View source for Biology:History of the Amiga

'''The [[Engineering:Amiga|Amiga]]''' is a family of [[Engineering:Home computer|home computer]]s that were designed and sold by the [[Company:Amiga Corporation|Amiga Corporation]] (and later by Commodore Computing International) from 1985 to 1994.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Commodore's port; preview of the Plus 4, the Amiga, and Alphacom printers.|url=https://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n12/216_Commodores_port_preview.php|access-date=2020-06-05|website=www.atarimagazines.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Amiga Documents|url=https://sites.google.com/site/amigadocuments/#TOC-1994-1998:-From-Commodore-Amiga-to-ESCOM-to-Gateway|access-date=2020-06-05|website=sites.google.com}}</ref>

== Amiga Corporation ==
The Amiga's [[Engineering:Original Chip Set|Original Chip Set]], code-named Lorraine, was designed by the [[Company:Amiga Corporation|Amiga Corporation]] during the end of the first [[Engineering:Home video game console|home video game]] boom. Development of the Lorraine project was done using a [[Company:SAGE Computer Technology#Sage IV|Sage&nbsp;IV]] machine nicknamed "Agony" which had 64-kbit memory modules with a capacity of 1&nbsp;mbit and a 8&nbsp;MHz {{abbr|CPU|central processing unit}}.<ref name="floodgap_com-lorraine">{{cite web|title=Secret Weapons of Commodore: The Lorraine|url=http://www.floodgap.com/retrobits/ckb/secret/lorraine.html}} 090427 floodgap.com</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=39+Rare+Sage+VI+Photo.jpg (image)|url=http://bp0.blogger.com/_YdtTy7yAtcU/RypQZxGRqKI/AAAAAAAAAbA/xlohgi5yX60/s1600-h/39+Rare+Sage+VI+Photo.jpg|access-date=2020-06-07|website=bp0.blogger.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum|url=https://www.old-computers.com/MUSEUM/computer.asp?c=647|access-date=2020-06-07|website=www.old-computers.com}}</ref> Amiga Corp. funded the development of the Lorraine by manufacturing game controllers, and later with an initial bridge loan from [[Company:Atari|Atari Inc.]] while seeking further investors. The chipset was to be used in a video game machine, but following the video game crash of 1983, the Lorraine was reconceived as a [[Computer multitasking|multi-tasking]] multi-media personal computer.

The company demonstrated a prototype at the January 1984 [[Engineering:Consumer Electronics Show|Consumer Electronics Show]] (CES) in {{wipe|Chicago}}, attempting to attract investors.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url = https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2007/08/a-history-of-the-amiga-part-3/3/|title = A history of the Amiga, part 3: The first prototype|access-date =July 17, 2016 |website =Arstechnica.com | date=August 22, 2007 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The Sage acted as the CPU, and ''BYTE'' described "big steel boxes" substituting for the chipset that did not yet exist.<ref name="byte198508">{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1985-08/1985_08_BYTE_10-08_Declarative_Languages#page/n85/mode/2up | title=Features | work=BYTE | date=August 1985 | access-date=October 27, 2013 | page=81}}</ref> The magazine reported in April 1984 that Amiga Corporation "is developing a 68000-based home computer with a custom graphics processor. With 128K bytes of RAM and a floppy-disk drive, the computer will reportedly sell for less than $1000 late this year."<ref name="byte198404">{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1984-04/1984_04_BYTE_09-04_Real-World_Interfacing#page/n11/mode/2up | title=Microbytes | work=BYTE | date=April 1984 | access-date=October 22, 2013 | page=10}}</ref>

Further presentations were made at the following CES in June 1984, to [[Company:Sony|Sony]], [[Company:Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Company:Philips|Philips]], [[Company:Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Company:Silicon Graphics|Silicon Graphics]], and others.<ref name=":1" /> [[Biography:Steve Jobs|Steve Jobs]] of Apple, who had just introduced the [[Engineering:Macintosh|Macintosh]] in January, was shown the original prototype for the first Amiga and stated that there was too much hardware – even though the newly redesigned board consisted of just three silicon chips which had yet to be shrunk down.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|author=Gareth Knight |url=http://www.amigahistory.co.uk/ahistory.html |title=Amiga History |publisher=Amigahistory.co.uk |access-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/reviews/os/amiga.ars |title=Steve Jobs was reported to be extremely worried about the Amiga, but fortunately for him and Apple, Commodore had absolutely no idea what they were doing |date=January 18, 2005 |publisher=arstechnica.com}}</ref> Investors became increasingly wary of new computer companies in an industry dominated by the IBM PC.{{r|byte198508}} Jay Miner, co-founder, lead engineer and architect, took out a second mortgage on his home to keep the company from going bankrupt.<ref name=":1" />

