View source for Biology:Monocotyledon

{{Short description|Clade of flowering plants}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Monocotyledons
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|125|Recent|[[Earth:Early Cretaceous|Early Cretaceous]] – Recent}}
| image = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Wheat_close-up.JPG
| photo1b = Araceae_Colocasia_esculenta_1.jpg
| photo2a =  Phoenix_Dactylifera_Date_Palm_Fields_South_Coast_Wholesale.jpg
| photo2b = Seagrass_Zostera_marina_(Dzharylhach_island).jpg
| photo3a = Lily_Lilium_'Citronella'_Flower.jpg
| photo3b =Pandanus_heterocarpus_02.jpg
| photo4b = Ginger_plants.jpg
}}
| image_caption = Diversity of monocots which includes [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]] (''Triticum''), [[Biology:Taro|taro]] (''Colocasia esculenta''), [[Biology:Date palm|date palm]], (''Phoenix dactylifera''), ''[[Biology:Zostera marina|Zostera marina]]'', [[Biology:Lilium|lily]] (''Lilium''), ''[[Biology:Pandanus heterocarpus|Pandanus heterocarpus]]'', and [[Biology:Ginger|ginger]] (''Zingiber officinale'')
| taxon = Monocots
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision = :* [[Biology:Alismatid monocots|alismatid monocots]]
::* [[Biology:Acorales|Acorales]]
::* [[Biology:Alismatales|Alismatales]]
:* [[Biology:Lilioid monocots|lilioid monocots]]
::* [[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]]
::* [[Biology:Dioscoreales|Dioscoreales]]
::* [[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]]
::* [[Biology:Pandanales|Pandanales]]
::* [[Biology:Petrosaviales|Petrosaviales]]
:* commelinid monocots
::* [[Biology:Arecales|Arecales]]
::* [[Biology:Commelinales|Commelinales]]
::* [[Biology:Poales|Poales]]
::* [[Biology:Zingiberales|Zingiberales]]
| synonyms = * Alternifoliae <small>Bessey</small>{{sfn|Bessey|1915}}
* Endogenae <small>DC.</small>{{sfn|de Candolle|1819}}
* [[Biology:Lilianae|Lilianae]] <small>Takht.</small><ref name=Tropiclilianae/>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1966}}
* Liliatae <small> Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm.</small>{{efn|In 1964, Takhtajan proposed that classes including Monocotyledons, be formally named with the suffix ''-atae'', so that the principle of [[Biology:Type|typification]] resulted in Liliatae for monocotyledons.{{sfn|Takhtajan|1964}} The proposal was formally described in 1966 by Cronquist, Takhtajan and Zimmermann,{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} from which is derived the descriptor "liliates".}}{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} 
* [[Biology:Liliidae|Liliidae]] <small>Takht.{{efn|[[Biology:Tropicos|Tropicos]] gives an earlier authority, J.H. Schaffn. 1911<ref name=Tropicliliidae/>}}</small>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1966}}{{sfn|Thorne|1992a}}
* [[Biology:Liliopsida|Liliopsida]] <small>Batsch</small><ref name=Tropiclilio/>
* Monocotyleae <small>Eichler</small>{{sfn|Eichler|1886}}
* Monocotyledonae <small>E.Morren ex Mez</small><ref name=Tropicmono/>{{efn|Cronquist{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} attributes this term to De Candolle as DC. 1818 Syst. 1: 122{{sfn|de Candolle|1818–1821}}}}
* Monocotyledones
| authority = 
| type_genus = ''[[Biology:Lilium|Lilium]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L.]]{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}}
}}

'''Monocotyledons''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɒ|n|ə|ˌ|k|ɒ|t|ə|ˈ|l|iː|d|ə|n|z}}),{{efn|An Anglo-Latin pronunciation.<br>{{OED|monocotyledon}}}}<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|monocotyledon}}</ref><ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|monocotyledon}}</ref> commonly referred to as '''monocots''', ('''[[Biology:Lilianae|Lilianae]]''' ''[[Biology:Sensu|sensu]]'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]]s (angiosperms), the [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s of which typically contain only one [[Biology:Embryo#Plant embryos|embryo]]nic leaf, or [[Biology:Cotyledon|cotyledon]]. They constitute one of the major groups into which the flowering plants have traditionally been divided; the rest of the flowering plants have two cotyledons and are classified as [[Biology:Dicotyledon|dicotyledon]]s, or dicots.

Monocotyledons have almost always been recognized as a group, but with various taxonomic ranks and under several different names. The [[Biology:APG III system|APG III system]] of 2009 recognises a clade called "monocots" but does not assign it to a taxonomic rank.

The monocotyledons include about 70,000 species, about a quarter of all angiosperms. The largest family in this group (and in the flowering plants as a whole) by number of species are the orchids (family [[Biology:Orchidaceae|Orchidaceae]]), with more than 20,000 species. About 12,000 species belong to the true grasses ([[Biology:Poaceae|Poaceae]]), which are economically the most important  family of monocotyledons. Often mistaken for grasses, sedges are also monocots.

In [[Earth:Agriculture|agriculture]] the majority of the [[Biology:Biomass|biomass]] produced comes from monocotyledons. These include not only major [[Biology:Cereal|grains]] ([[Biology:Rice|rice]], [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]], [[Biology:Maize|maize]], etc.), but also forage grasses, sugar cane, the [[Biology:Bamboo|bamboo]]s, and many other common food and decorative crops.

==Description==
[[File:Allium crenulatum 5231.JPG|thumb|right|''[[Biology:Allium crenulatum|Allium crenulatum]]'' (Asparagales), an onion, with typical monocot perianth and parallel leaf venation]]
[[Image:Onion slice.jpg|thumb|Onion slice: the cross-sectional view shows the veins that run in parallel along the length of the bulb and stem]]

=== General ===
The monocots or monocotyledons have, as the name implies, a single (mono-) [[Biology:Cotyledon|cotyledon]], or embryonic leaf, in their [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s. Historically, this feature was used to contrast the monocots with the [[Biology:Dicotyledon|dicotyledon]]s or dicots which typically have two cotyledons; however, modern research has shown that the dicots are not a natural group, and the term can only be used to indicate all angiosperms that are not monocots and is used in that respect here. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic (as they are only present for a very short period in a plant's life), nor is it completely reliable. The single cotyledon is only one of a number of modifications of the [[Biology:Body plan|body plan]] of the ancestral monocotyledons, whose adaptive advantages are poorly understood, but may have been related to adaption to aquatic habitats, prior to radiation to terrestrial habitats. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, despite considerable diversity in terms of external morphology.{{sfn|Tillich|1998}} However, morphological features that reliably characterise major clades are rare.{{sfn|Rudall|Buzgo|2002}}

Thus monocots are distinguishable from other angiosperms both in terms of their uniformity and diversity. On the one hand, the organization of the shoots, leaf structure, and floral configuration are more uniform than in the remaining angiosperms, yet within these constraints a wealth of diversity exists, indicating a high degree of evolutionary success.{{sfn|Vogel|1998}} Monocot [[Earth:Species diversity|diversity]] includes [[Biology:Perennial|perennial]] [[Biology:Geophytes|geophytes]] such as ornamental flowers including orchids ([[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]]); tulips and lilies ([[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]]); rosette and succulent epiphytes (Asparagales); mycoheterotrophs (Liliales, [[Biology:Dioscoreales|Dioscoreales]], [[Biology:Pandanales|Pandanales]]), all in the [[Biology:Lilioid monocots|lilioid monocots]]; major [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]] grains ([[Biology:Maize|maize]], [[Biology:Rice|rice]], [[Biology:Barley|barley]], [[Biology:Rye|rye]], oats, [[Biology:Millet|millet]], [[Biology:Sorghum|sorghum]] and [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]]) in the grass family; and forage grasses ([[Biology:Poales|Poales]]) as well as woody tree-like palm trees ([[Biology:Arecales|Arecales]]), [[Biology:Bamboo|bamboo]], [[Biology:Reed (plant)|reed]]s and bromeliads (Poales), bananas and [[Biology:Ginger|ginger]] ([[Biology:Zingiberales|Zingiberales]]) in the commelinid monocots, as well as both emergent (Poales, [[Biology:Acorales|Acorales]]) and aroids, as well as floating or submerged aquatic plants such as [[Biology:Seagrass|seagrass]] ([[Biology:Alismatales|Alismatales]]).{{sfn|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998}}{{sfn|Davis et al.|2013}}{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

