View source for Biology:Foxtail millet

{{Short description|Species of grass}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Foxtail millet
|image = Japanese_Foxtail_millet_02.jpg
|image_caption = Immature seedhead
|genus = Setaria
|species = italica
|authority = ([[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L]].) P. Beauvois
|synonyms = See {{Slink||Synonyms}}
|synonyms_ref = 
}}
[[File:Foxtail millet (Setaria italica).jpg|thumb|Foxtail millet (''Setaria italica'') seeds, India.]]
'''Foxtail millet''', scientific name '''''Setaria italica''''' (synonym ''Panicum italicum'' L.), is an annual grass grown for human food. It is the second-most widely planted species of [[Biology:Millet|millet]], and the most grown millet species in Asia. The oldest evidence of foxtail millet cultivation was found along the ancient course of the Yellow River in Cishan, China, carbon dated to be from around 8,000 years before present.<ref>{{citation|title=Earliest domestication of common millet (''Panicum miliaceum'') in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago|author=Houyuan Lu |display-authors=0 |date=2009|url=https://www.pnas.org/content/106/18/7367|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|quote=Our analytical results of both phytoliths and biomolecular components have established that the earliest cereal remains stored in the Cishan Neolithic sites, during ca. 10,300–8,700 cal yr BP, are not foxtail millet, but only common millet. After 8,700 cal yr BP, the grain crops gradually contained 0.4–2.8% foxtail millet .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Alcohol and its Role in the Evolution of Human Society|author=Ian S Hornsey|date=2012|pages=254–256 (chapter 4.7.3)}}</ref><ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> Foxtail millet has also been grown in India since antiquity.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Other names for the species include '''dwarf setaria''', '''foxtail bristle-grass''', '''giant setaria''', '''green foxtail''', '''Italian millet''', '''German millet''', and '''Hungarian millet'''.<ref>{{GRIN | access-date=7 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17 }}</ref>

==Description==
Foxtail millet is an [[Biology:Annual plant|annual]] [[Biology:Poaceae|grass]] with slim, vertical, leafy stems which can reach a height of {{convert|120|-|200|cm|ftin|abbr=on|0}}.

The seedhead is a dense, hairy [[Biology:Panicle|panicle]] {{convert|5|-|30|cm|ftin|abbr=on|0}} long.

The small seeds, around {{convert|2|mm|frac=32}} in diameter, are encased in a thin, papery hull which is easily removed in threshing. Seed color varies greatly between varieties.

<gallery>
File:Food grain foxtail millet.jpg|Seeds of foxtail millet
File:Japanese Foxtail millet 01.jpg|''Mochi-Awa'', Japanese foxtail 
File:কাউন ক্ষেত.jpg|Millet fields in Bangladesh 
</gallery>