In July 1984, Atari Inc. was bought by the recently resigned CEO and founder of [[Company:Commodore International|Commodore]], Jack Tramiel. A substantial number of Commodore's employees followed him, prompting a lawsuit from Commodore for theft of trade secrets.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2007/10/amiga-history-4-commodore-years/|title = A history of the Amiga, part 4: Enter Commodore|access-date =July 17, 2016 |website =Arstechnica.com | date=October 22, 2007 }}</ref> Tramiel's son Leonard later discovered that Atari Inc. had lent $500,000 to the Amiga Corporation, with repayment due at the end of June, prompting Atari Corp. to counter Commodore.<ref name=":1" />

In a subsequent development, the Amiga group received interested from Commodore, and began discussions of selling the company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n12/216_Commodores_port_preview.php |title=Commodore's port; preview of the Plus 4, the Amiga, and Alphacom printers |publisher=Atarimagazines.com |access-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref> In August&nbsp;1984, Amiga was purchased by Commodore for $27&nbsp;million, including paying off the loan from Atari.<ref name=":0" />

==Commodore==
=== 1985–87: the early years===
When the first Amiga computer was released in July 1985 by [[Company:Commodore International|Commodore]], it was called the Amiga 1000, devoid of references to Commodore. Commodore marketed it both as their successor to the [[Engineering:Commodore 64|Commodore 64]], and as their competitor against the [[Engineering:Macintosh|Macintosh]]. It was later renamed the [[Engineering:Amiga 1000|Amiga 1000]].

[[File:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|right|The Amiga 1000's graphics abilities were significantly ahead of its rivals.]]

At a relatively affordable base price of {{USD|1295|1985}}, the Amiga could display up to {{nowrap|4,096 colors}}, produce 8-bit stereo audio, and run several applications concurrently. These qualities were unprecedented in a consumer-oriented computer and gave the Amiga 1000 a significant technical lead on its three main competitors (the [[Engineering:Atari ST|Atari ST]], the Macintosh, and the IBM PC).

The public saw both Commodore and Atari selling, as John C. Dvorak wrote, "cheap disposable" game machines,<ref name="dvorak198509">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/Ahoy_Issue_21_1985-09_Ion_International_US#page/n3/mode/2up | title=Image | work=Ahoy! | date=September 1, 1985 | access-date=June 27, 2014 | author=Dvorak, John C. | page=5}}</ref> and observers believed that either the ST or Amiga would survive, but not both. The ST had more software in the beginning, but larger companies like [[Company:Electronic Arts|Electronic Arts]] and [[Company:Activision|Activision]] promised to make software for the Amiga. Neither had distribution from major chains like [[Company:ComputerLand|ComputerLand]] or BusinessLand, or support from large business-software companies like [[Company:Microsoft|Microsoft]], Ashton-Tate, or Lotus. ''{{wipe|The New York Times}}'' stated that "it is not clear that the business computer user really cares about colorful graphics".<ref name="nyt19851216">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/16/business/this-season-s-computer-war.html | title=This Season's Computer War | work=The New York Times | date=December 16, 1985 | access-date=March 31, 2016}}</ref> The computers' sophisticated graphics strengthened their perception as "game machines".<ref name="webster198512">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1985-12/1985_12_BYTE_10-13_Computer_Conferencing#page/n363/mode/2up | title=Microcomputer Color Graphics-Observations | work=BYTE | date=December 1985 | access-date=October 28, 2013 | author=Webster, Bruce | pages=405}}</ref>

