View source for Biology:Kermadec Islands

{{EngvarB|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox islands
| name             = Kermadec Islands
| local_name       = Rangitāhua
| image_name       = Karta NZ Kermadec isl.PNG
| image_caption    = 
| image_size       =
| map      =
| nickname         =
| coordinates      = {{coord|29|16|37|S|177|55|24|W|region:NZ_scale:500000|display=inline, title}}
| archipelago      =
| total_islands    = around 16
| major_islands    =
| area_km2         = 33.6
| length_km        =
| width_km         =
| highest_mount    =
| elevation_m      = 516
| population       = about 6<ref name="cbs 20060316">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |title=New Zealand Volcano Erupts |date=16 March 2006 |publisher=CBS News|access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618190803/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 
| density_km2      =
| ethnic_groups    =
| country          = {{wipe|New Zealand}}
| additional_info  =
}}

[[File:STS008-36-1403 cropped rotated.jpg|right|thumb|Raoul Island from space]]

The '''Kermadec Islands''' {{IPAc-en|k|ər|ˈ|m|æ|d|ɛ|k}} ({{lang-mi|Rangitāhua}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kermadec-islands|title=Kermadec Islands – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|last=Taonga|date=|website=teara.govt.nz|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref>) are a subtropical [[Earth:Island arc|island arc]] in the South Pacific Ocean {{convert|800|-|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of {{wipe|New Zealand}}'s North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The islands are part of New Zealand, {{convert|33.6|km2|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91349/|title=Data Table - Protected Areas - LINZ Data Service (recorded area 3359.9864 ha)|publisher=Land Information New Zealand|accessdate=2019-08-27}}</ref> in total area and uninhabited, except for the permanently manned [[Earth:Raoul Island|Raoul Island]] Station, the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.

The islands are listed with the New Zealand Outlying Islands. The islands are an immediate part of New Zealand, but not part of any region or district, but instead an ''Area Outside Territorial Authority''.

==Toponymy==
The islands were named after the Breton captain Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, who visited the islands as part of the d'Entrecasteaux expedition in the 1790s. The topographic particle "Kermadec" is of [[Social:Breton language|Breton]] origin and is a lieu-dit in Pencran in Finistère where ''ker'' means village, residence and madec a proper name derived from ''mad'' (which means 'good') with the suffix ''-ec'', used to form adjectives indicating a property.

The Māori name is Rangitāhua which is also used for Raoul island.

==History==
Polynesian people settled the Kermadec Islands in around the 14th century (and perhaps previously in the 10th century),<ref>{{Cite book|title=Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History|first=Steven|last=Gentry|isbn=978-1-927242-02-5|year=2013|chapter=2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place|pages=37–51}}</ref> but the first Europeans to reach the area—the ''Lady Penrhyn'' in May 1788—found no inhabitants.

British, American and Australian whaling vessels cruised offshore in the 19th century and often visited the islands in search of water, wood and food. The first such vessel on record was the whaler ''Fanny'' that visited Raoul Island in 1823.<ref>Robert Langdon (ed.) ''Where the whalers went: an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century'', Canberra, Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, p.145. {{ISBN|0-86784-471-X}}</ref> European settlers, initially the Bell family, lived on the islands from the early nineteenth century, growing food for the whalers, and remained until 1937. One of the Bell daughters, Bessie Dyke, recounted the family's experience to writer Elsie K. Morton who published their story in 1957 as, ''Crusoes of Sunday Island''.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-MorCrus-t1-front1-d3.html|title=Crusoes of Sunday Island|chapter=Author's Note|first=Elsie|last=Morton|year=1957}}</ref>

===Raoul Island Station===
The Station consists of a government [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorological]] and radio station, and a hostel for Department of Conservation officers and volunteers, that has been maintained since 1937.  It lies on the northern terraces of Raoul Island, at an elevation of about {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}, above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff.  It is the northernmost inhabited outpost of New Zealand.

===Nuclear testing proposals===

In 1955 the British Government required a large site remote from population centres to test the new thermonuclear devices it was developing. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica. The Admiralty suggested the [[Biology:Antipodes Islands|Antipodes Islands]].<ref>Lorna Arnold and Katherine Pyne, ''Britain and the H-bomb'' (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 96.</ref> In May 1955, the Minister for Defence, Selwyn Lloyd, concluded that the Kermadec Islands would be suitable. They were part of New Zealand, so Eden wrote to the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Sidney Holland, to ask for permission to use the islands. Holland refused, fearing an adverse public reaction in the upcoming 1957 general election in New Zealand. Despite reassurances and pressure from the British government, Holland remained firm.<ref>Rebecca Priestley, ''Mad on radium—New Zealand in the atomic age'' - "Cold War and Red Hot Science" (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2013)</ref>

==Geography==
The islands lie within 29° to 31.5° south latitude and 178° to 179° west longitude, {{convert|800|-|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of New Zealand's North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga.  The total area of the islands is {{convert|33.6|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}}.