==Taxonomy==
Synonyms:<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-442451
|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species
|access-date=7 January 2015}}</ref>
{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*''Alopecurus caudatus'' <small>Thunb.</small>
*''Chaetochloa germanica'' <small>(Mill.) Smyth</small>
*''Chaetochloa italica'' <small>(L.) Scribn.</small>
*''Chamaeraphis italica'' <small>(L.) Kuntze</small>
*''Echinochloa erythrosperma'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small>
*''Echinochloa intermedia'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small>
*''Ixophorus italicus'' <small>(L.) Nash</small>
*''Oplismenus intermedius'' <small>(Hornem.) Kunth</small>
*''Panicum aegyptiacum'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> [[Biology:Validly published name|nom. inval.]]
*''Panicum asiaticum'' <small>Schult. & Schult.f.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum chinense'' <small>Trin.</small>
*''Panicum compactum'' <small>Kit.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum elongatum'' <small>Salisb.</small> nom. illeg.
*''Panicum erythrospermum'' <small>Vahl ex Hornem.</small>
*''Panicum germanicum'' <small>Mill.</small>
*''Panicum germanicum'' <small>Willd.</small> nom. illeg.
*''Panicum globulare'' <small>(J.Presl) Steud.</small>
*''Panicum glomeratum'' <small>Moench</small> nom. illeg.
*''Panicum intermedium'' <small>Vahl ex Hornem.</small>
*''Panicum italicum'' <small>L.</small>
*''Panicum itieri'' <small>(Delile) Steud.</small>
*''Panicum macrochaetum'' <small>(Jacq.) Link</small>
*''Panicum maritimum'' <small>Lam.</small>
*''Panicum melfrugum'' <small>Schult. & Schult.f.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum miliaceum'' <small>Blanco</small> nom. illeg.
*''Panicum moharicum'' <small>(Alef.) E.H.L.Krause</small>
*''Panicum panis'' <small>(Jess.) Jess.</small>
*''Panicum pumilum'' <small>Link</small> nom. illeg.
*''Panicum serotinum'' <small>Trin.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum setaceum'' <small>Trin.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum setosum'' <small>Trin.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum sibiricum'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> nom. inval.
*''Panicum vulgare'' <small>Wallr.</small> nom. illeg.
*''Paspalum germanicum'' <small>(Mill.) Baumg.</small>
*''Penicillaria italica'' <small>(L.) Oken</small>
*''Pennisetum erythrospermum'' <small>(Vahl ex Hornem.) Jacq.</small>
*''Pennisetum germanicum'' <small>(Mill.) Baumg.</small>
*''Pennisetum italicum'' <small>(L.) R.Br.</small>
*''Pennisetum macrochaetum'' <small>J.Jacq.</small>
*''Setaria asiatica'' <small>Rchb.</small> nom. inval.
*''Setaria californica'' <small>Kellogg</small>
*''Setaria compacta'' <small>Schur</small> nom. inval.
*''Setaria erythrosperma'' <small>(Vahl ex Hornem.) Spreng.</small>
*''Setaria erythrosperma'' <small>Hornem. ex Rchb.</small> nom. inval.
*''Setaria flavida'' <small>Hornem. ex Rchb.</small> nom. inval.
*''Setaria germanica'' <small>(Mill.) P.Beauv.</small>
*''Setaria globulare'' <small>J. Presl</small>
*''Setaria globularis'' <small>J.Presl</small>
*''Setaria itieri'' <small>Delile</small>
*''Setaria japonica'' <small>Pynaert</small>
*''Setaria macrochaeta'' <small>(Jacq.) Schult.</small>
*''Setaria maritima'' <small>(Lam.) Roem. & Schult.</small>
*''Setaria melinis'' <small>Link ex Steud.</small>
*''Setaria moharica'' <small>Menabde & Erizin</small>
*''Setaria multiseta'' <small>Dumort.</small>
*''Setaria pachystachya'' <small>Borbás</small> nom. illeg.
*''Setaria panis'' <small>Jess.</small>
*''Setaria persica'' <small>Rchb.</small> nom. inval.
*''Setaria violacea'' <small>Hornem. ex Rchb.</small> nom. inval.
*''Setariopsis italica'' <small>(L.) Samp.</small>
}}

