==
[[File:Neophron percnopterus - Egyptian vulture.jpg|right|thumb|''N. p. percnopterus'' in flight ([[Place:Israel|Israel]]) showing the characteristic wing and tail shape.]]
Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the [[Earth:Old World|Old World]] with their breeding range from southern [[Earth:Europe|Europe]] to northern [[Earth:Africa|Africa]] east to [[Place:Western Asia|western]] and [[Place:South Asia|southern Asia]]. They are rare vagrants in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} They occur mainly on the dry plains and lower hills. In the Himalayas, they go up to about {{convert|2000|m|ft}} in summer. In [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], breeding pairs have been found up to 2,300 meters a.s.l.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|title=Egyptian Vulture in Armenia|year=2017|website=Armenian Bird Census Council|url=http://www.abcc-am.org/egyptian-vulture.html|access-date=2017-03-27|archive-date=2017-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328021153/http://www.abcc-am.org/egyptian-vulture.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in South Africa although they bred in the Transkei region prior to 1923.{{sfn|Mundy|1978|p=}} They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} Like many other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings over water.{{sfn|Yosef|Alon|1997|p=}}{{sfn|Spaar|1997}} Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands of Marettimo and [[Earth:Pantelleria|Pantelleria]] with rare stops on the island country of Malta.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/rather-rare-egyptian-vulture-lands-in-malta.732898 |title='Rather rare' Egyptian vulture lands in Malta |date=3 September 2019 |access-date=2019-09-04 |archive-date=2019-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904155021/https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/rather-rare-egyptian-vulture-lands-in-malta.732898 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Agostini|Premuda|Mellone|Panuccio|2004|p=}} Those that migrate through the [[Place:Iberian Peninsula|Iberian Peninsula]] cross into Africa over the Strait of Gibraltar while others cross further east through the [[Place:Levant|Levant]].{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|Urios|2010|p=}}{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} In summer, some African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been recorded in England,<ref>{{cite news|title=Capture of an Egyptian vulture|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle|date=16 October 1868|page=3|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000225/18681016/004/0003|via={{wipe|British Newspaper Archive}}|access-date=15 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-57483562|title=Isles of Scilly: Egyptian vulture seen in UK for first time in 150 years|publisher=BBC|date=15 June 2021|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615135907/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-57483562|url-status=live}}</ref> Ireland,<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-07-17|title=Egyptian vulture spotted in Ireland for the first time|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-57860608|access-date=2021-07-23|archive-date=2021-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721201935/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-57860608|url-status=live}}</ref> and southern Sweden.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Vår Fågelvärld| volume=37| year=1978| pages=67–68| title=Smutsgam Neophron percnopterus anträffad i Sverige| author=Sandgren, B.| url=http://www.access.ottenby.se/meddelanden/reports/78.pdf| access-date=2016-04-15| archive-date=2016-04-23| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423155420/http://www.access.ottenby.se/meddelanden/reports/78.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

Migrating birds can sometimes cover {{convert|500|km|mi}} in a single day until they reach the southern edge of the Sahara, {{convert|3500|to|5500|km|mi}} from their summer home. Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in the grassland and semi-desert regions of the [[Place:Sahel|Sahel]].{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}