===Climate===
The climate of the islands is subtropical, with a mean monthly temperature of {{convert|22.4|°C|°F|abbr=on}} in February and {{convert|16.0|°C|°F|abbr=on}} in August. Rainfall is approximately {{convert|1500|mm|in|abbr=on|-1}} annually, with lower rainfall from October to January.

===Islands===
[[File:Nugent Meyer Dayrell Islands.jpg|thumb|View from Raoul Island]]
The group includes four main islands as well as some isolated rocks. These are:
* [[Earth:Raoul Island|Raoul Island]] or Sunday Island is by far the largest of the islands. It lies {{convert|900|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of 'Ata, the southernmost island of Tonga, and {{convert|1100|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-northeast of New Zealand. Raoul Island has an area of {{convert|29.38|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}} with numerous smaller satellite islands; its highest point, Moumoukai peak, is {{convert|516|m|ft|abbr=on}} high
* [[Biology:Macauley Island|Macauley Island]], the second largest, is located {{convert|110|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Raoul Island. Together with neighbouring Haszard Island, its area is {{convert|3.06|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.
** Macdonald Rock is about {{convert|4|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} north of Macauley Island.<ref name="NZ2225">[http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp Chart NZ 2225] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012150311/http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp |date=12 October 2007 }}, Hydrographic Office, Royal New Zealand Navy, 1994. Retrieved 7 May 2007.</ref>
* [[Earth:Curtis Island, New Zealand|Curtis Island]], the third largest, lies {{convert|35|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Macauley Island. It reaches a height of {{convert|137|m|ft|abbr=on}} and has an area of {{convert|0.59|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} with neighbouring Cheeseman Island.
* Nugent Island is the northernmost island. It is approximately {{convert|100|m|yd|0}} across.
* L'Esperance Rock, formerly French Rock, is {{convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Curtis Island. It is {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter, {{convert|0.05|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area, and {{convert|70|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.
* L'Havre Rock, about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-northwest of L'Esperance Rock, is submerged except at low tide.

[[Earth:Seamount|Seamount]]s north and south of the Kermadec Islands are an extension of the ridge running from Tonga to New Zealand (see [[Biology:Kermadec Islands#Geology|Geology]]). Star of Bengal Bank, {{convert|103|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of L'Esperance Rock, has a least depth of {{convert|48|m|ft}}

===Geology===
[[File:Kermadec Arc.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Bathymetry of the Kermadec volcanic island arc and surrounding areas]]
[[File:Parma kermadecensis (Kermadec scalyfin).jpg|thumb|The Kermadec scalyfin – part of the rich marine biota of the Kermadecs]]
The islands are a [[Earth:Volcano|volcanic]] [[Earth:Island arc|island arc]], formed at the [[Earth:Convergent boundary|convergent boundary]] where the [[Earth:Pacific Plate|Pacific Plate]] subducts under the [[Earth:Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian Plate]]. The subducting Pacific Plate created the [[Earth:Kermadec Trench|Kermadec Trench]], an 8&nbsp;km deep submarine trench, to the east of the islands. The islands lie along the undersea Kermadec Ridge, which runs southwest from the islands towards the North Island of {{wipe|New Zealand}} and northeast towards Tonga (Kermadec-Tonga Arc).

The four main islands are the peaks of volcanoes that rise high enough from the seabed to project above sea level. There are several other volcanoes in the chain that do not reach sea level, but form [[Earth:Seamount|seamount]]s with between 65 and 1500 m of water above their peaks. [[Earth:Monowai Seamount|Monowai Seamount]], with a depth of 120 m over its peak, is midway between Raoul Island and Tonga. 100&nbsp;km south of L'Esperance Rock is the little-explored Star of Bengal Bank, probably with submarine volcanoes.

Further south are the South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts, the southernmost of which, Rumble IV Seamount, is just 150&nbsp;km North of the North Island of New Zealand. The ridge eventually connects to White Island in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty, at the northern end of the [[Earth:Taupo Volcanic Zone|Taupo Volcanic Zone]]. The islands experience many earthquakes from plate movement and volcanism.

Raoul and Curtis are both active [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]es. The volcanoes on the other islands are currently inactive, and the smaller islands are the eroded remnants of extinct volcanoes.