Common names for foxtail millet in other languages spoken in the countries where it is cultivated include:
*{{lang-as|কণী ধান}} ({{lang|as-Latn|koni dhaan}})
*{{lang-bn|কাওন দানা}} ({{lang|bn-Latn|kaon dana}})
*{{lang-hi|कांगणी}} ({{lang|hi-Latn|Kangni}})
*{{lang-ka|ღომი}} (''ghomi'')
*{{lang-xmf|ღუმუ}} (''ghum<nowiki>'</nowiki>'') or ჩხვერი (''chkhver<nowiki>'</nowiki>'')
*{{lang-gu|kang|script=Latn}}
*Gurung : ''Tohro'' 
*{{lang-ja|awa|script=Latn}} ({{lang|ja|粟}})
*{{lang-jv|jawawut|script=Latn}} <!--({{lang|jv|}}) --><ref>{{cite web |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/ch159.pdf |title= Chapter 15. Indic Transformation: The Sanskritization of Jawa and the Javanization of the Bharata | last=Supomno | first= S | website = The Austronesians - ANU Press | publisher = ANU Press| page=331 | access-date= 5 Dec 2021}}</ref> 
*{{lang-kn|ನವಣೆ}} ({{lang|kn-Latn|navane}}) or {{lang|kn|ನವಣಕ್ಕಿ}} ({{lang|kn-Latn|navanakki}})
*{{lang-ko|jo|script=Latn}} ({{lang|ko|조}}). The grain obtained from it is called ''jopsal'' (좁쌀), a word that is commonly used in Korean as a metaphor for pettiness or innumerable small things (such as bumps of a skin rash)
*{{lang-ms | sekoi}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Cari1?keyword=sekoi |title= Carian Umum - Sekoi |last= |first= |date= |website= Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu - PRPM|publisher= Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka - DBP|access-date= 5 Dec 2021}}</ref> jawawut<ref>{{cite web |url=https://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Cari1?keyword=jawawut |title= Carian Umum - Jawawut| website= Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu - PRPM|publisher=[[Organization:Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka|Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka]] - DBP|access-date= 5 Dec 2021}}</ref> 
*{{lang-ml|തിന (thina)|script=Latn}}
*[[Social:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]]: ''su'' (粟). Also called ''xiǎomǐ'' (小米), which is the term commonly used for the grain after it has been husked (husks have been removed); unhusked grain is called ''guzi'' (穀子) in Northern China.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEaiOk7HdqsC&pg=PA93 |title=Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s-1990s |author= Lillian M. Li | pages=93–94 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year= 2010 |isbn=978-0804771818 }}</ref>
*{{lang-mr|kang|script=Latn}} or {{lang|mr-Latn|rala}} ({{lang|mr|राळं}})
*Mising: ''Anyak''
*{{lang-ne|Kaguno|script=Latn}}
*{{lang-or|କଙ୍ଗୁ}} ({{lang|or-Latn|kaṅgu}}) or {{lang|or|ଟାଙ୍ଗଣ}} ({{lang|or-Latn|ṭāṅgaṇa}})
*{{lang-pa|ਕਂਗਣੀ}}/{{lang|pa-Aran|کنگنی}} ({{lang|pa-Latn|Kangni}})
*{{lang-ru|mogara|script=Latn}} ({{lang|ru|могара}}) or ''chumiza'' ({{lang|ru|чумиза}})
*{{lang-sa|प्रियङ्गुः}} ({{lang|sa-Latn|priyangu}}) or {{lang|kn|कङ्गुः}} ({{lang|sa-Latn|kangu}})<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqlRAAAAcAAJ&q=monier+williams+sanskrit+english+dictionary&pg=PA1 |title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages.|author= Monier Williams|year= 1899 }}</ref>
*{{lang-si|thana haal|script=Latn}}
*{{lang-ta|தினை}} ({{lang|ta-Latn|thinai}}), {{lang|ta|இறடி}} ({{lang|ta-Latn|iradi}}), {{lang|ta|ஏனல்}} ({{lang|ta-Latn|enal}}), {{lang|ta|கங்கு}} ({{lang|ta-Latn|kangu}}), {{lang|ta|கவலை}} {{lang|ta-Latn|kavalai}}, or {{lang|ta-Latn|kambankorai}}; {{lang|ta-Latn|nuvanam}} (millet flour). The gruel made from millet, the staple of Ancient Tamils, is called {{lang|ta-Latn|kali}}, {{lang|ta-Latn|moddak kali}}, {{lang|ta-Latn|kuul}}, or {{lang|ta-Latn|sangati}}
*{{lang-te|కొర్రలు}} ({{lang|te|korralu}} or {{lang|te|korra}})
*Karbi: ''Hanjangmilen
== Cultivation ==
In India, foxtail millet is still an important crop in its arid and semi-arid regions.<ref name="DiaoJia2017">{{cite book |last1=Diao |first1=Xianmin |title=Genetics and Genomics of Setaria |last2=Jia |first2=Guanqing |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Doust |editor2=Xianmin Diao|volume=19 |year=2017 |pages=61–72 |issn=2363-9601 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45105-3_4 |chapter=Origin and Domestication of Foxtail Millet |series=Plant Genetics and Genomics: Crops and Models |isbn=978-3-319-45103-9}}</ref> In South India, it has been a staple diet among people for a long time from the [[History:Sangam period|Sangam period]]. It is referred to often in old [[Social:Tamil language|Tamil]] texts and is commonly associated with Lord Muruga and his consort [[Religion:Valli|Valli]]. 