Poorly marketed,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/info-magazine-17/Info_Issue_17_1987_Nov_Dec#page/n69/mode/2up|title=Info Magazine issue 17|website=Archive.org|access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref> the Amiga 1000 was not a success. An August 1986 ''Compute!'' editorial expressed amazement that Commodore, insisting that the Amiga was a business computer, did not show it at the summer CES. The magazine estimated that in their first year of availability, the Atari ST had outsold the Amiga. Stating that the "industry needs the vision and direction that a Commodore can help provide", it urged the company to pursue the consumer market that had been very successful for the Commodore&nbsp;64.<ref name="lock198608">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/1986-08-compute-magazine/Compute_Issue_075_1986_Aug#page/n7/mode/2up | title=Editor's Notes | work=Compute! | date=August 1986 | access-date=November 9, 2013 | author=Lock, Robert | page=6}}</ref> Jerry Pournelle from ''BYTE'' praised the [[Biology:Amiga Sidecar|Amiga Sidecar]] as "really impressive", and approved of the "great deal of Amiga software" at Spring COMDEX, but wondered "whether Commdore has enough high-tech people to support the Amiga properly" after large layoffs, while "Atari ST software pours forth like a flood".<ref name="pournelle198609">{{Cite magazine |last=Pournelle |first=Jerry |date=September 1986 |title=A Busy Day |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1986-09/1986_09_BYTE_11-09_The_68000_Family#page/n331/mode/2up |magazine=BYTE |page=321}}</ref> [[Biography:Bruce Webster|Bruce Webster]] reported in January 1987 that Commodore had sold about 150,000 Amigas as of October 1986, but "imagine how many [the company] might have sold if they had done things right". He criticized many aspects of Commodore's handling of the computer, including selling "not-quite-finished" hardware and software, not supporting third-party developers, poor advertising, and internal uncertainty of the Amiga's target market.<ref name="webster198701">{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1987-01/1987_01_BYTE_12-01_Programmable_Hardware#page/n391/mode/2up | title=View and Reviews | work=BYTE | date=January 1987 | access-date=November 4, 2013 | author=Webster, Bruce | page=367}}</ref> Aware of its reputation, Commodore asked the press to call the computer "The Amiga, from Commodore" and designed new logos to replace its own iconic "C=" design. Commodore compounded the problem by marketing the new 8-bit Commodore 128 alongside the Amiga, confusing the general public about Commodore's direction and the Amiga's advantages.

By 1987, rumors spread that the size of the Amiga market disappointed software vendors, which were uncertain of Commodore's intention for the computer. Bing Gordon of Electronic Arts, which had prominently supported the Amiga, stated that year that "the Amiga has never done as well as we had hoped when we started out", and that Electronic Arts had expected Commodore to sell it as a $600 high-end home computer instead of an $1800 business computer. The best-selling Amiga games sold about 25,000 copies in 1986, said Gordon, compared to 125,000 to 150,000 copies on the Commodore 64.<ref name="cgw198707">{{cite magazine | title=Amiga Prospects Still Bright! | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=June–July 1987 | page=42}}</ref> In 1994 ''BYTE'' wrote "The Amiga was so far ahead of its time that almost nobody –&nbsp;including Commodore's marketing department&nbsp;– could fully articulate what it was all about. Today, it's obvious the Amiga was the first multimedia computer, but in those days it was derided as a game machine because few people grasped the importance of advanced graphics, sound, and video."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.byte.com/art/9408/sec14/art1.htm  |title=R.I.P. Commodore 1954-1994 |author=Tom R. Halfhill |date=August 1, 1994 |publisher=Byte.com |access-date=March 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407132023/http://www.byte.com/art/9408/sec14/art1.htm |archive-date = April 7, 2007}}</ref> This marketing confusion would plague the Amiga throughout its lifetime, even as it changed hands between [[Company:Escom (computer company)|Escom]], Gateway, and other owners.

===1987–90: Cost-reduced and high-end models===
In 1987, faced with strong competition from [[Engineering:Atari ST|Atari ST]] in the lower end of the segment, Commodore released the cost-reduced [[Engineering:Amiga 500|Amiga 500]] and the high-end [[Engineering:Amiga 2000|Amiga 2000]], for the respective prices of US$699 and $2395 (this price included 1 MB RAM and a monitor).

By 1988, software sales for the Amiga remained disappointing, compared to those for the IBM PC, Commodore&nbsp;64, and Apple&nbsp;II.<ref name="proctor198803">{{cite magazine | title=Titans of the Computer Gaming World / SSI | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=March 1988 | author=Proctor, Bob | page=36}}</ref> With its lowered price, the Amiga 500 became a successful [[Engineering:Home computer|home computer]] and eventually outsold its main rival, the Atari ST.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reimer |first=Jeremy |url=https://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/12/total-share.ars/6 |title=Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures |publisher=Ars Technica |date=December 15, 2005 |access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref> The Amiga 2000, thanks to its [[Engineering:Genlock|Genlock]] and internal expansion slots, also managed to carve out a market niche within [[Engineering:Desktop video|desktop video]]. This market was not as large as the office and publishing markets dominated by the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh, and the Amiga 2000 lagged behind these systems in sales. Additionally, Commodore had initially announced a price of $1495 for 2000,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/info-magazine-14/Info_Issue_14_1987_Spring_Summer#page/n129/mode/2up|title=Info Magazine issue 14|website=Archive.org|year=1987 |access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref> resulting in widespread disappointment among their customer base when the higher price was made public. This was also the case for the A500, which Commodore announced its price as $595.95, but later released it at $699. The Amiga did see widespread use in the television and video production industry during the late 1980s and early 1990s, including on popular shows like ''Clarissa Explains It All'' and ''Unsolved Mysteries''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Pär Boberg |url=http://wigilius.se/amiga/ |title=Famous Amiga Uses |website=Wigilius.se |access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref>

