View source for Biology:Menhaden

{{short description|Informal name for some fishes (genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium)}}
{{Paraphyletic group
|name = Menhaden
|image = BrevoortiaPatronus.jpg
|image_alt = Brevoortia patronus
|image_caption = ''Brevoortia patronus''
| auto = yes
| parent = Clupeidae
|includes=
* Genus ''[[Biology:Brevoortia|Brevoortia]]'' <small>T. N. Gill, 1861</small>
* Genus ''[[Biology:Ethmidium|Ethmidium]]'' <small>W. F. Thompson, 1916 </small>
|excludes=
all other genera in the family [[Biology:Clupeidae|Clupeidae]]
}}
{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | direction = vertical
 | width     = 300
 | header            = Menhaden
 | header_align      = center
 | header_background = 
 | footer            = 
 | footer_align      = 
 | footer_background = 
 | background color  = 
 | caption_align = center
 | image1    = Brevoortia patronus.jpg
 | alt1      = 
 | caption1  = [[Biology:Gulf menhaden|Gulf menhaden]], ''Brevoortia patronus''
 | image2    = Brevoortia tyrannus.jpg
 | alt2      = 
 | caption2  = [[Biology:Atlantic menhaden|Atlantic menhaden]], ''Brevoortia tyrannus''
 | image3    = Ethmidium maculatum.jpg
 | alt3      = 
 | caption3  = Pacific menhaden, ''Ethmidium maculatum''
}}

'''Menhaden''', also known as '''mossbunker''' and '''bunker''' and "the most important fish in the sea",<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Franklin |first=H. |title=The Most Important Fish in the Sea |publisher=Island Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59726-124-1}}</ref> are [[Biology:Forage fish|forage fish]] of the genera '''''Brevoortia''''' and '''''Ethmidium''''', two genera of marine fish in the family [[Biology:Clupeidae|Clupeidae]]. ''Menhaden'' is a blend of ''poghaden'' (''pogy'' for short) and an Algonquian word akin to Narragansett ''munnawhatteaûg'', derived from ''munnohquohteau'' ("he fertilizes"), referring to their use of the fish as [[Chemistry:Fertilizer|fertilizer]].<ref name="conservationmagazine1">{{cite web |url=https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2012/12/the-oiliest-catch/ |title=The Oiliest Catch |last=Conniff|first=Richard|date=7 December 2012 |website=Conservation Magazine |publisher=[[Organization:University of Washington|University of Washington]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131035501/https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2012/12/the-oiliest-catch/|archive-date=31 January 2016|url-status=live|access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> It is generally thought that Pilgrims were advised by Tisquantum (also known as Squanto) to plant menhaden with their crops.<ref name="conservationmagazine1"/>

==Description==
Menhaden are flat and have soft flesh and a deeply forked tail. They rarely exceed {{convert|15|in|cm}} in length, and have a varied weight range. [[Biology:Gulf menhaden|Gulf menhaden]] and [[Biology:Atlantic menhaden|Atlantic menhaden]] are small oily-fleshed fish, bright silver, and characterized by a series of smaller spots behind the main [[Biology:Humeral spot|humeral spot]]. They tend to have larger scales than yellowfin menhaden and finescale menhaden. In addition, yellowfin menhaden tail rays are a bright yellow in contrast to those of the Atlantic menhaden.

==Taxonomy==

Recent taxonomic work using [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] comparisons have organized the North American menhadens into large-scaled (Gulf and Atlantic menhaden) and small-scaled (Finescale and Yellowfin menhaden) designations.<ref name="anderson">{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Joel D.|year=2007|title=Systematics of the North American menhadens: molecular evolutionary reconstructions in the genus Brevoortia (Clupeiformes: Clupeidae)|url=http://fishbull.noaa.gov/1053/anderson.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Fishery Bulletin|volume=105|issue=3|pages=368–378|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721060036/http://fishbull.noaa.gov/1053/anderson.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011|access-date=10 February 2011}}</ref>

The menhaden consist of two genera and seven species:

* Genus ''[[Biology:Brevoortia|Brevoortia]]'' <small>T. N. Gill, 1861</small>
** ''Brevoortia aurea'' <small>([[Biography:Johann Baptist von Spix|Spix]] & Agassiz, 1829) </small> (Brazilian menhaden)
** ''Brevoortia gunteri'' <small>Hildebrand, 1948 </small> (Finescale menhaden)
** ''Brevoortia patronus'' <small>[[Biography:George Brown Goode|Goode]], 1878 </small> (Gulf menhaden)
** ''Brevoortia pectinata'' <small>(Jenyns, 1842) </small> (Argentine menhaden)
** ''Brevoortia smithi'' <small>Hildebrand, 1941 </small> (Yellowfin menhaden) 
** ''Brevoortia tyrannus'' <small>(Latrobe, 1802) </small> (Atlantic menhaden)
* Genus ''[[Biology:Ethmidium|Ethmidium]]'' <small>W. F. Thompson, 1916 </small>
** ''Ethmidium maculatum'' <small>(Valenciennes, 1847) </small> (Pacific menhaden)

==Distribution==
* Finescale menhaden range from the Yucatán to Louisiana
* Yellowfin menhaden range from Louisiana to Virginia
* [[Biology:Gulf menhaden|Gulf menhaden]] range from the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico to Tampa Bay, Florida
* [[Biology:Atlantic menhaden|Atlantic menhaden]] range from Jupiter Inlet, Florida, to Nova Scotia; Atlantic menhaden seasonally migrate along the coast; in June, mature adults typically are in the northern portion of the coastline with sub-adults and juveniles located in the southern portion
* The various species of menhaden occur anywhere from [[Earth:Estuary|estuarine waters]] outward to the [[Earth:Continental shelf|continental shelf]]; menhaden grow in less saline waters of estuaries and may be found in bays and lagoons, as well as at river mouths; adults appear to prefer water temperatures near 18&nbsp;°C

==Ecology==
Menhaden are [[Biology:Filter feeder|filter feeder]]s that travel in large, slow-moving, and tightly packed [[Biology:Shoaling and schooling|schools]] with open mouths. Filter feeders typically take into their open mouths "materials in the same proportions as they occur in ambient waters".<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://www.gsmfc.org/publications/GSMFC%20Number%20099.pdf|title=The Menhaden Fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, United States: A Regional Management Plan|date=March 2002|publisher=Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission|issue=99|pages=3–10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303234246/https://www.gsmfc.org/publications/GSMFC%20Number%20099.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2019|editor-last=VanderKooy|editor-first=Steven J.|editor2-last=Smith|editor2-first=Joseph W.|url-status=live}}</ref> Menhaden have two main sources of food: [[Earth:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] and [[Earth:Zooplankton|zooplankton]]. A menhaden's diet varies considerably over the course of its lifetime, and is directly related to its size. The smallest menhaden, typically those under one year old, eat primarily phytoplankton. After that age, adult menhaden gradually shift to a diet comprised almost exclusively of zooplankton.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Friedland|first1=Kevin D.|last2=Lynch|first2=Patrick D.|last3=Gobler|first3=Christopher J.|date=November 2011|title=Time Series Mesoscale Response of Atlantic Menhaden ''Brevoortia tyrannus'' to Variation in Plankton Abundances|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242329913|journal=[[Earth:Journal of Coastal Research|Journal of Coastal Research]]|volume=27|issue=6|pages=1148–1158|doi=10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00171.1|s2cid=131569331}}</ref>

Menhaden are omnivorous filter feeders, feeding by straining [[Earth:Plankton|plankton]] and [[Biology:Algae|algae]] from water. Along with [[Biology:Oyster|oyster]]s, which filter water on the seabed, menhaden play a key role in the food chain in estuaries and bays.<ref name=Discover/> Atlantic menhaden are an important link between plankton and upper level predators. Because of their filter feeding abilities, "menhaden consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.md.us |title=Maryland Department of Natural Resources |publisher=Dnr.state.md.us |date=2012-12-31 |access-date=2013-01-07}}</ref> Because they play this role, and their abundance, menhaden are an invaluable prey species for many predatory fish, such as [[Biology:Striped bass|striped bass]], [[Biology:Bluefish|bluefish]], [[Biology:Mackerel|mackerel]], [[Biology:Flounder|flounder]], [[Biology:Tuna|tuna]], drums, and [[Biology:Shark|shark]]s. They are also a very important food source for many birds, including [[Biology:Egret|egret]]s, [[Biology:Osprey|osprey]]s, seagulls, northern gannets, [[Biology:Pelican|pelican]]s, and [[Biology:Heron|heron]]s.
[[File:Menhaden fishing - purse seine boats.jpg|thumb|Purse seine boats encircling a school of menhaden]]