In Karbi Anglong district of Assam, India, millets have been an integral part of the food system of the Karbis as well as the Jhum fields. Hanjangmilen, Karbi name of foxtail millets have been visible in the Jhum fields in the past. But today it is hardly visible in the Jhum fields. But farmers are now bringing the traditional crop back into their food system which needs little water, grows well on poor soil, is fast-growing and suffers from very few diseases.

In China, foxtail millet was the main staple food in the north before Sung Dynasty, when wheat started to become the main staple food. It is still the most common millet and one of the main food crops in the dry northern part of the country, especially among the poor. In Southeast Asia, foxtail millet is commonly cultivated in its dry, upland regions.<ref name="Castillo 2010"/> In Europe and North America it is planted at a moderate scale for hay and silage, and to a more limited extent for birdseed.

In the northern {{wipe|Philippines}}, foxtail millet was once an important staple crop, until its later replacement by wet-rice and sweet potato cultivation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sheahan|first1=C.M|title=Plant guide for foxtail millet (''Setaria italica'')|url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_seit.pdf|publisher=USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cape May Plant Materials Center|access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref>

It is a warm season crop, typically planted in late spring. Harvest for hay or silage can be made in 65–70 days with a typical yield of {{convert|15,000–20,000|kg/ha|ST/acre}} of green matter or {{convert|3,000–4,000|kg/ha|ST/acre}} of hay. Harvest for [[Biology:Cereal|grain]] is in 75–90 days with a typical yield of {{convert|800–900|kg/ha|ST/acre}} of grain. Its early maturity and efficient use of available water make it suitable for raising in dry areas.

==Pests==
Diseases of foxtail millet include leaf and head blast disease caused by ''[[Biology:Magnaporthe grisea|Magnaporthe grisea]]'', [[Biology:Smut (fungus)|smut]] disease caused by ''Ustilago crameri'', and green ear caused by ''[[Biology:Sclerospora graminicola|Sclerospora graminicola]]''. The unharvested crop is also susceptible to attack by [[Biology:Bird|bird]]s and [[Biology:Rodent|rodent]]s. Insect pests include ''[[Biology:Atherigona atripalpis|Atherigona atripalpis]]'', the foxtail millet shoot fly.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128042434/insect-pests-of-millets|title=Insect Pests of Millets: Systematics, Bionomics, and Management|year=2017|first1=A.|last1=Kalaisekar|first2=P.G.|last2=Padmaja|first3=V.R.|last3=Bhagwat|first4=J.V.|last4=Patil|publisher=[[Company:Academic Press|Academic Press]] (AP)|isbn=978-0-12-804243-4}}</ref>

===Insects===
Insect pests include:<ref>{{cite book|last=Kalaisekar|first=A|title=Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management|publisher=Elsevier|publication-place=London|year=2017|isbn=978-0-12-804243-4|oclc=967265246}}</ref>