=== Vegetative ===
====Organisation, growth and life forms====
The most important distinction is their growth pattern, lacking a lateral meristem ([[Biology:Cambium|cambium]]) that allows for continual growth in diameter with height ([[Biology:Secondary growth|secondary growth]]), and therefore this characteristic is a basic limitation in shoot construction. Although largely herbaceous, some arboraceous monocots reach great height, length and mass. The latter include agaves, palms, pandans, and bamboos.{{sfn|Du et al|2016}}{{sfn|Soltis|Soltis|2016}} This creates challenges in water transport that monocots deal with in various ways. Some, such as species of ''[[Biology:Yucca|Yucca]]'', develop anomalous secondary growth, while palm trees utilise an anomalous primary growth form described as establishment growth (''see'' Vascular system). The axis undergoes primary thickening, that progresses from internode to internode, resulting in a typical inverted conical shape of the basal primary axis (''see'' Tillich, Figure 1). The limited conductivity also contributes to limited branching of the stems. Despite these limitations a wide variety of adaptive growth forms has resulted (Tillich, Figure 2) from epiphytic orchids (Asparagales) and bromeliads (Poales) to submarine [[Biology:Alismatales|Alismatales]] (including the reduced [[Biology:Lemnoideae|Lemnoideae]]) and mycotrophic [[Biology:Burmanniaceae|Burmanniaceae]] (Dioscreales) and [[Biology:Triuridaceae|Triuridaceae]] (Pandanales). Other forms of adaptation include the climbing vines of [[Biology:Araceae|Araceae]] (Alismatales) which use negative phototropism (skototropism) to locate [[Biology:Host|host]] trees (''i.e.'' the darkest area),{{sfn|Strong|Ray|1975}} while some palms such as ''[[Biology:Calamus (palm)|Calamus manan]]'' ([[Biology:Arecales|Arecales]]) produce the longest shoots in the plant kingdom, up to 185&nbsp;m long.{{sfn|Dransfield|1978}} Other monocots, particularly [[Biology:Poales|Poales]], have adopted a therophyte life form.<ref name=Tillichfig1/><ref name=MausethAFG/>{{sfn|Petit et al|2014}}{{sfn|Tomlinson|Esler|1973}}{{sfn|Leck et al|2008}}

====Leaves====
<!--there's at least one wikilink here so leave an anchor if you change the heading-->
The cotyledon, the primordial Angiosperm [[Biology:Leaf|leaf]] consists of a proximal leaf base or hypophyll and a distal hyperphyll. In monocots the hypophyll tends to be the dominant part in contrast to other angiosperms. From these, considerable diversity arises. Mature monocot leaves are generally narrow and linear, forming a sheathing around the stem at its base, although there are many exceptions. Leaf venation is of the striate type, mainly arcuate-striate or longitudinally striate (parallel), less often palmate-striate or pinnate-striate with the leaf veins emerging at the leaf base and then running together at the apices. There is usually only one leaf per node because the leaf base encompasses more than half the circumference.{{sfn|Tomlinson|1970}} The evolution of this monocot characteristic has been attributed to developmental differences in early zonal differentiation rather than meristem activity (leaf base theory).{{sfn|Tillich|1998}}{{sfn|Rudall|Buzgo|2002}}<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>

====Roots and underground organs====
The lack of cambium in the primary [[Biology:Root|root]] limits its ability to grow sufficiently to maintain the plant. This necessitates early development of roots derived from the shoot (adventitious roots). In addition to roots, monocots develop [[Biology:Stolon|runners]] and rhizomes, which are creeping shoots. Runners serve vegetative propagation, have elongated internodes, run on or just below the surface of the soil and in most case bear scale leaves. Rhizomes frequently have an additional storage function and rhizome producing plants are considered [[Biology:Geophytes|geophytes]] (Tillich, Figure 11). Other geophytes develop bulbs, a short axial body bearing leaves whose bases store food. Additional outer non-storage leaves may form a protective function (Tillich, Figure 12). Other storage organs may be tubers or corms, swollen axes. Tubers may form at the end of underground runners and persist. Corms are short lived vertical shoots with terminal inflorescences and shrivel once flowering has occurred. However, intermediate forms may occur such as in ''[[Biology:Crocosmia|Crocosmia]]'' (Asparagales). Some monocots may also produce shoots that grow directly down into the soil, these are geophilous shoots (Tillich, Figure 11) that help overcome the limited trunk stability of large woody monocots.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/><ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>{{sfn|Chase|2004}}{{sfn|Tillich|1998}}

=== Reproductive ===
====Flowers====
In nearly all cases the [[Biology:Perianth|perigone]] consists of two alternating trimerous [[Biology:Whorl (botany)|whorls]] of tepals, being homochlamydeous, without differentiation between calyx and corolla. In zoophilous (pollinated by animals) taxa, both whorls are corolline (petal-like). [[Biology:Anthesis|Anthesis]] (the period of flower opening) is usually fugacious (short lived). Some of the more persistent perigones demonstrate thermonastic opening and closing (responsive to changes in temperature). About two thirds of monocots are zoophilous, predominantly by insects. These plants need to advertise to pollinators and do so by way of [[Biology:Glossary of botanical terms#phaneranthous|phaneranthous]] (showy) flowers. Such optical signalling is usually a function of the tepal whorls but may also be provided by semaphylls (other structures such as [[Biology:Stamen|filaments]], staminodes or stylodia which have become modified to attract pollinators). However, some monocot plants may have [[Biology:Glossary of botanical terms#aphananthous|aphananthous]] (inconspicuous) flowers and still be pollinated by animals. In these the plants rely either on chemical attraction or other structures such as coloured bracts fulfill the role of optical attraction. In some phaneranthous plants such structures may reinforce floral structures. The production of fragrances for olfactory signalling are common in monocots. The perigone also functions as a landing platform for pollinating insects.
{{sfn|Vogel|1998}}

====Fruit and seed====
The [[Biology:Embryo#Plant embryos|embryo]] consists of a single cotyledon, usually with two vascular bundles.<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>

===Comparison with dicots===
[[File:Monocot vs dicot crop Pengo.jpg|thumb|Comparison of a monocot (grass: Poales) sprouting (left) with a dicot (right){{efn|Monocots show hypogeal development in which the cotyledon remains invisible within the seed, underground. The visible part is the first true leaf produced from the meristem}}]]
[[File:Joshua Tree 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Yucca brevifolia]]'' (Joshua Tree: Asparagales)
]]
The traditionally listed differences between monocots and dicots are as follows. This is a broad sketch only, not invariably applicable, as there are a number of exceptions. The differences indicated are more true for monocots versus [[Biology:Eudicots|eudicots]].{{sfn|Chase|2004}}{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}}{{sfn|Stevens|2015}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Feature
! In monocots
! In dicots
|-
| Growth form
| Mostly herbaceous, occasionally arboraceous
| Herbaceous or arboraceous
|-
| Leaves{{sfn|Rudall|Buzgo|2002}} 
| Leaf shape oblong or linear, often sheathed at base, [[Biology:Petiole (botany)|petiole]] seldom developed, stipules absent. Major [[Biology:Leaf#Veins|leaf veins]] usually [[Biology:Leaf#Venation|parallel]] 
| Broad, seldom sheathed, petiole common often with stipules. Veins usually [[Biology:Leaf#Venation|reticulate]] (pinnate or palmate)
|-
| [[Biology:Root|Root]]s
| Primary root of short duration, replaced by adventitial roots forming fibrous or fleshy root systems 
| Develops from the [[Biology:Radicle|radicle]]. Primary root often persists forming strong taproot and secondary roots
|-
| [[Biology:Plant stem|Plant stem]]: Vascular bundles 
| Numerous scattered bundles in ground parenchyma, [[Biology:Cambium|cambium]] rarely present, no differentiation between [[Biology:Cortex (botany)|cortical]] and [[Biology:Stele|stelar]] regions
| Ring of primary bundles with cambium, differentiated into cortex and stele (eustelic)
|-
| Flowers
| Parts in threes ([[Biology:Merosity|trimerous]]) or multiples of three (''e.g.'' 3, 6 or 9 petals)
| Fours (tetramerous) or fives (pentamerous)
|-
| [[Biology:Pollen|Pollen]]: Number of [[Biology:Aperture (botany)|apertures]] (furrows or pores)
| Monocolpate (single aperture or colpus)
| [[Biology:Tricolpate|Tricolpate]] (three)
|-
| Embryo: Number of [[Biology:Cotyledon|cotyledon]]s (leaves in the [[Biology:Seed|seed]])
| One, [[Biology:Endosperm|endosperm]] frequently present in seed
| Two, endosperm present or absent
|}
{{multiple image
| header    = Comparison of monocots and dicots
| align     = center
| image1    = Monocot vs Dicot.svg
| caption1  =
| alt1      = Illustrations of differences between monocots and dicots
| width1    = 450
}}