===1990–92: Height of popularity===
[[File:Amiga500 system1.jpg|thumb|right|An Amiga 500, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive. (1987)]]
In 1990, Commodore released a significant update of the Amiga platform, in the shape of the [[Engineering:Amiga 3000|Amiga 3000]] featuring an [[Engineering:Amiga Enhanced Chip Set|enhanced chipset]] (ECS) and the second release of its operating system, commonly referred to as Workbench 2.0.

Commodore had a poor reputation among consumers and developers. ''Computer Gaming World'' wrote in 1990 of its "abysmal record of customer and technical support in the past".<ref name="cgw19900708">{{cite magazine | url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1990&pub=2&id=73 | title=The Maturation of Computer Entertainment: Warming The Global Village | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=July 8, 1990 | access-date=November 16, 2013 | page=11}}</ref> Commodore was unable to match the pace of PC advancement with their lower resources and economy of scale, and users complained that the custom ECS chipset failed to match the features of the PC and Mac display hardware at the time. Users also felt that the operating system (Workbench 2.0) only featured improvements taken from the user community. As Apple was the only other major user of [[Company:Motorola|Motorola]] chips at the time, Commodore often had to wait for a new CPU technology until increased supplies allowed Motorola to sell chips to anyone but Apple.

On the plus side, many users considered the Amiga 3000 the most well-engineered Amiga model, and the Amiga 3000's integrated flicker filter made it painless to use inexpensive PC-style VGA monitors. This may in part be the reason Commodore went on to sell one million Amigas in just one year, which is equal to a third of all Amigas sold up to that time.

In the same year as the Amiga 3000, Commodore released the US$895 CDTV, aimed to move the Amiga platform to the living room and a competitor to devices such as [[Company:Philips|Philips]] CD Interactive (CD-I). Commodore believed that there was a market for a system that could display animations, pictures and offer educational software and games on television, and many game developers thought that interactive CD-based video games would become a popular market. The end result was a system that could be described as an Amiga 500 with a remote control replacing the keyboard and a CD-ROM replacing the floppy drive.

Considering that the Amiga 500 was cheaper, more versatile, and had the promise of a future CDTV expansion, few Amiga users had any interest in the Amiga CDTV. At the same time, the general public preferred cheaper game consoles over both the CDTV and CD-I, and they were not aware of or interested in the multimedia potential of these CD-ROM based systems.

Both Commodore and Philips tried to tempt users with the promise of an [[MPEG-1]] module capable of playing video from a CD-ROM. These Video CDs can be considered lower-resolution versions of today's Digital Versatile Disks ([[Engineering:DVD|DVD]]s), but without some additional features and the inconvenience of having to change the disks during a full-length movie.

The CDTV became Commodore's first Amiga-based failure, one that allegedly cost them a significant amount of resources. Commodore made a last-ditch effort in saving the system with the CDTV 2 but dropped that design in favor of the much more capable [[Engineering:Amiga CD32|Amiga CD32]].

===1992–94: Trouble ahead===
[[File:Amiga 4000 desktop original.png|thumb|left|An Amiga 4000 (1992)]] Commodore began 1992 early by introducing the Amiga 500+, a slightly updated and cost-reduced Amiga 500. Viewed primarily as a game machine, especially in Europe, this model was criticized for not being able to run popular games such as ''SWIV'', ''[[Software:Treasure Island Dizzy|Treasure Island Dizzy]]'', and ''Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge'', and some people returned them to dealers, demanding an original Amiga 500.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

By the early 1990s, the IBM PC platform dominated the market for computer games. In December 1992, ''Computer Gaming World'' (CGW) reported that [[Software:MS-DOS|MS-DOS]] accounted for 82% of game sales in 1991, compared to Macintosh's 8% and Amiga's 5%. In response to a reader's challenge to find a DOS game that played better than the Amiga version the magazine cited ''Wing Commander'' and ''Civilization'', and added that "The heavy MS-DOS emphasis in ''CGW'' merely reflects the realities of the market".<ref name="cgw199212">{{cite magazine | url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1992&pub=2&id=101 | title=Letters | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=December 1, 1992 | access-date=July 5, 2014 | page=124}}</ref> Instead of discontinuing the Amiga 500 and 500+, Commodore envisioned it taking the place of the Commodore&nbsp;64 in the low-cost segment. To make that possible Commodore set out to design the [[Engineering:Amiga 600|Amiga 600]], a system intended to be much cheaper than the Amiga 500. The Amiga 500 itself would be replaced by [[Engineering:Amiga 1200|Amiga 1200]], also under development.

