View source for Biology:Genographic Project

{{Short description|Citizen science project}}

[[File:Natgeologo.svg|thumb|right|{{center|'''Genographic Project'''}}]]
{{genetic genealogy}}
The '''Genographic Project''', launched on 13 April 2005 by the [[Organization:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]] and [[Company:IBM|IBM]], was a [[Biology:Molecular anthropology|genetic anthropological]] study (sales discontinued on 31 May 2019) that aimed to map historical human migrations patterns by collecting and analyzing [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] samples.<ref name="ResponsibleGenographics">{{cite web |url=http://www.gene-watch.org/programs/privacy/ResponsibleGenographics.html |title=Council for Responsible Genetics |access-date=16 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516054252/http://www.gene-watch.org/programs/privacy/ResponsibleGenographics.html |archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref> The final phase of the project was Geno 2.0 Next Generation.<ref name="Geno 2.0">{{cite web |title=Geno 2.0 Next Generation |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122064832/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/about/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 January 2013 |website=National Geographic |access-date=28 June 2018 |date=28 June 2018}}</ref> Upon retirement of the site, 1,006,542 participants in over 140 countries had joined the project.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

== Project history ==
=== Beginnings ===
Created and led by project director Spencer Wells in 2005, the Genographic Project was a privately funded, not-for-profit collaboration between the [[Organization:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]], [[Company:IBM|IBM]] and the Waitt Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ocean Protection Funding |url=https://www.waittfoundation.org |website=Waitt Foundation |access-date=25 January 2022 |location=La Jolla, California |language=en}}</ref> Field researchers at eleven regional centers around the world began by collecting DNA samples from indigenous populations. Since the fall of 2015, the Project was led by Miguel Vilar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Miguel Vilar is the 29th Speaker in UOG Presidential Lecture Series |url=https://www.uog.edu/news-announcements-migrated/dr-miguel-vilar-is-the-29th-speaker-in-uog-presidential-lecture-series.php |access-date=10 May 2022 |website=University of Guam}}</ref>

In fall 2012, the Genographic Project announced the completion of a new [[Biology:Genotyping|genotyping]] array, dedicated to [[Biology:Molecular anthropology|genetic anthropology]], called ''GenoChip''. GenoChip is specifically designed for anthropological testing and includes SNPs from autosomal DNA, [[Biology:X chromosome|X-chromosome]] DNA, [[Biology:Y chromosome|Y-chromosome]] DNA and [[Biology:Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA). The design of the new chip was a collaborative effort between Wells of National Geographic, [[Biography:Eran Elhaik|Eran Elhaik]] of [[Organization:Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Company:Family Tree DNA|Family Tree DNA]], and [[Company:Illumina|Illumina]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The GenoChip: A New Tool for Genetic Anthropology |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=9 May 2013 |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=1021–1031 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evt066 |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/5/5/1021/611342?login=false |access-date=28 June 2018 |doi-access=free |last1=Elhaik |first1=Eran |last2=Greenspan |first2=Elliott |last3=Staats |first3=Sean |last4=Krahn |first4=Thomas |last5=Tyler-Smith |first5=Chris |last6=Xue |first6=Yali |last7=Tofanelli |first7=Sergio |last8=Francalacci |first8=Paolo |last9=Cucca |first9=Francesco |last10=Pagani |first10=Luca |last11=Jin |first11=Li |last12=Li |first12=Hui |last13=Schurr |first13=Theodore G. |last14=Greenspan |first14=Bennett |last15=Spencer Wells |first15=R. |pmid=23666864 |pmc=3673633}}</ref>

In the fall of 2015, a new chip was designed as a joint effort between Vilar, Genographic Lead Scientist, and Family Tree DNA.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

In the spring of 2019, it was announced that the Geno project had ended but results would remain available online until 2020. In July 2020 the site was retired.