A number of these differences are not unique to the monocots, and, while still useful, no one single feature will infallibly identify a plant as a monocot.{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}} For example, trimerous flowers and monosulcate pollen are also found in magnoliids,{{sfn|Chase|2004}} and exclusively adventitious roots are found in some of the [[Biology:Piperaceae|Piperaceae]].{{sfn|Chase|2004}} Similarly, at least one of these traits, parallel leaf veins, is far from universal among the monocots. Broad leaves and reticulate leaf veins, features typical of dicots, are found in a wide variety of monocot families: for example, ''[[Biology:Trillium|Trillium]]'', ''[[Biology:Smilax|Smilax]]'' (greenbriar), ''[[Biology:Pogonia (plant)|Pogonia]]'' (an orchid), and the [[Biology:Dioscoreales|Dioscoreales]] (yams).{{sfn|Chase|2004}} ''[[Biology:Potamogeton|Potamogeton]]'' and ''[[Biology:Paris quadrifolia|Paris quadrifolia]]'' (herb-paris) are examples of monocots with tetramerous flowers. Other plants exhibit a mixture of characteristics. [[Biology:Nymphaeaceae|Nymphaeaceae]] (water lilies) have reticulate veins, a single cotyledon, adventitious roots, and a monocot-like vascular bundle. These examples reflect their shared ancestry.{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}} Nevertheless, this list of traits is generally valid, especially when contrasting monocots with [[Biology:Eudicot|eudicot]]s, rather than non-monocot flowering plants in general.{{sfn|Chase|2004}}

=== Apomorphies ===

Monocot [[Biology:Glossary of botanical terms#apomorphy|apomorphies]] (characteristics derived during radiation rather than inherited from an ancestral form) include herbaceous habit, leaves with parallel venation and sheathed base, an embryo with a single cotyledon, an [[Biology:Stele|atactostele]], numerous adventitious roots, [[Biology:Sympodial|sympodial]] growth, and trimerous (3 parts per [[Biology:Whorl (botany)|whorl]]) flowers that are pentacyclic (5 whorled) with 3 sepals, 3 petals, 2 whorls of 3 stamens each, and 3 carpels. In contrast, monosulcate pollen is considered an ancestral trait, probably plesiomorphic.{{sfn|Stevens|2015}}

=== Synapomorphies ===

The distinctive features of the monocots have contributed to the relative taxonomic stability of the group. Douglas E. Soltis and others{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005|loc=p.&nbsp;92}}{{sfn|Donoghue|Doyle|1989b}}{{sfn|Loconte|Stevenson|1991}}{{sfn|Doyle|Donoghue|1992}} identify thirteen synapomorphies (shared characteristics that unite monophyletic groups of taxa);
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}  
# [[Chemistry:Calcium oxalate|Calcium oxalate]] raphides
# Absence of vessels in leaves
# Monocotyledonous anther wall formation*
# Successive microsporogenesis
# Syncarpous [[Biology:Gynoecium|gynoecium]]
# Parietal [[Biology:Placentation|placentation]]
# Monocotyledonous [[Biology:Seedling|seedling]]
# Persistent radicle
# Haustorial cotyledon tip{{sfn|Lersten|2004}}
# Open cotyledon sheath
# Steroidal saponins*
# Fly pollination*
# Diffuse vascular bundles and absence of [[Biology:Secondary growth|secondary growth]]{{efn|* Lacking in ''[[Biology:Acorus|Acorus]]'', so that if this genus is [[Biology:Sister group|sister]] to the rest of the monocots, the synapomorphies do not apply to monocots as a whole.}}
{{div col end}}

===Vascular system===
[[File:Royal Palm Trunk.jpg|thumb|''[[Biology:Roystonea regia|Roystonea regia]]'' palm (Arecales) stems showing anomalous secondary growth in monocots, with characteristic fibrous roots]]

Monocots have a distinctive arrangement of vascular tissue known as an [[Biology:Stele|atactostele]] in which the vascular tissue is scattered rather than arranged in concentric rings. Collenchyma is absent in monocot stems, roots and leaves. Many monocots are herbaceous and do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem ([[Biology:Secondary growth|secondary growth]]) via the same kind of [[Biology:Vascular cambium|vascular cambium]] found in non-monocot [[Biology:Woody plant|woody plant]]s.{{sfn|Chase|2004}} However, some monocots do have secondary growth; because this does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing [[Biology:Xylem|xylem]] inwards and phloem outwards, it is termed "anomalous secondary growth".{{sfn|Donoghue|2005}}  Examples of large monocots which either exhibit secondary growth, or can reach large sizes without it, are palms ([[Biology:Arecaceae|Arecaceae]]), screwpines ([[Biology:Pandanaceae|Pandanaceae]]), bananas ([[Biology:Musaceae|Musaceae]]), ''[[Biology:Yucca|Yucca]]'', ''[[Biology:Aloe|Aloe]]'', ''[[Biology:Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', and ''[[Biology:Cordyline|Cordyline]]''.{{sfn|Chase|2004}}

==Taxonomy==

The monocots form one of five major lineages of mesangiosperms (core angiosperms), which in themselves form 99.95% of all [[Biology:Angiosperms|angiosperms]]. The monocots and the [[Biology:Eudicots|eudicots]], are the largest and most diversified angiosperm radiations accounting for 22.8% and 74.2% of all angiosperm species respectively.{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}}

Of these, the grass family (Poaceae) is the most economically important, which together with the orchids [[Biology:Orchidaceae|Orchidaceae]]  account for half of the species diversity, accounting for 34% and 17% of all monocots respectively and are among the largest families of angiosperms. They are also among the dominant members of many plant communities.{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}}

===Early history===

==== Pre-Linnean ====
[[File:Ray-Malpighi cotyledon.jpg|thumb|Illustrations of cotyledons by John Ray 1682, after Malpighi]]
The monocots are one of the major divisions of the [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]]s or angiosperms. They have been recognized as a natural group since the sixteenth century when Lobelius (1571), searching for a characteristic to group plants by, decided on [[Biology:Leaf|leaf]] form and their venation. He observed that the majority had broad leaves with net-like venation, but a smaller group were grass-like plants with long straight parallel veins.<ref name=ObelStirp65/> In doing so he distinguished between the dicotyledons, and the latter (grass-like) monocotyledon group, although he had no formal names for the two groups.{{sfn|Vines|1913|loc=p.&nbsp;10}}{{sfn|Hoeniger|Hoeniger|1969}}<ref name=pavordN.339/>