In 2012, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission declared that the [[Biology:Atlantic menhaden|Atlantic menhaden]] was depleted due to overfishing. The decision was driven by issues with water quality in the Chesapeake Bay and failing efforts to re-introduce predator species, due to lack of menhaden on which they could feed.<ref name="conservationmagazine1"/>

Menhaden are crucial not only because of their keystone species-status in the food web, but also because of their ecological services. The way menhaden filter feed on phytoplankton helps to mitigate toxic algal blooms. These algal blooms, which are often detrimental to a number of fish, bird, and marine mammal species, create hypoxic conditions. The phytoplankton being preyed upon are photosynthetic organisms, converting sunlight into energy which is then transferred to menhaden and then to bigger species of fish or other larger marine organisms such as birds or mammals. The consequence of this behavior is that if menhaden are eliminated or significantly decreased, there are limited means of energy transfer among trophic levels – making menhaden a true keystone species with ecological services that are invaluable to humans.

=== Habitat ===
Menhaden are a pelagic schooling fish that migrate inshore during the summer and off-shore in the winter months. The juvenile and larval menhaden migrate to shore and in-land waterways through currents during summer months to grow while feeding on the phytoplankton and eventually zooplankton once they have matured. Commercially caught menhaden have been recorded in waters of around 5 to 24 ‰, as well as in hypersaline waters around 60 ‰.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture – Aquatic species|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/2899/en|access-date=2020-12-04|website=fao.org}}</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
Menhaden reproduce in open oceans externally, however, the female does not carry eggs with them during the process as they are released into the water column at the planktonic level at gametes and sperm. Currently, functional hermaphroditism is unknown to the species and identification of sex of the individual organism cannot be determined externally due to the lack of accessory reproductive organs.<ref name=":02">{{cite report|last=Reintjes|first=John W. |title=FAO Species Synopsis No. 42: Synopsis of Biological Data on the Atlantic Menhaden, ''Brevoortia tyrannus'' |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries|website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Washington, DC|date=November 1969 |url=https://www.fao.org/3/ap905e/ap905e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129101317/http://www.fao.org/3/ap905e/ap905e.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-29 |url-status=live|access-date=14 November 2022|id=Circular 320}}</ref> These fish breed during the winter months through December to March and the eggs and juveniles navigate towards estuaries and inland waterways through tides and currents.<ref name=":02" />

==Human intake==
Menhaden are not used directly for food. They are [[Engineering:Food processing|processed]] into fish oil and [[Chemistry:Fish meal|fish meal]] that are used as food ingredients, animal feed, and dietary supplements.<ref name="Discover">{{Cite web|url=https://discovermagazine.com/2001/sep/featfish|title=The Most Important Fish in the Sea|last1=Tavee|first1=Tom|last2=Franklin|first2=H. Bruce|date=1 September 2001|website=Discover|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808141614/https://discovermagazine.com/2001/sep/featfish|archive-date=8 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The flesh has a high [[Chemistry:Omega-3 fatty acid|omega-3 fat]] content. Fish oil made from menhaden also is used as a raw material for products such as lipstick.<ref name=greenberg/>

===Fisheries===
[[File:Time series for global capture of all menhaden 2.png|thumb|{{center|Global commercial capture of menhaden in million tonnes 1950–2010<ref name=FAOdata>Based on data sourced from the relevant [http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/search/en FAO Species Fact Sheets]</ref>}}]]
[[File:Global total production menhaden.png|thumb|{{center|Capture of menhaden in 2010 reported by the FAO<ref name=FAOdata />}}]]