*shoot fly ''[[Biology:Atherigona atripalpis|Atherigona atripalpis]]'' (major pest)
*''[[Biology:Atherigona approximata|A. approximata]]'', ''[[Biology:Atherigona pulla|A. pulla]]'', ''Atherigona punctata}A. punctata'', and ''[[Biology:Atherigona biseta|A. biseta]]''
*cutworm ''[[Biology:Agrotis ipsilon|Agrotis ipsilon]]''
*stem borer ''[[Biology:Chilo partellus|Chilo partellus]]''
*pink borer, ''[[Biology:Sesamia inferens|Sesamia inferens]]''
*corn borer, ''[[Biology:Ostrinia furnacalis|Ostrinia furnacalis]]''

;Leaf feeders
*armyworms, ''Mythimna separata'', ''[[Biology:Spodoptera frugiperda|Spodoptera frugiperda]]'', and ''[[Biology:Spodoptera litura|S. litura]]''
*leaf-feeding caterpillars ''[[Biology:Amsacta albistriga|Amsacta albistriga]]'', ''A. moorei'' and ''A. lactinea''
*ash weevil ''[[Biology:Myllocerus undecimpustulatus|Myllocerus undecimpustulatus]] maculosus''
*leaf beetle ''Oulema melanopus''
*flea beetle ''Chaetocnema basalis''
*leaf folder ''[[Biology:Cnaphalocrocis medinalis|Cnaphalocrocis medinalis]]''
*leaf roller ''[[Biology:Cnaphalocrocis patnalis|Cnaphalocrocis patnalis]]''
*surface grasshopper ''[[Biology:Chrotogonus hemipterus|Chrotogonus hemipterus]]''
*grasshopper ''[[Biology:Conocephalus maculatus|Conocephalus maculatus]]''

;Earhead feeders
*green bug ''[[Biology:Nezara viridula|Nezara viridula]]''

;Others
*bugs, ''[[Biology:Cletus punctiger|Cletus punctiger]]'', ''[[Biology:Dolycoris indicus|Dolycoris indicus]]'', and ''[[Biology:Nephotettix virescens|Nephotettix virescens]]''
*aphid ''[[Biology:Melanaphis sacchari|Melanaphis sacchari]]''
*sugarcane leafhopper ''[[Biology:Pyrilla perpusilla|Pyrilla perpusilla]]''