=== Geno 2.0 ===
[[File:Phylogeny of mtDNA Haplogroups.png|thumb|200px|Phylogeny of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups]]The autosomal admixture analysis developed by Wells and Elhaik classifies individuals by assessing their proportions of genomic ancestry related to nine ancestral regions: East Asian, Mediterranean, Southern African, Southwest Asian, Oceanian, Southeast Asian, Northern European, [[Place:Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]]n and Native American.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who Am I: Regions Overview |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/regions/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030185819/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/regions/ |archive-date=30 October 2014 |access-date=30 November 2022}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
!style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="center" | Population!![[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]!![[Place:Northern Europe|Northern Europe]]an!![[Place:Western Asia|Southwest Asian]]!![[Place:Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]]n!![[Place:Southern Africa|Southern Africa]]n!![[Place:East Asia|East Asia]]n!![[Place:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]n!!Native American!![[Earth:Oceania|Oceania]]n!!Total
|-
| Altaian||2||17||22||||||53||||4||||98
|-
| Amerindian (Mexico)||4||5||3||||||4||||83||||99
|-
| Bermudian||15||20||7||48||3||||7||4||||100
|-
| British||33||50||17||||||||||||||100
|-
| Bulgarian||47||31||20||||||2||||||||100
|-
| Chinese||||||||||||72||28||||||100
|-
| Danish||30||53||16||||||||||||||99
|-
| Dominican||29||11||1||47||1||1||1||4||||95
|-
| Eastern Indian||2||2||43||||||||50||||2||99
|-
| Egyptian||65||||18||14||||||||||||97
|-
| Finnish||17||57||17||||||7||||||||98
|-
| Georgian||61||7||31||||||||||||||99
|-
| German||36||46||17||||||||||||||99
|-
| Greek||54||28||17||||||||||||||99
|-
| Iberian||48||37||13||||||||||||||98
|-
| Iranian||42||8||42||||||5||||||||97
|-
| Japanese||||||||||||75||25||||||100
|-
| Khoisan ||||||||47||52||||||||||99
|-
| Kinh ||||||||||||57||43||||||100
|-
| Kuwaiti||57||4||27||8||||2||||||||98
|-
| Lebanese||66||5||26||2||||||||||||99
|-
| Luhya ||2||||||89||8||||||||||99
|-
| Malagasy ||2||||||57||4||15||20||||||98
|-
| Mexican||28||20||8||4||||||2||36||||98
|-
| Mongolian||||6||12||||||67||9||4||||98
|-
| Northern Caucasian||46||16||33||||||4||||||||99
|-
| Northern Indian||6||5||34||||||26||27||||||98
|-
| Oceanian||||||||||||||12||||88||100
|-
| Papuan ||||||||||||5||4||||91||100
|-
| Highland Peruvian||2||2||||||||||||95||||99
|-
| Peruvians||15||10||3||2||||||||68||||98
|-
| Puerto Rican||31||21||9||25||2||||||11||||99
|-
| Romanian||43||36||19||||||2||||||||100
|-
| Russians||25||51||18||||||4||||||||98
|-
| Sardinian||67||24||8||||||||||||||99
|-
| Southern Indian||4||2||58||||||||35||||||99
|-
| Tajikistan||22||22||44||||||10||||||||98
|-
| Tatar ||21||40||21||||||16||||||||98
|-
| Tunisian||62||6||10||19||||||2||||||99
|-
| Tuscan||54||28||17||||||||||||||99
|-
| Vanuatu||||||||||||4||15||||78||97
|-
| Western Indian||9||6||58||||||||26||||||99
|-
| Yoruba people ||||||||97||3||||||||||100
|-
|}

== Geno 2.0 Next Generation ==
In 2016, the project began utilizing cutting-edge<ref name="Geno 2.0" /> [[Company:Helix (genomics company)|Helix]] DNA sequencing for Geno 2.0 Next Generation,<ref name="Geno 2.0" /><ref>[https://www.helix.com/shop/national-geographic-geno-2-next-generation/ Helix DNA Sequencing and Geno 2.0] ''Helix''. 26 January 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2018.</ref> the current phase of the Genographic Project.  As compared to earlier phases which used nine regional affiliations, Geno 2.0 Next Generation analyzes modern-day indigenous populations around the world using either 18 or 22 regional affiliations.<ref name="reference populations">{{cite web |title=Next Generation Reference Populations |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407092418/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2016 |website=National Geographic |access-date=28 June 2018 |date=23 February 2018}}</ref> Utilizing a DNA-collection kit, Helix acquires a saliva sample from a participant, which is then analyzed for genomic identifiers that offer unprecedented<ref name="Geno 2.0" /> insight into the person's genetic origins.<ref name="Geno 2.0" /> The data is then uploaded to the Genographic Project DNA database.<ref name="Geno 2.0" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+Reference Populations Next-Gen based on Biogeographical Ancestry<ref>{{Citation |title=National Geographic Geno 2.0 Project |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |access-date=2018-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031612/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen// |url-status=dead |quote= |archive-date=2017-02-07}}</ref>
!Population
!Arabia
!Asia Minor
!Central Asia
!Eastern Africa
!Eastern Europe
!Great Britain & Ireland
!Jewish Diaspora
!Northern Africa
!Southern Africa
!Southern Asia
!Southwest Asia & Persian Gulf
!Southern Europe
!Western & Central Africa
|-
|African-American (Southwestern USA)
|
|
|
|2%
|
|4%
|
|
|9%
|
|
|3%
|81%
|-
|Egyptian
|
|3%
|
|3%
|
|
|4%
|68%
|
|
|17%
|3%
|
|-
|Ethiopian
|11%
|
|
|64%
|
|
|
|5%
|7%
|8%
|
|
|5%
|-
|Greek
|
|9%
|
|
|7%
|
|2%
|2%
|
|
|
|79%
|
|-
|Iranian
|56%
|6%
|4%
|4%
|
|
|
|2%
|
|24%
|
|2%
|
|-
|Kuwaiti
|
|7%
|
|3%
|
|
|
|4%
|
|
|84%
|
|
|-
|Luhya (Kenyan)
|
|
|
|81%
|
|
|
|4%
|4%
|4%
|2%
|
|5%
|-
|Tunisian
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|88%
|
|
|4%
|5%
|2%
|-
|Yoruban (West African)
|
|
|
|2%
|
|
|
|3%
|6%
|
|
|
|89%
|}