== Behaviour and ecology ==
[[File:NeophronGould.jpg|thumb|Immature (behind) and adult (from John Gould's ''Birds of Europe'')]]
The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a waddling gait.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} They feed on a range of food, including mammal [[Biology:Feces|faeces]] (including those of humans{{sfn|Whistler|1949|p=}}), insects in [[Chemistry:Manure|dung]], carrion, vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals.{{sfn|Prakash|Nanjappa|1988|p=}} When it joins other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the periphery and waits until the larger species leave.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Pairs may also scrounge for food from other vultures, particularly [[Biology:Griffon vulture|griffons]]. Recently fledged young will sometimes fly to other nests, competing with young vultures for food, stealing or even soliciting food from the (unrelated) adults bringing food.{{sfn|van Overveld|Sol|Blanco|Margalida|2021}} Wild rabbits (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') form a significant part of the diet of Spanish vultures.{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to occupy territories close to landfill sites.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Tauler-Ametller, H. |author2= Hernández-Matías, A. | author3= Pretus, J. L.L. |author4= Real, J. | year=2017| title= Landfills determine the distribution of an expanding breeding population of the endangered Egyptian Vulture ''Neophron percnopterus'' | journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=757–768| doi=10.1111/ibi.12495| issue=4}}</ref> Studies suggest that they feed on [[Biology:Ungulate|ungulate]] faeces to obtain [[Biology:Carotenoid|carotenoid]] pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate carotenoid pigments may serve as a [[Biology:Signalling theory|reliable signal]] of fitness.{{sfn|Negro|Grande|Tella|Garrido|2002|p=}}

Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a [[Earth:Carrion|carcass]]. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in flight.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry.{{sfn|Baker|1928}}

Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on cliffs.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or other suitable foraging area. In Spain and Morocco,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Amezian|first1=M.|last2=El Khamlichi|first2=K.|title=Significant population of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus found in Morocco|journal=Ostrich|date=2016|volume=87|issue=1|pages=73–76|doi=10.2989/00306525.2015.1089334|s2cid=85701482}}</ref> summer roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost trees tended to be large dead [[Biology:Pine|pine]]s.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|Tella|1996|p=}}{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1990}} The number of adults at the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost during June.{{sfn|Margalida|Boudet|2003}} Allopreening has been observed in Canarian Egyptian vultures between mated pairs of individuals as well as pairs of unrelated and same-sex individuals, particularly females.{{sfn|van Overveld|Sol|Blanco|Margalida|2021}}

===Breeding===
[[File:Egyptian_vulture_krause.jpg|thumb|150px|Eggs showing colour variation, chromolithographs by Georg Krause]]
The breeding season is in spring.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} During the beginning of the [[Biology:Seasonal breeder#Breeding season|breeding season]], [[Biology:Courtship display|courting]] pairs soar high together and one or both may make steep spiralling or swooping dives.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} The birds are monogamous and [[Philosophy:Pair bond|pair bond]]s may be maintained for more than one breeding season and the same nest sites may be reused each year. The nest is an untidy platform of twigs lined with rags and placed on a cliff ledge,{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1989}} building, or the fork of a large tree. Old nest platforms of eagles may also be taken over.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Nests placed on the ground are rare but have been recorded in subspecies ''N. p. ginginianus'' and ''N. p. majorensis''.{{sfn|Biddulph|1937|p=}}{{sfn|Paynter|1924|p=}}{{sfn|Gangoso|2005|p=}}
[[Biology:Extra-pair copulation|Extra-pair copulation]] with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg laying period.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|Tella|1994|p=}} Females may sometimes associate with two males and all three help in raising the brood.{{sfn|Tella|1993}} The typical clutch consists of two eggs which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black.{{sfn|Baker|1928}} The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} The second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases the likelihood that it will die of starvation.{{sfn|Donázar & Ceballos 1989a|p=}} In cliffs where the nests are located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to neighbouring nests to obtain food.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|1990|p=}} In the Spanish population, young fledge and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days.{{sfn|Donázar & Ceballos 1989b|p=}} Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for at least a month.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents' territory; young birds have been found nearly 500&nbsp;km away from their nest site.{{sfn|Elorriaga|Zuberogoitia|Castillo|Azkona|2009|p=}}{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1990|p=}} One-year-old European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring.{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|Urios|2010|p=}} After migrating back to their breeding areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75 for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds.{{sfn|Grande|Serrano|Tavecchia|Carrete|2009|p=}}[[File:Jielbeaumadier vautour percnoptere bebe 2 mjp paris 2014.jpeg|thumb|right|18-days-old chick.]]