{{Rquote|right|Commodore had the new machines (A600) manufactured in Australia and launched them on what it assumed would be an eager market. Unfortunately, soon afterward it announced that two new super-Amigas would be released.|''Edge''|August 1995{{quote without source|date=July 2020}}}}

Shortly after releasing the Amiga 600, Commodore announced that two new super Amigas would be released at the end of the year. In classic [[Social:Osborne effect|Osborne]] style, consumers decided to wait for the new Amigas and Commodore had to close their Australian office in face of plummeting sales.<ref name="Edge August 95" /> At the same time, Commodore's foray into the highly competitive PC market was unsuccessful. This contributed to Commodore's 1992 profits falling to an unimpressive $28&nbsp;million,<ref name="Edge August 95">''Edge'', August 1995</ref> and made the need for a successful new Amiga launch all that more critical.

In October 1992, Commodore released the [[Engineering:Amiga 1200|Amiga 1200]] and the [[Engineering:Amiga 4000|Amiga 4000]]. Each featured the new AGA chipset and the third release of [[Software:AmigaOS|AmigaOS]].

''Computer Gaming World'' reported in March 1993 that declining Amiga sales were "causing many U.S. publishers to quit publishing Amiga titles",<ref name="cgw199303">{{cite magazine | url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1993&pub=2&id=104 | title=Special Report from the Winter Consumer Electronics Show / Part I | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=March 1, 1993 | access-date=July 6, 2014 | page=10}}</ref> and in July that at the Spring European Computer Trade Show the computer was, unlike 1992, "hardly mentioned, let alone seen".<ref name="matthews199307">{{cite magazine | url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1993&pub=2&id=108 | title=CGW's Foreign Agent Stalks Europe's Premier Computer Show | magazine=Computer Gaming World | date=July 1, 1993 | access-date=July 12, 2014 | author=Matthews, Robin | page=106}}</ref> That year Commodore marketed the [[Engineering:Amiga CD32|CD32]], which was one of the earliest CD-based consoles and was also the world's first 32-bit game machine, with specifications similar to the A1200.

The last Amiga (and the last computer) released by Commodore was the [[Engineering:Amiga 4000T|A4000T]], in 1994.

===Amiga in the United States===
Mass-market Amigas were considerably cheaper than PCs and [[Engineering:Macintosh|Macintosh]]es at the time. This factor helped to boost sales in European markets, but it also continued Commodore's misfortune of being viewed in the more price-conscious US markets as a producer of cheap "toy computers" and "game machines". This perception was furthered by the fact that most Commodore retail outlets were toy stores, and marketing campaigns were mismatched with the public's needs and wants. Overall, the Amiga was very successful in [[Earth:Europe|Europe]], but it sold less than a million units in the US.

Additionally, in the US market, the IBM PC was already a dominant market force, especially in the workplace. Potential buyers' first question was often, "Is it IBM compatible?", allowing the user to "take work home" or more often, take software home to install on their own machines. To satisfy these users, Commodore introduced a variety of PC-compatibility add-ons, such as the [[Biology:Amiga Sidecar|Amiga Sidecar]] for the Amiga 1000, the Bridge Board for the A2000, and a 5.25" floppy disk drive to facilitate data exchange with PC disks. Even as Commodore was improving the Amiga's interoperability, the PC's graphics drastically improved from the early mediocre CGA and EGA modes prevalent at the Amiga's introduction to VGA and SVGA, which appeared to match or exceed the Amiga's abilities. This caused a raft of PC gaming titles to be introduced during the late 1980s and early 1990s, including many ported from Amiga versions. Consumers began to see no advantage in the Amiga's "incompatible" technology. Commodore's attempts at interoperability did not persuade users concerned about IBM compatibility to buy an Amiga. Instead, inexpensive PC clones were beginning to flood the US market. As a result, US Amiga users tended to be technophiles enamored of the Amiga's software or hardware capabilities, Commodore loyalists upgrading from the C-64 or 128, iconoclasts who disliked IBM, video and graphic arts enthusiasts, or professionals – the [[Engineering:Desktop video|desktop video]] market was one of the few areas where the Amiga would gain widespread adoption in the US outside of the home.