According to the [[Organization:Virginia Institute of Marine Science|Virginia Institute of Marine Science]] (VIMS), there are two established commercial fisheries for menhaden. The first is known as a reduction fishery. The second is known as a bait fishery, which harvests menhaden for the use of both commercial and recreational fishermen. Commercial fishermen, especially [[Biology:Crab fisheries|crabbers]] in the Chesapeake Bay area, use menhaden to bait their traps or hooks. The recreational fisherman use ground menhaden chum as a fish attractant, and whole fish as bait. The total harvest is approximately 500 million fish per year.<ref name="greenberg">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/16/opinion/16greenberg.html|title=A Fish Oil Story|last=Greenberg|first=Paul|date=15 December 2009|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}|access-date=10 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020812/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/16/opinion/16greenberg.html|archive-date=7 February 2019|url-status=live|}}</ref> Atlantic menhaden are harvested using purse seines.

[[Company:Omega Protein|Omega Protein]] – a reduction fishery company with operations in the northwest Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico – takes 90% of the total menhaden harvest in the United States.<ref name=greenberg/> In October 2005, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) approved an addendum to Amendment 1 of the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden, which "established a five-year annual cap on reduction fishery landings in the Chesapeake Bay", imposing a limit on reduction fishery operations for 2006–2010. In November 2006, that cap was established at 109,020 metric tons;<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/546b96d4AtlMenhadenAddendumIII_06.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408041735/http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file//546b96d4AtlMenhadenAddendumIII_06.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-08 |url-status=live|title=Addendum III to Amendment 1 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden|date=November 2006|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|pages=2–3|access-date=24 March 2019}}</ref> this cap remained in place until 2013.<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file//53b1b0a9addendumIV.pdf|title=Addendum IV to Amendment 1 to the Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan|date=November 2009|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318163252/http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file//53b1b0a9addendumIV.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In December 2012, in the face of the depletion of Atlantic menhaden, the ASMFC implemented another cap, effective in 2013 and 2014, for the Chesapeake Bay, this time at 87,216 metric tons, as well as a total allowable catch (TAC) of the species of 170,800 metric tons, a 20% reduction from the 2009–2011 average.<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/atlanticMenhadenAmendment2_Dec2012.pdf|title=Amendment 2 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden|date=December 2012|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|pages=47, 55|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318163248/http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/atlanticMenhadenAmendment2_Dec2012.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bayjournal.com/article/omega_protein_makes_good_on_threat_to_cut_jobs_but_it_doesnt_have_to|title=Omega Protein makes good on threat to cut jobs; but it doesn't have to|last=Fairbrother|first=Alison|date=31 March 2013|website=Bay Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629090442/https://www.bayjournal.com/article/omega_protein_makes_good_on_threat_to_cut_jobs_but_it_doesnt_have_to|archive-date=29 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The TAC was subsequently raised for 2015 and 2016 to 187,880 metric tons.<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/57ae1f86AtlanticMenhadenAddendumItoAm2_Aug2016.pdf|title=Addendum I to Amendment 2 of the Atlantic Menhaden Interstate Fishery Management Plan|date=August 2016|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318163244/http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/57ae1f86AtlanticMenhadenAddendumItoAm2_Aug2016.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The cap in the Chesapeake Bay was further lowered in November 2017 to 51,000 metric tons, but this came alongside a higher TAC of 216,000 metric tons.<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file//5a4c02e1AtlanticMenhadenAmendment3_Nov2017.pdf|title=Amendment 3 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden|date=November 2017|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|page=iii, v|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318163236/http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file//5a4c02e1AtlanticMenhadenAmendment3_Nov2017.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/omega-protein-critical-of-asmfc-actions-on-chesapeake-menhaden|title=Omega Protein critical of ASMFC actions on Chesapeake menhaden|last=Bittenbender|first=Steve|date=7 May 2018|website=SeafoodSource|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324190556/https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/omega-protein-critical-of-asmfc-actions-on-chesapeake-menhaden|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live|access-date=24 March 2019}}</ref> Omega Protein has been openly critical of these caps.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