==History and domestication==
The [[Biology:Crop wild relative|wild ancestor]] of foxtail millet has been securely identified as ''[[Biology:Setaria viridis|Setaria viridis]]'', which is interfertile with foxtail millet; wild or weedy forms of foxtail millet also exist. Zohary and Hopf note that the primary difference between the wild and cultivated forms is "their seed dispersal biology. Wild and weedy forms [[Biology:Shattering (agriculture)|shatter]] their seed while the cultivars retain them."<ref name="zohary-hopf">{{cite book |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World |editor-first1=Daniel |editor-last1=Zohary |editor-first2=Maria |editor-last2=Hopf |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] (OUP)|year=2000|isbn= 978-0198503569|pages=86–88}}</ref> The [[Biology:Reference genome|reference genome]] for foxtail millet was completed in 2012.<ref name="DiaoJia2017"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Gengyun|last2=Liu|first2=Xin|last3=Quan|first3=Zhiwu|last4=Cheng|first4=Shifeng|last5=Xu|first5=Xun|last6=Pan|first6=Shengkai|last7=Xie|first7=Min|last8=Zeng|first8=Peng|last9=Yue|first9=Zhen|last10=Wang|first10=Wenliang|last11=Tao|first11=Ye|last12=Bian|first12=Chao|last13=Han|first13=Changlei|last14=Xia|first14=Qiuju|last15=Peng|first15=Xiaohua|last16=Cao|first16=Rui|last17=Yang|first17=Xinhua|last18=Zhan|first18=Dongliang|last19=Hu|first19=Jingchu|last20=Zhang|first20=Yinxin|last21=Li|first21=Henan|last22=Li|first22=Hua|last23=Li|first23=Ning|last24=Wang|first24=Junyi|last25=Wang|first25=Chanchan|last26=Wang|first26=Renyi|last27=Guo|first27=Tao|last28=Cai|first28=Yanjie|last29=Liu|first29=Chengzhang|last30=Xiang|first30=Haitao|last31=Shi|first31=Qiuxiang|last32=Huang|first32=Ping|last33=Chen|first33=Qingchun|last34=Li|first34=Yingrui|last35=Wang|first35=Jun|last36=Zhao|first36=Zhihai|last37=Wang|first37=Jian|display-authors=3|title=Genome sequence of foxtail millet (''Setaria italica'') provides insights into grass evolution and biofuel potential|journal=[[Engineering:Nature Biotechnology|Nature Biotechnology]]|volume=30|issue=6|year=2012|pages=549–554|issn=1087-0156|doi=10.1038/nbt.2195|pmid=22580950|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bennetzen|first1=Jeffrey L|last2=Schmutz|first2=Jeremy|last3=Wang|first3=Hao|last4=Percifield|first4=Ryan|last5=Hawkins|first5=Jennifer|last6=Pontaroli|first6=Ana C|last7=Estep|first7=Matt|last8=Feng|first8=Liang|last9=Vaughn|first9=Justin N|last10=Grimwood|first10=Jane|last11=Jenkins|first11=Jerry|last12=Barry|first12=Kerrie|last13=Lindquist|first13=Erika|last14=Hellsten|first14=Uffe|last15=Deshpande|first15=Shweta|last16=Wang|first16=Xuewen|last17=Wu|first17=Xiaomei|last18=Mitros|first18=Therese|last19=Triplett|first19=Jimmy|last20=Yang|first20=Xiaohan|last21=Ye|first21=Chu-Yu|last22=Mauro-Herrera|first22=Margarita|last23=Wang|first23=Lin|last24=Li|first24=Pinghua|last25=Sharma|first25=Manoj|last26=Sharma|first26=Rita|last27=Ronald|first27=Pamela C|last28=Panaud|first28=Olivier|last29=Kellogg|first29=Elizabeth A|last30=Brutnell|first30=Thomas P|last31=Doust|first31=Andrew N|last32=Tuskan|first32=Gerald A|last33=Rokhsar|first33=Daniel|last34=Devos|first34=Katrien M|display-authors=3|title=Reference genome sequence of the model plant ''Setaria''|journal=[[Engineering:Nature Biotechnology|Nature Biotechnology]]|volume=30|issue=6|year=2012|pages=555–561|issn=1087-0156|doi=10.1038/nbt.2196|pmid=22580951|s2cid=4003879|url=https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt2rv1r405/qt2rv1r405.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> Genetic comparisons also confirm that ''S. viridis'' is the antecedent of ''S. italica''.<ref name="DiaoJia2017"/>

The earliest evidence of the cultivation of this grain comes from the Peiligang culture of China, which also cultivated ''[[Biology:Panicum miliaceum|Panicum miliaceum]]'', but foxtail millet became the predominant grain only with the Yangshao culture.<ref name="zohary-hopf"/> More recently, the Cishan culture of China has been identified as the earliest to domesticate foxtail millet around 6500–5500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stevens|first1=C. J.|last2=Murphy|first2=C.|last3=Roberts|first3=R.|last4=Lucas|first4=L.|last5=Silva|first5=F.|last6=Fuller|first6=D. Q.|display-authors=3|title=Between China and South Asia: A Middle Asian corridor of crop dispersal and agricultural innovation in the Bronze Age|journal=The Holocene|volume=26|issue=10|year=2016|pages=1541–1555|issn=0959-6836|doi=10.1177/0959683616650268|pmid=27942165|pmc=5125436|bibcode=2016Holoc..26.1541S}}</ref><ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009">{{cite journal | last1=Purugganan | first1=Michael D. | last2=Fuller | first2=Dorian Q. | title=The nature of selection during plant domestication | journal=Nature | publisher=[[Company:Nature Research|Nature Research]] | volume=457 | issue=7231 | year=2009 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/nature07895 | pages=843–848| pmid=19212403 | bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P | s2cid=205216444 }}</ref>