Formal description dates from [[Biography:John Ray|John Ray]]'s studies of [[Biology:Seed|seed]] structure in the 17th century. Ray, who is often considered the first botanical systematist,{{sfn|Pavord|2005}} observed the [[Dichotomy|dichotomy]] of [[Biology:Cotyledon|cotyledon]] structure in his examination of seeds. He reported his findings in a paper read to the Royal Society on 17 December 1674, entitled "A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants".{{sfn|Chase|2004}}
{{Quotebox|title=''A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants''|align=center| salign=right|quote= <poem>The greatest number of plants that come of seed spring at first out of the earth with two leaves which being for the most part of a different figure from the succeeding leaves are by our gardeners not improperly called the seed leaves...  <br/>In the first kind the seed leaves are nothing but the two lobes of the seed having their plain sides clapt together like the two halves of a walnut and therefore are of the just figure of the seed slit in sunder flat wise...<br/>Of seeds that spring out of the earth with leaves like the succeeding and no seed leaves I have observed two sorts. 1. Such as are congenerous to the first kind precedent that is whose pulp is divided into two lobes and a radicle... <br/>2. Such which neither spring out of the ground with seed leaves nor have their pulp divided into lobes </poem>|source= John Ray (1674), pp.&nbsp;164, 166{{sfn|Ray|1674|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o2EVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA164 pp.&nbsp;164, 166]}}}} Since this paper appeared a year before the publication of Malpighi's ''Anatome Plantarum'' (1675–1679), Ray has the priority. At the time, Ray did not fully realise the importance of his discovery{{sfn|Raven|1950}} but progressively developed this over successive publications. And since these were in Latin, "seed leaves" became ''folia seminalia''{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/35/mode/1up ''De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis'' p.&nbsp;7]}} and then ''cotyledon'', following Malpighi.{{sfn|Short|George|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dFcKLxqEAj4C&pg=PA15 p.&nbsp;15]}}{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/methodusplantaru00rayj#page/12/mode/2up ''De plantula seminali reliquisque femine contentis'' p.&nbsp;13]}} Malpighi and Ray were familiar with each other's work,{{sfn|Raven|1950}} and Malpighi in describing the same structures had introduced the term cotyledon,{{sfn|Malpighi|1679|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nSEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA18 ''De seminum vegetatione'' p.&nbsp;18]}} which Ray adopted in his subsequent writing.
{{Quotebox|title=''De seminum vegetatione''|align=center| salign=right|quote= <poem>''Mense quoque Maii, alias seminales plantulas Fabarum, & Phaseolorum, ablatis pariter binis seminalibus foliis, seu cotyledonibus, incubandas posui''<br/>In the month of May, also, I incubated two seed plants, [[Biology:Vicia faba|Faba]] and [[Biology:Phaseolus|Phaseolus]], after removing the two seed leaves, or cotyledons</poem>|source= Marcello Malpighi (1679), p.&nbsp;18{{sfn|Malpighi|1679|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nSEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA18 ''De seminum vegetatione'' p.&nbsp;18]}}}} In this experiment, Malpighi also showed that the cotyledons were critical to the development of the plant, proof that Ray required for his theory.{{sfn|Bewley|Black|Halmer|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aE414KuXu4gC&pg=PA334 History of seed research p.&nbsp;334]}} In his ''Methodus plantarum nova''{{sfn|Ray|1682}} Ray also developed and justified the "natural" or pre-evolutionary approach to classification, based on characteristics selected ''a posteriori'' in order to group together taxa that have the greatest number of shared characteristics. This approach, also referred to as polythetic would last till evolutionary theory enabled [[Biology:Eichler system|Eichler]] to develop the phyletic system that superseded it in the late nineteenth century, based on an understanding of the acquisition of characteristics.{{sfn|Stuessy|2009|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b9Q2EOkw7toC&pg=PA47 Natural classification p.&nbsp;47]}}{{sfn|Datta|1988|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C&pg=PA21 Systems of classification p.&nbsp;21]}}{{sfn|Stace|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C&pg=PA19 The development of plant taxonomy p.&nbsp;17]}} He also made the crucial observation ''Ex hac seminum divisione sumum potest generalis plantarum distinctio, eaque meo judicio omnium prima et longe optima, in eas sci. quae plantula seminali sunt bifolia aut διλόβω, et quae plantula sem. adulta analoga.'' (From this division of the seeds derives a general distinction amongst plants, that in my judgement is first and by far the best, into those seed plants which are bifoliate, or bilobed, and those that are analogous to the adult), that is between monocots and dicots.{{sfn|Raven|1950|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ETusSTe5O8YC&pg=PA195 p.&nbsp;195]}}{{sfn|Bewley|Black|Halmer|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aE414KuXu4gC&pg=PA334 History of seed research p.&nbsp;334]}} He illustrated this by quoting from Malpighi and including reproductions of Malpighi's drawings of cotyledons (see figure).{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/methodusplantaru00rayj#page/n39/mode/2up ''De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis'' p.&nbsp;11]}} Initially Ray did not develop a classification of flowering plants (florifera) based on a division by the number of cotyledons, but developed his ideas over successive publications,{{sfn|Ray|1696}} coining the terms ''Monocotyledones'' and ''Dicotyledones'' in 1703,{{sfn|Ray|1703|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/joannisrajisocie00rayj#page/n39/mode/2up pp.&nbsp;1–2]}} in the revised version of his ''Methodus'' (''Methodus plantarum emendata''), as a primary method for dividing them, ''Herbae floriferae, dividi possunt, ut diximus, in Monocotyledones & Dicotyledones'' (Flowering plants, can be divided, as we have said, into Monocotyledons & Dicotyledons).{{sfn|Ray|1703|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/joannisrajisocie00rayj#page/16/mode/2up p.&nbsp;16]}}

==== Post Linnean ====

Although [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] (1707–1778) did not utilise Ray's discovery, basing his own classification solely on floral reproductive morphology, the term was used shortly after his classification appeared (1753) by Scopoli and who is credited for its introduction.{{efn|Scopoli, in his treatment of Linnaeus' scheme comments in the ''Hexandria polygynia'' on the fact that ''[[Biology:Alisma|Alisma]]'' is a member of the ''Gens monocotyledon''<ref name=ScopoliAlisma/>}} Every taxonomist since then, starting with De Jussieu and De Candolle, has used Ray's distinction as a major classification characteristic.{{efn|See also [[Biography:John Lindley|Lindley]]'s review of classification systems up to 1853,{{sfn|Lindley|1853}} and Dahlgren's from 1853–1982{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|1982}}}}<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/> In [[Biology:De Jussieu system|De Jussieu's system]] (1789), he followed Ray, arranging his Monocotyledones into three classes based on stamen position and placing them between Acotyledones and Dicotyledones.{{sfn|Jussieu|1789}} [[Biology:De Candolle system|De Candolle's system]] (1813) which was to predominate thinking through much of the 19th century used a similar general arrangement, with two subgroups of his ''Monocotylédonés'' (Monocotyledoneae).{{sfn|de Candolle|1819}} [[Biography:John Lindley|Lindley]] (1830) followed De Candolle in using the terms Monocotyledon and Endogenae{{efn|''Endogènes'' (ενδον within + γεναω I create)}} interchangeably. They considered the monocotyledons to be a group of  vascular plants (''Vasculares'') whose vascular bundles were thought to arise from within (''Endogènes'' or endogenous).{{sfn|Lindley|1830}}

Monocotyledons remained in a similar position as a major division of the flowering plants throughout the nineteenth century, with minor variations. George Bentham and [[Biography:Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hooker]] (1862–1883) used Monocotyledones, as would Wettstein,{{sfn|Wettstein|1924}} while August Eichler used Mononocotyleae{{sfn|Eichler|1886}} and Engler, following de Candolle, Monocotyledoneae.{{sfn|Engler|1886}} In the twentieth century, some authors used alternative names such as Bessey's (1915) Alternifoliae{{sfn|Bessey|1915}} and Cronquist's (1966) Liliatae.{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} Later (1981) Cronquist changed Liliatae to Liliopsida,{{sfn|Cronquist|1981}} usages also adopted by Takhtajan simultaneously.<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>  Thorne (1992){{sfn|Thorne|1992a}} and Dahlgren (1985){{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|Yeo|1985}} also used Liliidae as a synonym.

Taxonomists had considerable latitude in naming this group, as the Monocotyledons were a group above the rank of family. Article 16 of the ''ICBN'' allows either a [[Biology:Descriptive botanical name|descriptive botanical name]] or a name formed from the name of an included family.