===Tool use===
[[File:Aasgier (48794413228) (detail).jpg|thumb|Egyptian vulture using a stone to crack a large egg.|left|299x299px]]The nominate population, especially in Africa, is known for its use of stones as tools. When a large egg, such as that of an ostrich or bustard, is located, the bird walks up to it with a large pebble held in its bill and tosses the pebble by swinging the neck down over the egg. The operation is repeated until the egg cracks from the blows.{{sfn|van Lawick-Goodall|van Lawick|1966|p=}} They prefer using rounded pebbles to jagged rocks. This behaviour, although believed to have been first reported by Jane Goodall in 1966, was actually already known to Africans and was first reported by J. G. Wood in 1877.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924029284705#page/n411/mode/2up|page=343| title=Wood's Bible Animals.| author=Wood, J.G.|year=1875| publisher=William Garretson & Co.}}</ref>{{sfn|Baxter|Urban|Brown|1969}} However, this has only been reported in Africa and has not been recorded in ''N. p. ginginianus''.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Tests with both hand-reared and wild birds suggest that the behaviour is innate, not learnt by observing other birds, and elicited once they associate eggs with food and have access to pebbles.{{sfn|Thouless|Fanshawe|Bertram|1989|p=}} Their ability to deal with ostrich eggs is utilized by brown-necked ravens which form groups that wait for the eggs to be broken before collectively mobbing the vultures and engaging in [[Biology:Kleptoparasitism|kleptoparasitism]].{{sfn|Yosef|Kabesa|Yosef|2011}} Another case of tool-use described from Bulgaria involves the use of a twig as a tool to roll up and gather strands of wool to use for lining the nest.{{sfn|Stoyanova|Stefanov|Schmutz|2010|p=}} 
{{clear}}

==Threats and conservation==
[[File:Egyptian_vultures.jpg|thumb|left|Migratory and resident vultures at an urban garbage dump site in northwestern India]]
Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls,{{sfn|Tella|Mañosa|1993}} and red foxes.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|1988}} Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators.{{sfn|Mateo|Olea|2007}} Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves.{{sfn|Stoyanova|Stefanov|1993}} Like all birds they serve as hosts for [[Medicine:Ectoparasitic infestation|ectoparasitic]] birdlice including ''Aegypoecus perspicuus''{{sfn|Agarwal|Ahmad|Arya|Saxena|2012}} as well as organisms that live within them such as mycoplasmas.{{sfn|Suárez-Pérez|Ramírez|Rosales|Calabuig|2012}}

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]], populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999.{{sfn|Cuthbert|Green|Ranade|Saravanan|2006|p=}} In 1967–70, the area around [[Place:Delhi|Delhi]] was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.{{sfn|Galushin|2001|p=}}{{sfn|Galushin|1975|p=}} The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the NSAID [[Chemistry:Diclofenac|Diclofenac]], which has been known to cause death in ''[[Biology:Gyps|Gyps]]'' vultures.{{sfn|Cuthbert|Green|Ranade|Saravanan|2006|p=}}

[[File:EgyptianVultureThurston.jpg|thumb|The "sacred pair" at Thirukalukundram in 1906]]
In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities.{{sfn|Liberatori|Penteriani|2001}} In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by accumulation of lead,{{sfn|Cortés-Avizanda|Ceballos|Donázar|2009}} pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of ''Schistocerca gregaria'' locust swarms), and electrocution.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}{{sfn|Hernández|Margalida|2009|p=}}{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|2006}} Windfarms may also pose a threat.{{sfn|Carrete|Sánchez-Zapata|Benítez|Lobón|2009}}{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures.{{sfn|Angelov|Hashim|Oppel|2012}} A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of [[Medicine:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis]] in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations.{{sfn|Hidalgo et al. 2005}}{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} In Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animals as pets has been recorded.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998.{{sfn|Palacios|2000}} The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of [[Earth:La Gomera|La Gomera]], [[Earth:Tenerife|Tenerife]], [[Earth:Gran Canaria|Gran Canaria]], [[Earth:Fuerteventura|Fuerteventura]], and [[Earth:Lanzarote|Lanzarote]]. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}{{sfn|Palacios|2004|p=}} Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the [[Biology:Mineralization|mineralization of their bones]].{{sfn|Gangoso et al. 2009a|p=}} In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity.{{sfn|Cortés-Avizanda|Carrete|Serrano|Donázar|2009|p=}}