====Uses for menhaden oil====

Despite not being a popular fish for consumption, menhaden oil has many uses not only for humans but also for other animals. One element of menhaden oil is that it is high in omega-3 fatty acids. This molecule helps with lowering blood pressure, fixing abnormal heartbeats, reducing the chance of a heart attack or stroke, and other health benefits. It is due to this that menhaden oil can be used in supplements to help with the previously mentioned issues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hargis|first1=P.S.|last2=Van Elswyk|first2=M.E.|last3=Hargis|first3=B.M|date=1991-04-01|title=Dietary Modification of Yolk Lipid with Menhaden Oil|journal=Poultry Science|volume=70|issue=4|pages=874–883|doi=10.3382/ps.0700874|pmid=1908579|issn=0032-5791|doi-access=free}}</ref>

One way that menhaden oil benefits animals is seen in chickens. When menhaden oil was given to chickens in their feed, they had a lower chance of [[Medicine:Fatty liver disease|fatty liver disease]].<ref name=":2" /> This was because of menhaden oil's high omega-3 fatty acid content which took the place of omega-6 fatty acid which is not as beneficial to animals. Another animal that benefits from omega-3 in menhaden oil is guinea pigs. When given menhaden oil in feed guinea pigs were shown to have a longer life span.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Mascioli|first1=E A|last2=Iwasa|first2=Y|last3=Trimbo|first3=S|last4=Leader|first4=L|last5=Bistrian|first5=B R|last6=Blackburn|first6=G L|date=1989-02-01|title=Endotoxin challenge after menhaden oil diet: effects on survival of guinea pigs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/49.2.277|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=49|issue=2|pages=277–282|doi=10.1093/ajcn/49.2.277|pmid=2492743|issn=0002-9165}}</ref>

====Risks of overfishing====
[[File:Juvenile menhaden in the Chesapeake Bay, 1959–2019.png|thumb|Bay-wide Geometric Mean Catch per Haul in the Chesapeake Bay of Atlantic Menhaden reported by the Chesapeake Bay Foundation in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atlantic Menhaden|url=https://www.cbf.org/about-the-bay/more-than-just-the-bay/chesapeake-wildlife/menhaden/index.html|access-date=2020-12-10|website=cbf.org}}</ref>]]
According to the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, menhaden are the most important fish in the Bay.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Atlantic Menhaden|url=https://www.cbf.org/about-the-bay/more-than-just-the-bay/chesapeake-wildlife/menhaden/index.html|access-date=2020-12-09|website=cbf.org}}</ref> This is because they are a food source for many commercial important species like striped bass. They also manage the algal bloom occurrences in the Bay because they eat phytoplankton. Decreases in menhaden populations could also leave striped bass vulnerable to disease. In the past 20 years, the number of juvenile menhaden produced in the Chesapeake Bay have been decreasing (Refer to Atlantic Menhaden Graph on bay-wide mean catch per haul).<ref name=":4" />

This is believed to be due to the overfishing of menhaden for their fish oil. This could seriously disrupt the food chain. In response, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) put a cap on the Atlantic menhaden harvest in October 2020. This 10% cut to the harvest is the first to ever be seen for menhaden coast-wide.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Fisheries Panel Cuts Atlantic Menhaden Harvest by 10 Percent|url=https://www.cbf.org/news-media/newsroom/2020/all/fisheries-panel-cuts-atlantic-menhaden-harvest-by-10-percent.html|access-date=2020-12-09|website=cbf.org}}</ref> It also was the first vote to consider benchmarks known as "ecological reference points".<ref name=":4" /> This allows managers to account for a species role in the food chain when setting catch limits. This is different from the "single-species stock assessments" that were previously used which only accounted for the demand from the fishing industry rather than the demand from the food web.<ref name=":4" /> This cut to the harvest established a quota of 194,400 metric tons of menhaden for the 2021–2022 fishing season.<ref name=":5" /> It is the hope that this cut will allow menhaden to fulfill their role in the ecosystem while keeping the commercial fishery alive.