In summary they have been variously named, as follows:
* class Monocotyledoneae in the [[Biology:De Candolle system|de Candolle system]] and the [[Biology:Engler system|Engler system]]
* class Monocotyledones in the Bentham & Hooker system and the [[Biology:Wettstein system|Wettstein system]]
* class Monocotyleae in the [[Biology:Eichler system|Eichler system]]
* class Liliatae then [[Biology:Liliopsida|Liliopsida]] in the [[Biology:Takhtajan system|Takhtajan system]] and the [[Biology:Cronquist system|Cronquist system]]
* subclass [[Biology:Liliidae|Liliidae]] in the [[Biology:Dahlgren system|Dahlgren system]] and the Thorne system

=== Modern era ===

Over the 1980s, a more general review of the classification of [[Biology:Angiosperms|angiosperms]] was undertaken. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant [[Biology:Phylogenetics|phylogenetics]] and cladistic theory, initially based on ''rbcL'' gene sequencing and cladistic analysis, enabling a [[Biology:Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic tree]] to be constructed for the flowering plants.{{sfn|Chase et al|1993}} The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne, based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. These developments complicated discussions on [[Biology:Plant evolution|plant evolution]] and necessitated a major taxonomic restructuring.{{sfn|APG|1998}}{{sfn|APG III|2009}}

This [[Biology:DNA|DNA]] based molecular phylogenetic research confirmed on the one hand that the monocots remained as a well defined [[Biology:Monophyly|monophyletic]] group or [[Biology:Clade|clade]], in contrast to the other historical divisions of the flowering plants, which had to be substantially reorganized.{{sfn|Chase|2004}} No longer could the angiosperms be simply divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons; it was apparent that the monocotyledons were but one of a relatively large number of defined groups within the angiosperms.{{sfn|Bremer|Wanntorp|1978}} Correlation with morphological criteria showed that the defining feature was not cotyledon number but the separation of angiosperms into two major [[Biology:Pollen|pollen]] types, uniaperturate (monosulcate and monosulcate-derived) and triaperturate (tricolpate and tricolpate-derived), with the monocots situated within the uniaperturate groups.{{sfn|Chase et al|1993}} The formal taxonomic ranking of Monoctyledons thus became replaced with monocots as an informal clade.{{sfn|Chase|Stevenson|Wilkin|Rudall|1995b}}{{sfn|Chase|2004}} This is the name that has been most commonly used since the publication of the [[Biology:Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] [[Biology:APG system|(APG) system]] in 1998 and regularly updated since.{{sfn|APG|1998}}{{sfn|APG II|2003}}{{sfn|APG III|2009}}{{sfn|LAPGIII|2009}}{{sfn|Chase|Reveal|2009}}{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}

Within the angiosperms, there are two major [[Biology:Evolutionary grade|grade]]s, a small early branching [[Biology:Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] grade, the [[Biology:Basal angiosperms|basal angiosperms]] (ANA grade) with three [[Biology:Lineage (evolution)|lineages]] and a larger late branching grade, the core angiosperms (mesangiosperms) with five lineages, as shown in the [[Biology:Cladogram|cladogram]].

{|
|{{anchor|Clad1}}'''Cladogram I: Phylogenetic position of the monocots within the angiosperms in APG IV (2016)'''{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}
{{barlabel
|size=8
|at1=2|bar1=green|label1=basal angiosperms
|at2=6|bar2=purple|label2=core angiosperms
|cladogram=
{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%

|label1=[[Biology:Angiosperms|angiosperms]]
|1={{clade
  |1=[[Biology:Amborellales|Amborellales]]|barbegin1=green
  |2={{clade
    |1=[[Biology:Nymphaeales|Nymphaeales]]|bar1=green
    |2={{clade
      |1=[[Biology:Austrobaileyales|Austrobaileyales]]|barend1=green
      |label2=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
      |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=[[Biology:Magnoliids|magnoliids]]|barbegin1=purple
          |2=[[Biology:Chloranthales|Chloranthales]]|bar2=purple
           }}
        |2={{clade
          |1='''monocots'''|bar1=purple
          |2={{clade
            |1=[[Biology:Ceratophyllales|Ceratophyllales]]|bar1=purple
            |2=[[Biology:Eudicots|eudicots]]|barend2=purple
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
}}
|}

=== Subdivision===

While the monocotyledons have remained extremely stable in their outer borders as a well-defined and coherent monophylectic group, the deeper internal relationships have undergone considerable flux, with many competing classification systems over time.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/>

Historically, Bentham (1877), considered the monocots to consist of four [[Biology:Alliance (taxonomy)|alliances]], Epigynae, Coronariae, Nudiflorae and Glumales, based on floral characteristics. He describes the attempts to subdivide the group since the days of [[Biography:John Lindley|Lindley]] as largely unsuccessful.{{sfn|Bentham|1877}} Like most subsequent classification systems it failed to distinguish between two major orders, [[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]] and [[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]], now recognised as quite separate.{{sfn|Fay|2013}} A major advance in this respect was the work of Rolf Dahlgren (1980),{{sfn|Dahlgren|1980}} which would form the basis of the [[Biology:Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]'s (APG) subsequent modern classification of monocot families. Dahlgren who used the alternate name Lilliidae considered the monocots as a subclass of [[Biology:Angiosperms|angiosperms]] characterised by a single cotyledon and the presence of triangular protein bodies in the sieve tube plastids. He divided the monocots into seven [[Biology:Order|superorders]], Alismatiflorae, Ariflorae, Triuridiflorae, Liliiflorae, Zingiberiflorae, Commeliniflorae and Areciflorae. With respect to the specific issue regarding Liliales and Asparagales, Dahlgren followed Huber (1969){{sfn|Huber|1969}} in adopting a [[Lumpers and splitters|splitter]] approach, in contrast to the longstanding tendency to view [[Biology:Liliaceae|Liliaceae]] as a very broad sensu lato family. Following Dahlgren's untimely death in 1987, his work was continued by his widow, Gertrud Dahlgren, who published a revised version of the classification in 1989. In this scheme the [[Social:Suffix|suffix]] ''-florae'' was replaced with ''-anae'' (''e.g.'' Alismatanae) and the number of superorders expanded to ten with the addition of Bromelianae, Cyclanthanae and Pandananae.{{sfn|Dahlgren|1989}}

Molecular studies have both confirmed the [[Biology:Monophyly|monophyly]] of the monocots and helped elucidate relationships within this group. The [[Biology:Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG]] system does not assign the monocots to a taxonomic rank, instead recognizing a monocots clade.{{sfn|Chase et al| 1995}}{{sfn|Chase et al|2000}}{{sfn|Davis et al|2004}}{{sfn|Soltis|Soltis|2004}} However, there has remained some uncertainty regarding the exact relationships between the major lineages, with a number of competing models (including APG).{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

The APG system establishes eleven orders of monocots.{{sfn|Cantino et al|2007}}{{sfn|APG IV|2016}} These form three grades, the [[Biology:Alismatid monocots|alismatid monocots]], [[Biology:Lilioid monocots|lilioid monocots]] and the commelinid monocots by order of branching, from early to late. In the following [[Biology:Cladogram|cladogram]] numbers indicate [[Biology:Crown group|crown group]] (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in [[Physics:Mya (unit)|mya]] (million years ago).{{sfn|Hertwick et al.|2015}}

{|
|{{anchor|Clad2}}'''Cladogram 2: The phylogenetic composition of the monocots'''{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}{{sfn|Givnish et al|2018}}

{{barlabel|size=12|at1=5.5|label1=[[Biology:Lilioid monocots|Lilioid monocots]] |bar1=purple|at2=2|label2=[[Biology:Alismatid monocots|Alismatid monocots]]|bar2=green|style=font-size:100%;line-height:125%;width:400px;|cladogram=

{{clade
|align=center
|label1='''monocots''' (131 [[Astronomy:Myr|MYA]])
|1={{clade
    |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
       |label1=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
        |1=[[Biology:Acorales|Acorales]]|barbegin1=green
        |2={{clade
           |label1=
           |1=[[Biology:Alismatales|Alismatales]]|barend1=green
          |label2=122 MYA
          |2={{clade
            |1=[[Biology:Petrosaviales|Petrosaviales]] | barbegin1=purple
            |label1=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
            |2={{clade
              |label1=120 MYA
              |1={{clade
                |1=[[Biology:Dioscoreales|Dioscoreales]] (115 MYA)| bar1=purple
                |2=[[Biology:Pandanales|Pandanales]] (91 MYA) | bar2=purple
                 }}
              |2={{clade 
                |1=[[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]] (121 MYA)| bar1=purple
                |label2=121 MYA
                |2={{clade 
                  |1=[[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]] (120 MYA)| barend1=purple
                  |label2=[[Biology:Commelinids|commelinids]] (118 MYA)
                  |2={{clade
                    |label1=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
                    |1=[[Biology:Arecales|Arecales]]
                    |2={{clade
                      |label1=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
                      |1=[[Biology:Poales|Poales]]
                      |2={{clade
                        |label1=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
                        | 1= [[Biology:Zingiberales|Zingiberales]]
                        | 2= [[Biology:Commelinales|Commelinales]]
                         }}
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
|}