===Bankruptcy===
{{Rquote|right|In 1993, Commodore lost a staggering $357&nbsp;million.|''Edge''|August 1995 edition{{quote without source|date=July 2020}}}}

Commodore management voluntarily filed for Chapter 11 under US [[Finance:Bankruptcy|bankruptcy]] laws in late April&nbsp;1994. Chapter 11 US rules allow a firm to recover its debts and reorganize it. Commodore was reorganized in various occasions twice before and repaid by Irving Gould without requesting filing for Chapter 11, but this time, as being controlled by US bankruptcy laws, the court-appointed board of trustees decided to liquidate the company without proceeding to reorganization. The majority of Commodore's assets and name were sold to Escom. Production was halted briefly until it was restarted for a short time under Escom's Amiga Technologies. Though the machines had been upgraded and had plentiful hardware and software support, the lack of new Amigas meant that vendors sooner or later moved on. Most of the technology hobbyists and productivity market moved to PC architecture, sometimes running [[Software:Linux|Linux]] or [[Software:BeOS|BeOS]] in preference to [[Software:Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]].

Due to the fierce loyalty of some Amiga fans, the 'scene' continued for many year after the last original Amiga was sold. Inevitably, the PC eventually became the undisputed leading home computing technology, and the console wars also left the CD32 behind.

The rights to the Amiga platform were successively sold to Escom, and later, Gateway 2000.<ref>{{cite web | title = 1994-1998: From Commodore-Amiga to ESCOM to Gateway | publisher = Amiga Documents | url = https://sites.google.com/site/amigadocuments/#TOC-1994-1998:-From-Commodore-Amiga-to-ESCOM-to-Gateway | access-date = February 20, 2015}}</ref> Escom had almost immediately gone bankrupt itself (due to non-Amiga related problems), while Gateway decided to keep the patents and sell the remaining assets to a new company later renamed to [[Company:Amiga, Inc.|Amiga, Inc.]] (no relation to the original Amiga Corporation) in 1999. Amiga also received a license to use Amiga-related patents, which were retained by Gateway until they expired.<ref>{{cite web | title = 1998-1999: Gateway Scraps "Amiga" Brand | publisher = Amiga Documents | url = https://sites.google.com/site/amigadocuments/#TOC-1998-1999:-Gateway-Scraps-Amiga-Brand | access-date = February 20, 2015}}</ref> Amiga Inc. sold the copyrights for works created up to 1993 to Cloanto,<ref>{{cite web | title = Cloanto | publisher = Amiga Documents | url = https://sites.google.com/site/amigadocuments/#TOC-Cloanto | access-date = February 20, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Cloanto confirms transfers of Commodore/Amiga copyrights | publisher = amiga-news.de | url = http://amiga-news.de/en/news/AN-2015-02-00027-EN.html | access-date = February 20, 2015}}</ref> and commissioned development of AmigaOS&nbsp;4 to [[Company:Hyperion Entertainment|Hyperion Entertainment]].

== New Amigas ==
Since the end of the Commodore-Amiga, there have been many attempts to create new Amiga hardware and solutions. All new Amigas are built from standard components without using the original Commodore custom chips.

===Amiga compatibles===
Only Amiga compatible machines share the original Amiga heritage with the custom chip compatibility. While they are not using the original chips (as in original Amiga computers), they implement compatible functionality using their field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) or custom bootloaders.

====DraCo====
The [[Engineering:DraCo|DraCo]] was the first Amiga clone. It was released during the bankruptcy of Commodore International in 1994 and was sold until 2000. Unlike later systems employing FPGA for the custom chipset, the Draco only provided compatibility at the operating system level and used a bootloader to patch various system devices and libraries that attempted to directly access any real Amiga chips. It was never intended to be a 'general purpose' desktop computer, however, users have been able to get some models to boot to [[Software:Workbench (AmigaOS)|Workbench]].

====Minimig====
[[Image:Minimig rev1.jpg|thumb|Minimig 120×120 mm PCB board (Nano-ITX size)<ref>{{cite web|title=Minimig rev 1.0 PCB|url=http://www.amiga.org/gallery/index.php?s=542034e3f4892da34ef68f0b2e22cb84&n=1470|access-date=April 20, 2013|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66n3FdorB?url=http://www.amiga.org/gallery/index.php?s=542034e3f4892da34ef68f0b2e22cb84&n=1470|archive-date=April 9, 2012|url-status=dead}} June 11, 2006 amiga.org</ref>]]
[[Biology:Minimig|Minimig]] is an open source hardware implementation of the [[Engineering:Amiga 500|Amiga 500]] with the custom chipset implemented using a FPGA, released under the GNU General Public Licence. It uses the MC68000 CPU chip from Freescale and supports overclocking up to 50&nbsp;MHz. The size of the FPGA limited the MiniMig to a subset of the [[Engineering:Amiga Enhanced Chip Set|ECS]] graphics, lacking support for productivity modes on the real chipset. It was also limited to only 2 MB of memory that was artificially split into ROM, "chip", and "fast" segments with an aftermarket 'hack' that could increase it to 4 MB total.