== Volunteer participation ==
[[File:The-Genographic-Project-Public-Participation-Mitochondrial-DNA-Database-pgen.0030104.sv001.ogv|thumb|200px |Genographic Project public participation]]
From 2005 to 2019 Genographic engaged volunteers (in fieldwork and providing DNA samples) and [[Citizen science|citizen science]] projects. During this time the National Geographic Society sold non-profit self-testing kits to members of the general public who wished to participate in the project as "citizen scientists". Such outreach for public participation in research has been encouraged by organizations such as [[Organization:International Society of Genetic Genealogy|International Society of Genetic Genealogy]] (ISOGG), which is seeking to promote benefits from scientific research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonney |first1=R. |last2=LaBranche |first2=M. |title=Citizen Science: Involving the Public in Research |journal=ASTC Dimensions |date=2004 |issue=May/June 2004 |page=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baretto |first1=C. |last2=Fastovsky |first2=D. |last3=Sheehan |first3=P. |title=A Model for Integrating the Public into Scientific Research |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |date=2003 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=71–75 |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-51.1.71 |bibcode=2003JGeEd..51...71B |s2cid=67761505 |url=https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=geo_facpubs}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCaffrey |first1=R. E. |title=Using Citizen Science in Urban Bird Studies |journal=Urban Habitats |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=70–86}}</ref> This includes supporting, organization and dissemination of [[Biology:Genealogical DNA test|personal DNA (genetic) testing.]]

The ISOGG supports citizen participation in genetic research,<ref name=KingJobling>{{cite journal |last1=King |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2009.06.003 |quote=The International Society of Genetic Genealogy (www.isogg.org) advocates the use of genetics as a tool for genealogical research, and provides a support network for genetic genealogists. It hosts the ISOGG Y-haplogroup tree, which has the virtue of being regularly updated. |title=What's in a name? Y chromosomes, surnames and the genetic genealogy revolution |year=2009 |first1=Turi E. |last2=Jobling |first2=Mark A. |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=351–60 |pmid=19665817 |hdl=2381/8106 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10096019 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> and believes such volunteers have provided valuable information and research to the professional scientific community.<ref name=AJHG>{{Cite web |last=Mendex, etc. al. |first=Fernando |title=An African American Paternal Lineage Adds an Extremely Ancient Root to the Human Y Chromosome Phylogenetic Tree |date=28 February 2013 |publisher=The American Society of Human Genetics |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=454–459 |url=http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2813%2900073-6 |access-date=10 July 2013}}</ref>

In a 2013 speech to the Southern California Genealogical Society, Spencer Wells discussed its encouragement of citizen scientists. He said:
<blockquote>Since 2005, the Genographic Project has used the latest genetic technology to expand our knowledge of the human story, and its pioneering use of DNA testing to engage and involve the public in the research effort has helped to create a new breed of "citizen scientist." Geno 2.0 expands the scope for citizen science, harnessing the power of the [[Social:Crowdsourcing|crowd]] to discover new details of human population history.<ref name=Wells>{{Cite web |last=Wells |first=Spencer |title=The Genographic Project and the Rise of Citizen Science |publisher=Southern California Genealogical Society (SCGS) |year=2013 |url=http://www.scgsgenealogy.com/Jamboree/2013/DNAday.htm |access-date=10 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130710014353/http://www.scgsgenealogy.com/Jamboree/2013/DNAday.htm |archive-date=10 July 2013}}</ref></blockquote>

== Criticism ==
Shortly after the announcement of the project in April 2005, the [[Organization:Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism|Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism]] (IPCB) noted its connections to controversial issues (such as concern among some tribes that the results of genetic human migration studies might indicate that Native Americans are not indigenous to North America). The IPCB recommended against indigenous people participating.<ref name="harry">Harry, Debra and Le'a Malia Kanehe. [https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/genetic-research-collecting-blood-preserve-culture "Genetic Research: Collecting Blood to Preserve Culture?"] ''[[Organization:Cultural Survival|Cultural Survival]],'' 29.4 (Winter 2005). Accessed 4 February 2014.</ref>