{{Clear}}
Of some 70,000 [[Biology:Species|species]],<ref name=CoL/> by far the largest number (65%) are found in two families, the orchids and grasses. The orchids ([[Biology:Orchidaceae|Orchidaceae]], [[Biology:Asparagales|Asparagales]]) contain about 25,000 species and the grasses ([[Biology:Poaceae|Poaceae]], [[Biology:Poales|Poales]]) about 11,000. Other well known groups within the Poales [[Biology:Order|order]] include the [[Biology:Cyperaceae|Cyperaceae]] (sedges) and [[Biology:Juncaceae|Juncaceae]] (rushes), and the monocots also include familiar families such as the palms ([[Biology:Arecaceae|Arecaceae]], Arecales) and lilies ([[Biology:Liliaceae|Liliaceae]], [[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]]).{{sfn|Fay|2013}}{{sfn|Panis|2008}}

===Evolution===

In prephyletic classification systems monocots were generally positioned between plants other than angiosperms and dicots, implying that monocots were more primitive. With the introduction of phyletic thinking in taxonomy (from the [[Biology:Eichler system|system of Eichler]] 1875–1878 onwards) the predominant theory of monocot origins was the ranalean (ranalian) theory, particularly in the work of Bessey (1915),{{sfn|Bessey|1915}} which traced the origin of all flowering plants to a Ranalean type, and reversed the sequence making dicots the more primitive group.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/>

The monocots form a [[Biology:Monophyletic|monophyletic]] group arising early in the history of the [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]]s, but the fossil record is meagre.{{sfn|Ganfolfo et al|1998}} The earliest fossils presumed to be monocot remains date from the [[Earth:Cretaceous|early Cretaceous]] period. For a very long time, [[Biology:Fossil|fossil]]s of palm trees were believed to be the oldest monocots,{{sfn|Smith et al|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eC0WBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 p.&nbsp;38]}} first appearing 90 million years ago ([[Physics:Mya (unit)|mya]]), but this estimate may not be entirely true.{{sfn|Herendeen|Crane|1995}} At least some putative monocot fossils have been found in strata as old as the eudicots.{{sfn|Herendeen|Crane|Drinnan|1995}} The oldest fossils that are unequivocally monocots are pollen from the Late [[Earth:Barremian|Barremian]]–[[Earth:Aptian|Aptian]] – Early [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]] period, about 120-110 million years ago, and are assignable to [[Biology:Clade|clade]]-[[Biology:Pothoideae|Pothoideae]]-Monstereae Araceae; being Araceae, sister to other [[Biology:Alismatales|Alismatales]].{{sfn|Gandolfo|Nixon|Crepet|2002}}{{sfn|Friis|Pedersen|Crane|2004}}{{sfn|Friis|Pedersen|Crane|2006}} They have also found flower fossils of Triuridaceae (Pandanales) in Upper Cretaceous rocks in New Jersey,{{sfn|Gandolfo|Nixon|Crepet|2002}} becoming the oldest known sighting of saprophytic/mycotrophic habits in [[Biology:Angiosperm|angiosperm]] plants and among the oldest known fossils of monocotyledons.

Topology of the angiosperm phylogenetic tree could infer that the monocots would be among the oldest lineages of angiosperms, which would support the theory that they are just as old as the eudicots. The pollen of the eudicots dates back 125 million years, so the lineage of monocots should be that old too.{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}}

==== Molecular clock estimates  ====

[[Biography:Kåre Bremer|Kåre Bremer]], using rbcL sequences and the [[Network science|mean path length method]] for estimating [[Biology:Genetic divergence|divergence times]], estimated the age of the monocot crown group (i.e. the time at which the ancestor of today's ''Acorus'' diverged from the rest of the group) as 134 million years.{{sfn|Bremer|2000}}{{sfn|Bremer|2002}} Similarly, Wikström ''et al.'',{{sfn|Wikström|Savolainen|Chase|2001}} using Sanderson's [[Robust statistics|non-parametric rate smoothing approach]],{{sfn|Sanderson|1997}} obtained ages of 127–141 million years for the crown group of monocots.{{sfn|Sanderson et al|2004}} All these estimates have large error ranges (usually 15-20%), and Wikström ''et al.'' used only a single calibration point,{{sfn|Wikström|Savolainen|Chase|2001}} namely the split between [[Biology:Fagales|Fagales]] and [[Biology:Cucurbitales|Cucurbitales]], which was set to 84&nbsp;Ma, in the late [[Earth:Santonian|Santonian]] period. Early molecular clock studies using strict clock models had estimated the monocot crown age to 200 ± 20 million years ago{{sfn|Savard et al|1994}} or 160 ± 16 million years,{{sfn|Goremykin|Hansman|Martin|1997}} while studies using relaxed clocks have obtained 135-131 million years{{sfn|Leebens-Mack et al|2005}} or 133.8 to 124 million years.{{sfn|Moore et al|2007}} Bremer's estimate of 134 million years{{sfn|Bremer|2000}} has been used as a secondary calibration point in other analyses.{{sfn|Janssen|Bremer|2004}} Some estimates place the emergence of the monocots as far back as 150&nbsp;mya in the [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] period.{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

====Core group====
The age of the core group of so-called 'nuclear monocots' or 'core monocots', which correspond to all orders except [[Biology:Acorales|Acorales]] and Alismatales,{{sfn|Hedges|Kumar|2009|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9rt1c1hl49MC&pg=PA205 p.&nbsp;205]}} is about 131 million years to present, and crown group age is about 126 million years to the present. The subsequent branching in this part of the tree (i.e. [[Biology:Petrosaviaceae|Petrosaviaceae]], [[Biology:Dioscoreales|Dioscoreales]] + Pandanales and [[Biology:Liliales|Liliales]] clades appeared), including the crown [[Biology:Petrosaviaceae|Petrosaviaceae]] group may be in the period around 125–120 million years BC (about 111 million years so far{{sfn|Bremer|2000}}), and stem groups of all other orders, including [[Biology:Commelinidae|Commelinidae]] would have diverged about or shortly after 115 million years.{{sfn|Janssen|Bremer|2004}} These and many clades within these orders may have originated in southern [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]], i.e. Antarctica, Australasia, and southern South America.{{sfn|Bremer|Janssen|2006}}

====Aquatic monocots====
The aquatic monocots of Alismatales have commonly been regarded as "primitive".{{sfn|Hallier|1905}}{{sfn|Arber|1925}}{{sfn|Hutchinson|1973}}{{sfn|Cronquist| 1981}}{{sfn|Cronquist| 1988}}{{sfn|Takhtajan| 2009}}{{sfn|Takhtajan|1991}}{{sfn|Stebbins|1974}}{{sfn|Thorne|1976}} They have also been considered to have the most primitive foliage, which were cross-linked as Dioscoreales{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|Yeo|1985}} and Melanthiales.{{sfn|Thorne|1992a}}{{sfn|Thorne|1992b}} Keep in mind that the "most primitive" monocot is not necessarily "the sister of everyone else".{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}} This is because the ancestral or primitive characters are inferred by means of the reconstruction of character states, with the help of the phylogenetic tree. So primitive characters of monocots may be present in some derived groups. On the other hand, the basal taxa may exhibit many [[Biology:Morphology|morphological]] [[Biology:Autapomorphy|autapomorphies]]. So although Acoraceae is the sister group to the remaining monocotyledons, the result does not imply that Acoraceae is "the most primitive monocot" in terms of its character states. In fact, Acoraceae is highly derived in many morphological characters, and that is precisely why Acoraceae and Alismatales occupied relatively derived positions in the trees produced by Chase ''et al.''{{sfn|Chase et al| 1995}} and others.{{sfn|Loconte|Stevenson|1991}}{{sfn|Stevenson|Loconte|1995}}