From 18 to 21 July 2012, Havre Seamount (near Havre Rock) erupted, breaching the ocean surface from a depth of more than 1100 m and producing a [[Earth:Pumice raft|large raft]] of [[Earth:Pumice|pumice]] floating northwest of the volcano. The eruption was not directly observed, but it was located using earthquake and [[Earth:Remote sensing|remote sensing]] data after the pumice raft was spotted by aircraft and encountered by [[Engineering:HMNZS Canterbury (L421)|HMNZS ''Canterbury'']].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=78849 | date=14 August 2012 | accessdate=14 August 2012 |title=NASA Satellites Pinpoint Volcanic Eruption |work=NASA Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.noted.co.nz/planet/massive-kermadec-volcanic-eruption-rivalled-mt-st-helens/|title='Massive' Kermadec volcanic eruption rivalled Mt St Helens|last=Noted|website=Noted|language=en|access-date=2019-06-19}}</ref>

==Environment==

===Flora===
The islands are recognised by ecologists as a distinct [[Biology:Ecoregion|ecoregion]], the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests. It is a [[Biology:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] ecoregion, part of the [[Earth:Oceanian realm|Oceanian realm]]. The forests are dominated by the red-flowering Kermadec pōhutukawa, related to the pōhutukawa of New Zealand.  The islands are home to 113 native species of [[Biology:Vascular plant|vascular plant]]s, of which 23 are endemic, along with mosses (52 native species), lichens and fungi (89 native species). Most of the plant species are derived from New Zealand, with others from the tropical Pacific. 152 human-[[Earth:Introduced species|introduced species]] of plants have become established on the islands.

Dense subtropical forests cover most of Raoul, and formerly covered Macauley. ''Metrosideros kermadecensis'' is the dominant forest tree, forming a 10 – 15-meter high canopy. A native nikau palm (''Rhopalostylis baueri'') is another important canopy tree. The forests had a rich understory of smaller trees, shrubs, ferns, and herbs, including ''Myrsine kermadecensis''; ''[[Biology:Lobelia|Lobelia]] anceps'', ''[[Biology:Poa|Poa polyphylla]]'', ''Coprosma acutifolia'', and ''[[Biology:Coriaria arborea|Coriaria arborea]]''. Two endemic [[Biology:Tree fern|tree fern]]s, ''Cyathea milnei'' and the rare and endangered ''Cyathea kermadecensis'', are also found in the forests.

Areas near the seashore and exposed to salt spray are covered by a distinct community of shrubs and ferns, notably ''[[Biology:Myoporum|Myoporum]] obscurum'', ''[[Biology:Coprosma|Coprosma]] petiolata'', ''[[Biology:Asplenium|Asplenium]] obtusatum'', ''[[Biology:Cyperus ustulatus|Cyperus ustulatus]]'', ''Disphyma australe'', and ''[[Biology:Ficinia nodosa|Ficinia nodosa]]''.

===Fauna===
The islands have no native land mammals.  An endemic bird subspecies is the Kermadec red-crowned parakeet.  The group has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by [[Organization:BirdLife International|BirdLife International]] because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds, including white-necked and black-winged petrels, wedge-tailed and little shearwaters, sooty terns and blue noddies.<ref>BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kermadec Islands. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 3 February 2012.</ref> The area also hosts rich habitats for cetaceans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-03-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311071336/http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |archivedate=11 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In recent years, increased presences of [[Biology:Humpback whale|humpback whale]]s indicate Kermadec Islands functioning as migratory colliders, and varieties of baleen (not in great numbers) and toothed whales including [[Biology:Minke whale|minke whale]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.listener.co.nz/current-affairs/science/a-surprise-encounter-while-sailing-to-the-kermadecs/|title=A surprise encounter while sailing to the Kermadecs Islands – The Listener|last=Noted|accessdate=26 December 2016}}</ref> [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]]s, less known [[Biology:Beaked whale|beaked whale]]s, [[Biology:Killer whale|killer whale]]s, and dolphins frequent in adjacent waters.<ref>https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/getmedia/5c7fa634-52dd-4a6d-88cc-cfc146ab4033/bulletin-vol20-kermadec-biodiscovery-expedition-23-duffyetal</ref><ref>http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/file/KermadecsSantuarybooklet_2014.pdf</ref> Vast numbers of [[Biology:Southern right whale|southern right whale]]s were historically seen in southwestern areas although only a handful of recent confirmations exist around [[Earth:Raoul Island|Raoul Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youthenviroleadersforum.org/young-blake-expeditions/kermadecs-expedition-2013/learn-about-the-kermadecs/the-kermadecs-science/whales-and-dolphins/|title=Sir Peter Blake Trust|accessdate=26 December 2016}}</ref> The deep sea hydrothermal vents along the Kermadec ridge support diverse [[Earth:Extremophile|extremophile]] communities including the New Zealand blind vent crab.<ref>McLay, Colin. "New crabs from hydrothermal vents of the Kermadec Ridge submarine volcanoes, New Zealand: Gandalfus gen. nov.(Bythograeidae) and Xenograpsus (Varunidae)(Decapoda: Brachyura)." Zootaxa 1524 (2007): 1–22.</ref> Three new records of tropical reef fishes were recorded from the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve in 2015 after researchers examined hundreds of hours of unused documentary film footage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liggins|first=Libby|last2=Sweatman|first2=Jenny Ann|last3=Trnski|first3=Thomas|last4=Duffy|first4=Clinton A. J.|last5=Eddy|first5=Tyler D.|last6=Aguirre|first6=J. David|date=2020|title=Natural history footage provides new reef fish biodiversity information for a pristine but rarely visited archipelago|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60136-w|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=1–7|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-60136-w|issn=|via=|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2020/03/16/1079198?slug=new-species-accidentally-discovered-on-film|title=New species accidentally discovered on film|last=Hancock|first=Farah|date=16 March 2020|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref>