==Cultural significance==
After menhaden had been identified as a valuable alternative to [[Earth:Whale oil|whale oil]] in the 1870s, the menhaden fishery on the Chesapeake was worked by predominantly African-American crews on open boats hauling [[Engineering:Seine fishing|purse seines]]. The men employed sea chanties to help synchronize the hauling of the nets. These chanties pulled from West African, blues, and gospel sources and created a uniquely African American culture of chanty singing. By the late 1950s, hydraulic winches replaced the large crews of manual haulers, and the menhaden chanty tradition declined.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Harold|date=January–February 2000|title=Menhaden Chanteys: An African American Maritime Legacy|url=https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/MN18_1_MenhadenChanteys.PDF|url-status=live|journal=Maryland Marine Notes|location=College Park, Maryland|publisher=[[Organization:University System of Maryland|Maryland Sea Grant College]]|volume=18|pages=1–6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324034410/https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/MN18_1_MenhadenChanteys.PDF|archive-date=24 March 2019|number=1}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==

*{{ITIS
 | id = 161731
 | taxon = Brevoortia
 | access-date = 6 June 2006
 }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Pauly|first=Daniel|date=2 November 2007|title=Fisheries: Tales of a small, but crucial, fish|url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/magazines/2007/Science_TalesOfASmallCrucialFish.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Science|volume=318|issue=5851|pages=750–751|doi=10.1126/science.1147800|s2cid=129523541|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704184428/http://www.seaaroundus.org/magazines/2007/Science_TalesOfASmallCrucialFish.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2017|access-date=23 March 2019}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.menhadenmatter.org/links.html|title=Useful menhaden links|publisher=Menhaden Matter|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516195450/http://www.menhadenmatter.org/links.html|archive-date=16 May 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.chesapeakebay.net/atlanticmenhadenmanagement.aspx?menuitem=15378|title=Atlantic Menhaden Management|publisher=Chesapeake Bay Program|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426202039/http://www.chesapeakebay.net/atlanticmenhadenmanagement.aspx?menuitem=15378|archive-date=26 April 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite speech|title=Interactions of Striped Bass, Bluefish and Forage Species|first=Thomas P.|last=Fote|date=21 April 1997|event=Congressional Testimony|url=https://www.jcaa.org/congress/970421CO.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502131550/https://www.jcaa.org/congress/970421CO.htm|archive-date=2 May 2016|url-status=live|publisher=Jersey Coast Anglers Association|access-date=23 March 2019}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/geartype/249/en|title=Geartype Fact Sheets: Purse Seines|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327233624/http://www.fao.org/fishery/geartype/249/en|archive-date=27 March 2018|url-status=live|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite report|title=The Economic Importance and Value of Menhaden in the Chesapeake Bay Region|last=Kirkley|first=James E.|date=2006|location=Gloucester Point, Virginia}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.menhaden.org/management_conflict.htm|title=Management: Conflict & Competition|publisher=Menhaden Resource Council|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072047/http://www.menhaden.org/management_conflict.htm|archive-date=9 May 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.md.us/fisheries/fishfacts/menhaden.asp|title=Maryland Fish Facts: Atlantic Menhaden|date=5 April 2007|publisher=Maryland Department of Natural Resources|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602180209/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/fisheries/fishfacts/menhaden.asp|archive-date=2 June 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.vims.edu/myco/FAQ.html|title=''Mycobacteriosis'': Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=[[Organization:Virginia Institute of Marine Science|Virginia Institute of Marine Science]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304110838/http://www.vims.edu/myco/FAQ.html|archive-date=4 March 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite web|url=https://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/invertebrates/plankton/Planktonprintout.shtml|title=Plankton|website=Enchanted Learning|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523154442/https://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/invertebrates/plankton/Planktonprintout.shtml|archive-date=23 May 2018|url-status=live|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.savethefish.org/action_items_striped_bass_EAN8.htm|title=Save the Stripers: Menhaden Update|date=24 October 2007|publisher=National Coalition for Marine Conservation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509062912/http://www.savethefish.org/action_items_striped_bass_EAN8.htm|archive-date=9 May 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=20 April 2008}}