The earliest evidence for foxtail millet cultivation outside of its native distribution is at Chengtoushan in the Middle Yangtze River region, dating to around 4000 BC.<ref name="Castillo 2010"/> In southern China, foxtail millet reached the Chengdu Plain (Baodun) at around 2700 BC<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guedes |first1=Jade d'Alpoim |s2cid=55279328 |display-authors=0 |title=Site of Baodun yields earliest evidence for the spread of rice and foxtail millet agriculture to south-west China |journal=Antiquity |year=2013 |volume=87 |issue=337 |pages=758–771 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00049449}}</ref> and Guangxi (near the Vietnamese border) at around 3000 BC.<ref name="Castillo 2010"/> Foxtail millet also reached Taiwan (Nankuanli, Dapenkeng culture) at around 2800 BC<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellwood|first1=Peter|title=The Checkered Prehistory of Rice Movement Southwards as a Domesticated Cereal—from the Yangzi to the Equator|journal=Rice|date=2011|volume=4|issue=93|pages=93–103|doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9068-9|doi-access=free|hdl=1885/58842|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and the [[Place:Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan Plateau]] (Karuo) at around 3000 BC.<ref name="Castillo 2010">{{cite book|last1=Castillo|first1=Cristina|editor1-last=Bellina|editor1-first=Bérénice|title=50 Years of Archaeology in Southeast Asia|date=2010|isbn=978-6167339023|chapter=Still too fragmentary and dependent upon chance? Advances in the study of early Southeast Asian archaeobotany}}</ref>

Foxtail millet likely reached Southeast Asia via multiple routes.<ref name="Castillo 2010"/> The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in Southeast Asia comes from various sites in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley in central Thailand, with the site at Non Pa Wai providing the earliest date with direct [[Physics:Radiocarbon dating#Accelerator mass spectrometry|AMS dating]] to around 2300 BC.<ref name="Castillo 2010"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weber|first1=Steve|title=Rice or millets: early farming strategies in prehistoric central Thailand|journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences|volume=2|issue=2|pages=79–88|date=2010|doi=10.1007/s12520-010-0030-3|s2cid=140535295}}</ref>

The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in East Siberia comes from the archaeological site at Krounovka 1 in Primorsky Krai, dating to around 3620–3370 BC.<ref name="DiaoJia2017"/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Kuzmin | first=Yaroslav V. | title=The beginnings of prehistoric agriculture in the Russian Far East: Current evidence and concepts | journal=Documenta Praehistorica | volume=40 | year=2013 | pages=1–12 | doi=10.4312/dp.40.1|url=http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/DocumentaPraehistorica/article/viewFile/40.1/793| doi-access=free }}</ref> The earliest direct evidence for foxtail millet in Korea come from Dongsam-dong Shell Midden, a Jeulmun site in southern Korea, with a direct AMS date of around 3,360 BC.<ref name="DiaoJia2017"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Crawford|first1=Gary W.|last2=Lee|first2=Gyoung-Ah|title=Agricultural origins in the Korean Peninsula|journal=Antiquity|volume=77|issue=295|year=2015|pages=87–95|issn=0003-598X|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00061378|s2cid=163060564 }}</ref> In Japan, the earliest evidence for foxtail millet comes from the Jōmon site at Usujiri in Hokkaido, dating to around 4,000 [[Earth:Before Present|BP]].<ref name="DiaoJia2017"/>

Foxtail millet arrived in Europe later; carbonized seeds first appear in the second millennium BC in central Europe. The earliest definite evidence for its cultivation in the Near East is at the [[History:Iron Age|Iron Age]] levels at Tille Hoyuk in [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]], with an uncorrected radiocarbon date of about 600 BC.<ref name="zohary-hopf"/>