Some authors support the idea of an aquatic phase as the origin of monocots.{{sfn|Henslow|1893}} The phylogenetic position of Alismatales (many water), which occupy a relationship with the rest except the Acoraceae, do not rule out the idea, because it could be 'the most primitive monocots' but not 'the most basal'. The Atactostele stem, the long and linear leaves, the absence of secondary growth (see the [[Biology:Biomechanics|biomechanics]] of living in the water), roots in groups instead of a single root branching (related to the nature of the substrate), including [[Biology:Sympodial|sympodial]] use, are consistent with a water source. However, while monocots were sisters of the aquatic [[Biology:Ceratophyllales|Ceratophyllales]], or their origin is related to the adoption of some form of aquatic habit, it would not help much to the understanding of how it evolved to develop their distinctive anatomical features: the monocots seem so different from the rest of angiosperms and it's difficult to relate their morphology, anatomy and development and those of broad-leaved angiosperms.{{sfn|Zimmermann| Tomlinson| 1972}}{{sfn|Tomlinson|1995}}

====Other taxa====
In the past, taxa which had [[Biology:Petiole (botany)|petiolate]] leaves with reticulate venation were considered "primitive" within the monocots, because of the superficial resemblance to the leaves of dicotyledons. Recent work suggests that while these taxa are sparse in the phylogenetic tree of monocots, such as fleshy fruited taxa (excluding taxa with aril seeds dispersed by ants), the two features would be adapted to conditions that evolved together regardless.{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|1982}}{{sfn|Patterson|Givnish|2002}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2005}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2006}} Among the taxa involved were ''[[Biology:Smilax|Smilax]]'', ''[[Biology:Trillium|Trillium]]'' (Liliales), ''[[Biology:Dioscorea|Dioscorea]]'' (Dioscoreales), etc. A number of these plants are [[Biology:Vine|vine]]s that tend to live in shaded habitats for at least part of their lives, and this fact may also relate to their shapeless stomata.{{sfn|Cameron|Dickison|1998}} Reticulate venation seems to have appeared at least 26 times in monocots, and fleshy fruits have appeared 21 times (sometimes lost later); the two characteristics, though different, showed strong signs of a tendency to be good or bad in tandem, a phenomenon described as "concerted convergence" ("coordinated convergence").{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2005}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2006}}

=== Etymology ===
The name monocotyledons is derived from the traditional botanical name "Monocotyledones" or ''Monocotyledoneae'' in [[Social:Latin|Latin]], which refers to the fact that most members of this group have one [[Biology:Cotyledon|cotyledon]], or embryonic leaf, in their [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s.

== Ecology ==

=== Emergence ===
{{Main|Biology:Epigeal germination|Biology:Hypogeal germination}}
Some monocots, such as grasses, have [[Biology:Hypogeal germination|hypogeal emergence]], where the mesocotyl elongates and pushes the coleoptile (which encloses and protects the shoot tip) toward the soil surface.{{sfn|Radosevich et al|1997|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XA1ioKqctwwC&pg=PA149 p.&nbsp;149]}} Since elongation occurs above the cotyledon, it is left in place in the soil where it was planted. 
Many dicots have [[Biology:Epigeal germination|epigeal emergence]], in which the hypocotyl elongates and becomes arched in the soil. As the hypocotyl continues to elongate, it pulls the cotyledons upward, above the soil surface.

== Conservation ==

The IUCN Red List describes four species as extinct, four as [[Biology:Extinct in the wild|extinct in the wild]], 626 as possibly extinct, 423 as [[Biology:Critically endangered|critically endangered]], 632 endangered, 621 [[Biology:Vulnerable species|vulnerable]], and 269 near threatened of 4,492 whose status is known.<ref name=redlist/>

== Uses ==

Monocots are among the most important plants economically and culturally, and account for most of the staple foods of the world, such as [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]] grains and starchy root crops, and palms, orchids and lilies, building materials, and many medicines.{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}} Of the monocots, the grasses are of enormous economic importance as a source of animal and human food,{{sfn|Fay|2013}} and form the largest component of agricultural species in terms of [[Biology:Biomass|biomass]] produced.{{sfn|Panis|2008}}{{sfn|Tang et al|2016}}

Other economically important monocotyledon crops include various palms ([[Biology:Arecaceae|Arecaceae]]), bananas and plantains ([[Biology:Musaceae|Musaceae]]), [[Biology:Ginger|ginger]]s and their relatives, [[Biology:Turmeric|turmeric]] and [[Biology:Cardamom|cardamom]] ([[Biology:Zingiberaceae|Zingiberaceae]]), [[Biology:Asparagus|asparagus]] ([[Biology:Asparagaceae|Asparagaceae]]), [[Biology:Pineapple|pineapple]] ([[Biology:Bromeliaceae|Bromeliaceae]]), sedges ([[Biology:Cyperaceae|Cyperaceae]]) and rushes ([[Biology:Juncaceae|Juncaceae]]), [[Biology:Vanilla|vanilla]] ([[Biology:Orchidaceae|Orchidaceae]]), [[Biology:Yam (vegetable)|yam]] ([[Biology:Dioscoreaceae|Dioscoreaceae]]), [[Biology:Taro|taro]] ([[Biology:Araceae|Araceae]]), and [[Biology:Leek|leek]]s, [[Biology:Onion|onion]] and [[Biology:Garlic|garlic]] ([[Biology:Amaryllidaceae|Amaryllidaceae]]). Many houseplants are monocotyledon [[Earth:Epiphyte|epiphyte]]s. Most of the horticultural bulbs, plants cultivated for their blooms, such as [[Biology:Lilium|lilies]], daffodils, [[Biology:Iris (plant)|iris]]es, [[Biology:Amaryllis|amaryllis]], [[Biology:Canna (plant)|cannas]], [[Biology:Hyacinthoides non-scripta|bluebells]] and [[Biology:Tulip|tulip]]s, are monocotyledons.

==See also==
* [[Biology:Monocotyledon reproduction|Monocotyledon reproduction]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|20em|refs=

<ref name=CoL>{{harvnb|CoL|2015|loc=[http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/browse/classification/class/Liliopsida/fossil/0/match/1 Liliopsida]}}</ref>

<ref name=redlist>{{harvnb|IUCN|2016|loc=[http://cmsdocs.s3.amazonaws.com/summarystats/2016-3_Summary_Stats_Page_Documents/2016_3_RL_Stats_Table_4b.pdf Red List summary: All plant classes and families]}}</ref>

<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist>{{harvnb|Kubitzki|Rudall|Chase|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 A brief history of monocot classification p.&nbsp;23]}}</ref>

<ref name=MausethAFG>{{harvnb|Mauseth|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4WkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 Anomalous forms of growth pp.&nbsp;211–219]}}</ref> http://www.tropicos.org/Name/100352386

<ref name=ObelStirp65>{{harvnb|l'Obel|1571|loc=[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=4137&Pagina=88 p.&nbsp;65]}}</ref>

* <ref name=pavordN.339>{{harvnb|Pavord|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvP92qGbI08C&pg=PT339 p.&nbsp;339]}}</ref>

<ref name=ScopoliAlisma>{{harvnb|Scopoli|1772|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jl9CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA266 ''Alisma'' pp.&nbsp;266–267]}}</ref>

<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops>{{harvnb|Takhtajan|2009|loc=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9609-9_3 Liliopsida pp.&nbsp;589–750]}}</ref>

<ref name=Tillichfig1>{{harvnb|Tillich|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 Figure 1]}}</ref>

<ref name=Tropiclilianae>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000083 Lilianae]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropicliliidae>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000105 Liliidae]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropiclilio>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000083 Liliopsida]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropicmono>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000113 Monocotylondoneae]}}</ref>