*{{Cite report|url=http://www.southwickassociates.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/VirginiaMenhaden.pdf|title=Menhaden Math: The Economic Impact of Atlantic Menhaden on Virginia's Recreational and Commercial Fisheries|last1=Southwich Associates, Inc.|last2=Loftus|first2=Andrew J.|date=February 2006|publisher=American Sportfishing Association; Coastal Conservation Association; National Coalition for Marine Conservation; Theodore Roosevelt Conservation Partnership|access-date=20 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324043325/http://www.southwickassociates.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/VirginiaMenhaden.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}
*Virginia Institute of Marine Science (2009). Several menhaden research projects, currently unpublished.
*{{Cite journal|last1=Durbin|first1=Ann G.|last2=Durbin|first2=Edward G.|date=September 1998|title=Effects of Menhaden Predation on Plankton Populations in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226342302|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=21|issue=3|pages=449–465|doi=10.2307/1352843|jstor=1352843|s2cid=85155711|access-date=23 March 2019}}
*{{Cite report|url=http://www.mrc.virginia.gov/vsrfdf/pdf/RF_CF05-01_Mar07.pdf|title=Final Report to the VMRC and RFAB: What is the cause of menhaden recruitment failure? Quantifying the role of striped bass predation.|last1=Smith|first1=Nathan G.|last2=Jones|first2=Cynthia M.|date=2007|id=RF 05-01|access-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803195210/http://www.mrc.virginia.gov/vsrfdf/pdf/RF_CF05-01_Mar07.pdf|archive-date=3 August 2007|url-status=live}}
*{{Cite thesis|last=Lynch|first=Patrick D.|title=Feeding ecology of the Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) in Chesapeake Bay|date=December 2007|degree=Master's|publisher=[[Organization:Virginia Institute of Marine Science|Virginia Institute of Marine Science]]|url=https://www.vims.edu/people/latour_rj/pubs/Lynch07.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318180925/https://www.vims.edu/people/latour_rj/pubs/Lynch07.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2018|url-status=live|access-date=23 March 2019}}
*{{Cite journal|last1=Friendland|first1=Kevin D.|last2=Ahrenholz|first2=Dean W.|last3=Smith|first3=Joseph W.|last4=Manning|first4=Maureen|last5=Ryan|first5=Julia|date=December 2006|title=Sieving functional morphology of the gill raker feeding apparatus of Atlantic menhaden|journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological Genetics and Physiology|volume=305|issue=12|pages=974–985|doi=10.1002/jez.a.348|pmid=17041916}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.keepamericafishing.org/action/article_ne/managing_menhaden|title=Saving Striped Bass by Managing Menhaden|website=Keep America Fishing|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406232623/http://www.keepamericafishing.org/action/article_ne/managing_menhaden|archive-date=6 April 2011|url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite report|url=http://www.asmfc.org/speciesDocuments/menhaden/reports/stockAssessments/2006StockAssessmentReport.pdf|title=2006 Stock Assessment Report for Atlantic Menhaden|date=26 September 2006|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926173944/http://www.asmfc.org/speciesDocuments/menhaden/reports/stockAssessments/2006StockAssessmentReport.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2012|url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite web|url=https://www.asmfc.org/species/atlantic-menhaden|title=Atlantic Menhaden|publisher=Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318154756/https://www.asmfc.org/species/atlantic-menhaden|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=live|access-date=23 March 2019}}
*{{Cite report|url=https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/EBFM-Menhaden-Summary.pdf|title=Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management in Chesapeake Bay: Atlantic Menhaden|last=Menhaden Species Team|date=March 2011|publisher=[[Organization:University System of Maryland|Maryland Sea Grant College]]|location=College Park, Maryland|access-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224010616/https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/EBFM-Menhaden-Summary.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2015|url-status=live}}

==External links==
{{NIE Poster|Menhaden}}
* [http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ NOAA Fisheries] | NMFS
*[https://www.asmfc.org Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission] | ASMFC
*[https://www.gsmfc.org Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission] | GSMFC

{{commercial fish topics}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q4844347|from2=Q15219850}}

[[Category:Alosinae]]

{{Sourceattribution|Menhaden|1}}