===Conservation===
The introduction of cats, [[Biology:Rat|rat]]s, and goats devastated the forests and seabirds.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Courchamp | first1 = F. | last2 = Chapuis | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Pascal | first3 = M. | doi = 10.1017/S1464793102006061 | title = Mammal invaders on islands: Impact, control and control impact | journal = Biological Reviews | volume = 78 | issue = 3 | pages = 347–383 | year = 2003 | pmid =  14558589| citeseerx = 10.1.1.507.8446 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Towns | first1 = D. R. | last2 = Broome | first2 = K. G. | doi = 10.1080/03014223.2003.9518348 | title = From small Maria to massive Campbell: Forty years of rat eradications from New Zealand islands | journal = New Zealand Journal of Zoology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 377 | year = 2003 }}</ref> Overgrazing by goats eliminated the forests of Macauley Island, leaving open grasslands, and altered the understory of Raoul Island. Predation by rats and cats reduced the seabird colonies on the main islands from millions of birds to tens of thousands. The New Zealand government has been working for the last few decades to restore the islands. New Zealand declared the islands a nature reserve in 1937, and the sea around them a marine reserve in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/northland/places/kermadec-islands/|title=Kermadec Islands: Places to go|publisher=Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|accessdate=2019-08-28}}</ref> The marine reserve surrounds each of the islands and is one of New Zealand's largest at a total area of {{convert|7480|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91350/|title=Data Table - Protected Areas - LINZ Data Service (recorded area 748000 ha)|publisher=Land Information New Zealand|accessdate=2019-08-27}}</ref>

Goats were removed from Macauley in 1970 and from Raoul in 1984, and the forests have begun to recover. The islands are still known for their bird life, and seabird colonies presently inhabit offshore islets, which are safe from introduced rats and cats. Efforts are currently underway to remove the rats and cats from the islands, as well as some of the invasive exotic plants.

Visits to the islands are restricted by the Department of Conservation. The Department allows visits to Raoul by volunteers assisting in environmental restoration or monitoring projects, and other visitors engaged in nature study. Visits to the other islands are generally restricted to those engaged in scientific study of the islands.

On 29 September 2015, New Zealand prime minister John Key announced the creation of the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary, a {{convert|620000|km²|0|abbr=on}} protected area in the Kermadec Islands region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/72497269/|title=John Key announces one of the world's largest ocean sanctuaries|author=Tracy Watkins|publisher=Stuff.co.nz|date=29 September 2015|accessdate=2019-08-28}}</ref>  However, subsequently, fishing companies and iwi bodies filed legal action opposing it, and a coalition deal with the New Zealand First party<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/98122008/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-put-on-ice-by-nz-first-catching-greens-unaware|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary put on ice by NZ First, catching Greens unaware|author=Simon Maude and Jonathan Milne|publisher=Sunday Star-Times|date=22 October 2017|accessdate=2019-08-28}}</ref> has led to the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary_updated.pdf|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary|publisher=Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|date=September 2015|accessdate=2019-08-28}}</ref> not passing its second reading as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/bills-and-laws/bills-proposed-laws/document/00DBHOH_BILL68514_1/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-bill|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill - New Zealand Parliament|publisher=Government of New Zealand|accessdate=2019-08-28}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{WWF ecoregion|name=Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests|id=oc0107}}
* [http://www.thekermadecs.org The Kermadecs: an ocean wilderness]
* [http://www.seafriends.org.nz/issues/res/kermadec/index.htm Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve] at Seafriends
* [http://mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/MFE7910_A4_Brochure_LR.pdf Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary] from the Ministry for the Environment / Manatū Mō Te Taiao

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[[Category:Island restoration]]

{{Sourceattribution|Kermadec Islands}}