The founder of IPCB, Debra Harry, offered a rationale for why Indigenous people were discouraged to participate in the Genographic Project. According to Harry, a Northern Paiute Native American and Associate Professor in Indigenous Studies at Nevada University, the Genographic Project resulted in a human [[Medicine:Genetic testing|genetic testing]] practice that appeared to mask an ulterior motive rather than mere scientific research. Particularly, the great concern about the possible political interest behind the Genographic Project, motivated the IPCB to preemptively alert the global indigenous community on the “not so altruistic motivations”<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism |url=http://ipcb.org/issues/human_genetics/htmls/legacyfund_rfp.html |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=ipcb.org}}</ref> of the project. Additionally, IPCB argues that the Genographic project not only provides no direct benefit to Indigenous peoples but instead raises considerable risks. Such risks, raised by Harry in an interview released in December 2005,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2005 |title=Interview with Debra Harry and the Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism |url=https://newint.org/columns/makingwaves/2005/12/01/debra-harry |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=New Internationalist |language=en}}</ref> were used to advocate against the indigenous participation in the project. Another comment made by IPCB founder Debra Harry was that the Genographic Project served as a method to discredit kin relations through the possibility that ancestral identities may be invalidated and to deny Indigenous peoples’ access and authority over the resource-rich territories that they had for long inhabited.<ref name=":0" /> The IPCB also identified another attempt at biocolonialism in the Genographic Project. The latter involved the high probability of genetic testing results producing errors such as false negatives and positives that lead to the misidentification of Native people as non-Native and vice versa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Ellen |first=Samuels |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/900357752 |title=Fantasies of identification : disability, gender, race |date=2014 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-1-4798-1298-1 |oclc=900357752}}</ref> Another negative consequence expressed by TallBear is the risk that an individual's cultural identity can be conclusively established through biocolonialist projects such as the Genographic Project.<ref name=":1" /> Ultimately, TallBear's argument is in close agreement with Harry's concerns regarding the Genographic Project and serves as a significant force motivating IPCB to advocate against Biocolonialism.

In May 2006, the project came to the attention of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII). UNPFII conducted investigations into the objectives of the Genographic Project, and recommended that National Geographic and other sponsors suspend the project.<ref name="DNA Gatherers Hit Snag">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/us/10dna.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all |title=DNA Gatherers Hit Snag: Tribes Don't Trust Them |first=Amy |last=Harmon |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |date=10 December 2006}}</ref> Concerns were that the knowledge gleaned from the research could clash with long-held beliefs of indigenous peoples and threaten their cultures. There were also concerns that indigenous claims to land rights and other resources could be threatened.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipcb.org/issues/human_genetics/htmls/unpfii_rec.html |title=United Nations Recommends Halt to Genographic Project |publisher=ipcb}}</ref>

{{As of|2006|12}}, some federally recognized tribes in the United States declined to take part in the study including Maurice Foxx, chairman of the Massachusetts Commission on Indian Affairs and a member of the Mashpee Wampanoag.<ref name="DNA Gatherers Hit Snag" />

Not all Indigenous peoples agree with his position; {{As of|2012|12|lc=on}}, more than 70,000 indigenous participants from the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, and Oceania had joined the project.<ref name="reference populations" />

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Genealogical DNA test}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Genetic diversity}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Human genetic variation}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Human migration}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Mitochondrial Eve}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Y-chromosomal Adam}}
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
'''Official sites'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130122064832/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/about/ Genographic Project] official site at National Geographic
* [https://www.arl.arizona.edu/ Arizona Research Laboratories (ARL)]
* [https://www.waittfoundation.org/ Waitt Family Foundation]
'''News articles'''
* {{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/12/genographic/index.html |title=Finding the roots of modern humans |publisher=CNN |date=14 April 2005}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2005-04-12-genographic-project_x.htm |title='Genographic Project' aims to tell us where we came from |work=USA Today |date=17 April 2005}}
* [http://ipcb.org/issues/human_genetics/htmls/geno_pr.html "Indigenous Peoples Oppose National Geographic"], Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism, 13 April 2005.
* [http://www.db2mag.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=193105321 "Tracking the Truth"], ''DB2 Magazine'' (IBM), information about IBM's role in the project. December 2006.
* [http://www.isogg.org/gss.htm Genographic Success Stories]
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7316281.stm |title=Crusaders left genetic legacy |publisher=BBC News |date=27 March 2008}}
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7358868.stm |title=Human Line 'Nearly split in Two' |publisher=BBC News |date=24 April 2008}}
'''Videos'''
* {{YouTube|tmHloU_xEJo|Spencer Wells: Building a family tree for all humanity}}, on [[Software:TED (conference)|TED]], 29 August 2008.

{{Genealogical DNA test}}

[[Category:Human genome projects]]

{{Sourceattribution|Genographic Project}}