====Natami====
[[Biology:Natami|Natami]] was a hardware project to build 68k-based computers to run AmigaOS.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thomas Hirsch |url=http://www.natami.net/ |title=Natami Project Home Page |website=Natami.net |access-date=July 17, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504032454/http://www.natami.net/ |archive-date=May 4, 2016 }}</ref> While the original project is defunct, many of the core members of Natami have moved onto the Vampire project.

====Vampire V4 Standalone====
Vampire V4 Standalone is an FPGA Amiga-compatible currently{{when|date=July 2020}} in development by Apollo Accelerators. It is built around the Apollo Core 68080 (AC68080) first launched in the V2 line of accelerators, the V500 and V600, which are compatible with the [[Engineering:Amiga 500|Amiga 500]] and [[Engineering:Amiga 600|Amiga 600]], respectively. Although not originally designed as such, the V500 has also been installed in the original [[Engineering:Amiga 1000|Amiga 1000]] and [[Engineering:Amiga 2000|Amiga 2000]] desktop systems, as these all used the same, socketed version of the original [[Engineering:Motorola 68000|Motorola 68000]] processor. While the V2 was only designed as an accelerator, it was equipped with local memory, [[Ethernet]], [[Engineering:MicroSD|microSD]] and retargetable graphics (RTG), named "SAGA" or Super-AGA.

The V4 is designed to replace the V2 V500 model as an accelerator, as well as operate entirely independently of any computer in a so-called "standalone mode".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apollo-accelerators.com/files/V4_announcement_v1_5.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609074848/https://www.apollo-accelerators.com/files/V4_announcement_v1_5.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-06-09|title=V4 Announcement Letter via Wayback Machine|date=2019-06-09|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> To accomplish this, Apollo Accelerators has built a [[Cleanroom software engineering|cleanroom]] version of the AGA chipset and added direct support classic [[Engineering:D-subminiature#Game controller ports|DB9-based joysticks]] and various [[Engineering:USB#USB 2.0|low or full-speed USB 2.0]] peripherals such as mice, keyboard and gamepads. Amiga AGA graphics are automatically upscaled to HDMI ([[576p|576p]]) resolution and can switch automatically between classic and SAGA display modes for use with modern LCD monitors and televisions.

As of August 2019, the AC68080 is the fastest 680x0-compatible Amiga processor with more than four times the performance of the previously fastest, the Motorola 68060. It is capable of 192.12 MIPS and 102.06 MFLOPS, while the Cyberstorm 68060 at 50&nbsp;MHz was capable of only 39.29 MIPS and 28.02 MFLOPS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apollo-core.com/knowledge.php?b=2&note=20840|title=Apollo Core Performance Metrics vs 68060|date=2019-06-10|website=apollo-core.com|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> Performance gains are aided by using modern DDR3 memory which is capable of over 500 MiB/s in all memory regions. In contrast, the original Amiga processors were significantly bottlenecked accessing shared "chip" memory, achieving less than 3 MiB/s on [[Engineering:Original Chip Set|OCS]] and [[Engineering:Amiga Enhanced Chip Set|ECS]] machines, and no more than 6.5 MiB/s on AGA machines with all chipsets having [[Direct memory access|DMA]] disabled.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chipmem bandwidth question |url=http://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=49478 |website=English Amiga Board}}</ref>

The AC68080 is closed source, although it may be available for licensing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Free 68080 FPGA core license by Apollo Team is Great |url=https://amitopia.com/free-68080-fpga-core-license-by-apollo-team-is-great/ |website=amitopia.com|date=November 7, 2017 }}</ref> It is designed to use the original, closed-source [[Software:AmigaOS|Commodore AmigaOS]] (up to and including the most recent AmigaOS&nbsp;3.1.4 release from [[Company:Hyperion Entertainment|Hyperion]]), but can also run AROS, [[Software:EmuTOS|EmuTOS]], and [[Software:MiNT|FreeMiNT]], as well as the [[Software:Classic Mac OS|Classic Macintosh OS]].