===Agronomic genetics===
As with some other [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]]s the ''waxy'' gene contributes to glutinousness.<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> The wild relative ''[[Biology:Setaria viridis|Setaria viridis]]'' provides [[Biology:Genetic resources|genetic resources]] useful for foxtail breeding.<ref name="Genome">{{cite journal | issue=4 | year=2022 | last1=Sun | first1=Yanqing | last2=Shang | first2=Lianguang | last3=Zhu | first3=Qian-Hao | last4=Fan | first4=Longjiang | last5=Guo | first5=Longbiao | volume=27 | pages=391–401 | journal=Trends in Plant Science | issn=1360-1385 | s2cid=244081566 | pmid=34782248 | doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2021.10.006 | title=Twenty years of plant genome sequencing: achievements and challenges}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | year=2020 | issue=10| display-authors=3 | last1=Mamidi | first1=Sujan | last2=Healey | first2=Adam | last3=Huang | first3=Pu | last4=Grimwood | first4=Jane | last5=Jenkins | first5=Jerry | last6=Barry | first6=Kerrie | last7=Sreedasyam | first7=Avinash | last8=Shu | first8=Shengqiang | last9=Lovell | first9=John T. | last10=Feldman | first10=Maximilian | last11=Wu | first11=Jinxia | last12=Yu | first12=Yunqing | last13=Chen | first13=Cindy | last14=Johnson | first14=Jenifer | last15=Sakakibara | first15=Hitoshi | last16=Kiba | first16=Takatoshi | last17=Sakurai | first17=Tetsuya | last18=Tavares | first18=Rachel | last19=Nusinow | first19=Dmitri A. | last20=Baxter | first20=Ivan | last21=Schmutz | first21=Jeremy | last22=Brutnell | first22=Thomas P. | last23=Kellogg | first23=Elizabeth A. | volume=38 | journal=[[Engineering:Nature Biotechnology|Nature Biotechnology]] | issn=1087-0156 | pages=1203–1210 | s2cid=222151529 | doi=10.1038/s41587-020-0681-2 | title=A genome resource for green millet ''Setaria viridis'' enables discovery of agronomically valuable loci| pmid=33020633 | pmc=7536120 }}</ref>

One study found that – for the rabi crop in Tamil Nadu – breeding for foxtail [[Earth:Crop yield|yield]] should begin from [[Biology:Germplasm|germplasm]] with the most productive [[Biology:Tiller (botany)|tiller]]s, medium [[Biology:Panicle|panicle]] length and medium duration.<ref>{{Cite journal|issue=3|year=2012|volume=33|pages=328–343|last1=Lata|first1=Charu|last2=Gupta|first2=Sarika|last3=Prasad|first3=Manoj|journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology|issn=0738-8551|title=Foxtail millet: a model crop for genetic and genomic studies in bioenergy grasses|doi=10.3109/07388551.2012.716809}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|issue=1|year=2022|publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC|volume=99|pages=25–34|last1=Ingle|first1=Krishnananda P.|last2=Suprasanna|first2=P|last3=Narkhede|first3=Gopal Wasudeo|last4=Ceasar|first4=Antony|last5=Abdi|first5=Gholamreza|last6=Raina|first6=Aamir|last7=Moharil|first7=M. P.|last8=Singh|first8=Atul|journal=Plant Growth Regulation|issn=0167-6903|title=Biofortified foxtail millet: towards a more nourishing future|doi=10.1007/s10725-022-00900-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|volume=1|issue=2|year=2010|pages=140–147|first1=A.|last1=Nirmalakumari|first2=Mani|last2=Vetriventhan|journal=Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding|issn=0975-928X|s2cid=82737674|title=Characterization of foxtail millet germplasm collections for yield contributing traits}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html Alternative Field Crops Manual: Millets]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q161211}}

[[Category:Millets]]
[[Category:Setaria]]
[[Category:Cereals]]

{{Sourceattribution|Foxtail millet}}