== In culture ==
{{Hiero|Egyptian Vulture|<hiero>G1</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of ''rachamah''/''racham'' which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle".{{sfn|Koenig|1907|p=}}{{sfn|Coultas|1876|p=138}}

In Ancient Egypt, several hieroglyphs include the Egyptian vulture including what is listed as G1 in the Gardiner's sign list - {{unichar|1313F}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Quirke, S.G.J.|year=2017|title=The writing of the Birds. Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Before and After the Founding of Alexandria.| journal= Electryone|volume=5| issue=1| pages= 32–43| url= https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10072642/}}</ref> The bird was held sacred to [[Biology:Isis|Isis]] and Mut in ancient Egyptian religion. The use of the vulture as a symbol of royalty in Egyptian culture and their protection by Pharaonic law made the species common on the streets of Egypt and gave rise to the name "pharaoh's chicken".{{sfn|Ingerson|1923|p=34}}{{sfn|Thompson|1895|p=48}}{{sfn|Stratton-Porter|1909|p=182}}{{sfn|Anonymous|1854|p=80}} The habit of coprophagy in Egyptian vultures gives them the Spanish names of "churretero" and "moñiguero", which mean "dung-eater".{{sfn|Negro|Grande|Tella|Garrido|2002|p=}} British sportsmen in colonial India considered them to be among the ugliest birds, and their habit of feeding on faeces was particularly despised.{{sfn|Dewar|1906|p=}} In British India they were known as "shawks" a contraction<ref>{{cite book|author=Partridge, Eric|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|page=4709}}</ref> of shit-hawk.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dewar, Douglas|url=https://archive.org/details/birdsofindianhil00dewa/page/222|title=Birds of the Indian Hills|publisher=John Lane, The Bodley Head|year=1915|place=London|page=222}}</ref> A southern Indian temple at Thirukalukundram near Chengalpattu was famed for a pair of birds that reputedly visited the temple for "centuries". These birds were ceremonially fed by the temple priests and arrived before noon to feed on offerings made from rice, wheat, ghee, and sugar. Although normally punctual, the failure of the birds to turn up was attributed to the presence of "sinners" among the onlookers.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Neelakantan|1977}}{{sfn|Siromoney|1977}} Legend has it the vultures (or "eagles") represented eight sages who were punished by [[Religion:Shiva|Shiva]], with two of them leaving in each of a series of epochs.{{sfn|Pope|1900|p=260}}{{sfn|Thurston|1906|p=252}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Mudaliyar, M.M. Kumarasami |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.27491/page/n22/mode/1up |title=Tirukalukunram (Pakshi-Tirtham) |publisher=The Diocesan Press |year=1923 |pages=14–16}}</ref><!-- made into past tense - no longer happening - see http://www.terrain.org/essays/28/fallon.htm -->

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist
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<!-- BirdConservInt14:203 -->

== External links ==
* [http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob2470.htm BTO BirdFacts – Egyptian Vulture]
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/120.pdf Egyptian Vulture species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
* [http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/SpeciesResults.asp?specID=8353 Egyptian Vulture – Global Raptor Information Network]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010602/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/108_Neophron_percnopterus.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|egyptian-vulture-neophron-percnopterus}}
* {{VIREO|Egyptian+Vulture}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171004140206/http://www.abcc-am.org/ Armenian Bird Census Council]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q33504}}

[[Category:Bird genera]]
[[Category:Tool-using animals]]

{{Sourceattribution|Egyptian vulture}}