==== Amiga Components ====
A number of suppliers have begun to spring up to provide components to allow users to build their own Amiga compatibles.<ref>{{Cite web|last=By|date=2020-06-16|title=Why You (Probably) Won't Be Building A Replica Amiga Anytime Soon|url=https://hackaday.com/2020/06/16/why-you-probably-wont-be-building-a-replica-amiga-anytime-soon/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=Hackaday|language=en-US}}</ref>  This includes new motherboards<ref>{{Cite web|title=A500++ Amiga 500+ Replica PCB by Bob's Bits on Tindie|url=https://www.tindie.com/products/bobsbits/a500-amiga-500-replica-pcb/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=Tindie|language=en}}</ref> and cases.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Checkmate A1500 relaunched as crowdfunded PC, Amiga case {{!}} bit-tech.net|url=https://bit-tech.net/news/tech/cases/checkmate-a1500-relaunched-as-crowdfunded-pc-amiga-case/1/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=bit-tech.net|language=en}}</ref> intended to be combined with either an emulator or an FPGA.

===AmigaOS 4 systems===
The AmigaOS is known for combining the functionality of OS and window manager.<ref>{{Cite book|title=International Encyclopaedia of Engineering and Technology|last=Doja|first=M.N.|publisher=International Scientific Publishing Academy|year=2007|isbn=978-8182930476|location=New Delhi|pages=79}}</ref> It was primarily designed to run on [[PowerPC]] Amiga systems or hardware equipped with Cyberstorm PPC or BlizzardPPC accelerator boards as well as AmigaOne computers with PPC Teron installed. This system was only available in developer pre-releases for several years until the final release in December&nbsp;2006. Since 2001, [[Company:Hyperion Entertainment|Hyperion Entertainment]] has been developing new AmigaOS&nbsp;4 running on PowerPC-based systems. The contract between Amiga Inc. and this Belgian-German company only allowed for the availability of the commercial AmigaOS&nbsp;4 license to computers with [[Biology:AmigaOne|AmigaOne]] motherboards.

AmigaOS 4 also runs on the [[Biology:Sam440ep|Sam440]] line developed by [[Company:ACube Systems Srl|ACube Systems]], following an agreement Hyperion. It also runs on Pegasos II systems developed by [[Company:Genesi|Genesi]]/bPlan and AmigaOne systems developed by British [[Company:Eyetech|Eyetech]] and A-eon Technologies. AmigaOS&nbsp;4 can run system-friendly AmigaOS software written for original Commodore Amigas.

AmigaOS 4 provides backward-compatibility to 68K software through tiered emulation. If the program is known to be OS-friendly (it does not attempt to access hardware directly), then a lightweight JIT emulator is used and calls are allowed directly to AmigaOS&nbsp;4's API which remains largely compatible to AmigaOS&nbsp;3.x. However, if the program is not known, or is known to access hardware directly, then it will be executed using [[Software:UAE (emulator)|E-UAE]].

===AROS systems===
AROS is an open-source re-implementation of AmigaOS and is designed more for portability. The features of the first attempts replicated those found in the AmigaOS&nbsp;3.1.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Tech Book 1 - Published articles Oct 2006 - June 2008|last=Reed|first=Michael|publisher=Unmusic Books|year=2008|isbn=9780956081315|location=London|pages=75}}</ref> It runs on many x86-based systems as native or hosted flavors. AROS also runs on some 68k-based Amigas and PowerPC systems. There are also sellers of 'AresOne' systems dedicated to run AROS only. Unlike many other Amiga-based solutions, AROS is Amiga binary compatible only on 68k-based systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aros.sourceforge.net/ |title=AROS Research Operating System |website=Aros.sourceforge.net |access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref> This version is recognized for its high degree of compatibility at the source-code level, allowing it to make concessions towards the legacy deficiencies of the OS it was based from.<ref name=":3" />

===MorphOS systems===
[[Software:MorphOS|MorphOS]] is a closed-source re-implementation of AmigaOS. It runs on PowerPC-based systems but can run system-friendly AmigaOS software written for the original Commodore Amigas. MorphOS runs on Efika, Pegasos I/II and PowerPC based Apple Mac G4 models, such as the [[Engineering:Mac Mini|Mac Mini]], eMac, PowerMac, PowerBook, and iBook.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/a-history-of-the-amiga-part-1.ars A history of the Amiga] - Jeremy Reimer's discussion of the history behind the Amiga's creation and demise with Commodore.
* [http://wigilius.se/amiga/ Famous Amiga Uses]

{{Amiga companies}}
{{Amiga hardware}}
{{AmigaOS}}
{{AmigaOS 4}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Amiga}}
[[Category:Amiga]]

{{Sourceattribution|History of the Amiga}}