}}

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* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Alison M|title=Plant biology|date=2010|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780815340256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eC0WBAAAQBAJ|access-date=14 December 2015|ref={{harvid|Smith et al|2010}}|display-authors=0}}
* {{cite book|last=Stace|first=Clive A.|title=Plant taxonomy and biosystematics|date=1989|orig-year=1980|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-42785-2|edition=2nd.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C|access-date=29 April 2015}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stebbins|first1=G. Ledyard|title=Flowering plants: evolution above the species level|date=1974|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=0-674-30685-6|url=https://archive.org/details/floweringplantse0000steb|url-access=registration|access-date=16 December 2015}}
* {{cite book|last=Stuessy|first=Tod F.|title=Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14712-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC|access-date=6 February 2014|year=2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Soltis |first1=D.E. |last2=Soltis |first2=P.S. |author-link2=Pamela S. Soltis |last3=Endress |first3=P.K. |last4=Chase |first4=M.W. |author-link4=Mark Wayne Chase |title=Phylogeny and evolution of angiosperms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgbJkQEACAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Sinauer |location=Sunderland, MA |isbn=9781588342010 |ref={{harvid|Soltis et al.|2005}} }}  (''see also'': [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Phylogeny-Evolution-Angiosperms-Douglas-Soltis/dp/0878938176 Excerpts at Amazon]
* {{cite book|last1=Takhtajan|first1=Armen Leonovich|chapter=Lilianae|title=Система и филогения цветкорых растений (Sistema i filogeniia tsvetkovykh rastenii)|trans-title=Systema et Phylogemia Magnoliophytorum|chapter-url={{Google books|xljPEon9Qy0C|page=473|plainurl=yes}}|date=1966|page=473|access-date=14 August 2015|language=ru|publisher=Наука|location=Moscow|others=trans. C Jeffrey, as ''Flowering plants: Origin and dispersal'', Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1969.|isbn=0-05-001715-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Takhtajan|first=Armen|title=Evolutionary trends in flowering plants|date=1991|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780231073288|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c11HBwElG-4C}}
* {{cite book |last=Takhtajan |first=Armen Leonovich |title=Flowering Plants |year=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9609-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oumyfO-NHuUC |access-date=7 January 2014 }}
* {{cite book|first=Richard|last=Wettstein|year=1924|edition=3rd|title=Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik 2 vols.|url=http://biolib.mpipz.mpg.de/library/authors/author_00267_de.html|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218170153/http://biolib.mpipz.mpg.de/library/authors/author_00267_de.html|url-status=dead}}

=== Symposia ===

* {{cite journal|editor1-last=Columbus|editor1-first=J. T.|editor2-last=Friar|editor2-first=E. A.|editor3-last=Porter|editor3-first=J. M.|editor4-last=Prince|editor4-first=L. M.|editor5-last=Simpson|editor5-first=M. G.|title=Symposium issue: Monocots: comparative biology and evolution (excluding Poales).'' Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, 31 Mar–4 Apr 2003''|journal=Aliso|year=2006|volume=22|issue=1|publisher=Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden|location=Claremont, Ca.|issn=0065-6275|url=http://www.mbgpress.info/index.php?task=id&id=07015|access-date=18 January 2014}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Rudall |editor1-first=P.J. |editor2-last=Cribb |editor2-first=P.J. |editor3-last=Cutler |editor3-first=D.F. |editor4-last=Humphries |editor4-first=C.J. |year=1995 |title=Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the International Symposium on Monocotyledons: Systematics and Evolution, Kew 1993) |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens |location=Kew |isbn=978-0-947643-85-0 |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/M/bo9856357.html |access-date=14 January 2014 }}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Wilkin|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Mayo|editor2-first=Simon J|title=Early events in monocot evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEfKwaRHQj4C|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-107-01276-9|access-date=9 December 2015}}
* {{citation|editor1-last=Wilson|editor1-first=K. L.|editor2-last=Morrison|editor2-first=D. A.|title=Monocots: Systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, Sydney, Australia 1998)|year=2000|publisher=[[Earth:CSIRO|CSIRO]]|location=Collingwood, Australia|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/2424.htm|isbn=0-643-06437-0|access-date=14 January 2014}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YzQBUQqLS0YC Excerpts]
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Seberg|editor1-first=Ole|editor2-last=Petersen|editor2-first=Gitte|editor3-last=Barfod|editor3-first=Anders|editor4-last=Davis|editor4-first=Jerrold I.|title=Diversity, phylogeny, and evolution in the Monocotyledons: proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons and the Fifth International Symposium on Grass Systematics and Evolution|url=http://en.unipress.dk/udgivelser/d/diversity,-phylogeny,-and-evolution-in-the-monocotyledons/|date=2010|publisher=Aarhus University Press|location=Århus|isbn=978-87-7934-398-6|ref={{harvid|Seberg et al|2010}}}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Tomlinson|editor1-first=P. B.|editor2-last=Zimmerman|editor2-first=Martin|title=Tropical Trees as Living Systems (Proceedings of the fourth Cabot Symposium held at Harvard Forest, Petersham Massachusetts on April 26-30, 1976)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxT1M8-bu3IC|date=1978|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|isbn=978-0-521-14247-2}}

=== Chapters  ===

* {{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=CL|last2=Janssen|first2=T|title=Monocots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9rt1c1hl49MC&pg=PA203|pages=203–212|isbn=9780191560156|date=2009-04-23|publisher=OUP Oxford}}, in {{harvtxt|Hedges|Kumar|2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M. W. |last2=Duvall |first2=M. R. |last3=Hills |first3=H. G. |last4=Conran |first4=J. G. |last5=Cox |first5=A. V. |last6=Eguiarte |first6=L. E. |last7=Hartwell |first7=J. |last8=Fay |first8=M. F. |last9=Caddick |first9=L. R. |last10=Cameron |first10=K. M. |last11=Hoot |first11=S. |title=Molecular phylogenetics of Lilianae |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257705581 |pages=109–137 |ref={{harvid|Chase et al| 1995}} }}, In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M.W. |last2=Soltis |first2=D. E. |author-link2=Douglas E. Soltis |last3=Soltis |first3=P. S. |author-link3 = Pamela S. Soltis|last4=Rudall |first4=P. J. |author-link4=Paula Rudall |last5=Fay |first5=M. F. |author-link5=Michael Francis Fay |last6=Hahn |first6=W. H. |last7=Sullivan |first7=S. |last8=Joseph |first8=J. |last9=Molvray |first9=M. |last10=Kores |first10=P. J. |last11=Givnish |first11=T. J. |author-link11=Thomas J. Givnish |last12=Sytsma |first12=K. J. |last13=Pires |first13=J. C.|title=Higher-level systematics of the monocotyledons: An assessment of current knowledge and a new classification|pages=3–16|ref={{harvid|Chase et al|2000}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Wilson|Morrison|2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M. W. |last2=Stevenson |first2=D. W. |last3=Wilkin |first3=P. |last4=Rudall |first4=P. J. |author-link4=Paula Rudall|volume=2 | pages=685–730 |title=Monocot systematics: A combined analysis|ref={{harvid|Chase|Stevenson|Wilkin|Rudall|1995b}}}}, In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{citation |last1=Davis|first1=Jerrold I.|title=Early Events in Monocot Evolution|last2=Mcneal|first2=Joel R.|last3=Barrett|first3=Craig F.|last4=Chase|first4=Mark W.|last5=Cohen|first5=James I.|last6=Duvall|first6=Melvin R.|last7=Givnish|first7=Thomas J.|last8=Graham|first8=Sean W.|last9=Petersen|first9=Gitte|last10=Pires|first10=J. Chris|last11=Seberg|first11=Ole|last12=Stevenson|first12=Dennis W.|last13=Leebens-Mack|first13=Jim|author-link4=Mark Wayne Chase|pages=315–349|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139002950.015|ref={{harvid|Davis et al.|2013}}|chapter=Contrasting patterns of support among plastid genes and genomes for major clades of the monocotyledons|year=2013|isbn=9781139002950}}, in {{harvtxt|Wilkin|Mayo|2013}}
* {{cite book|last1=Donoghue|first1=Michael J.|last2=Doyle|first2=James A.|title=Phylogenetic studies of seed plants and angiosperms based on morphological characters|url=http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1989/024_MJD_HierarchyOfLife89.pdf|date=1989|pages=181–193}}, in {{harvtxt|Fernholm|Bremer|
Jörnvall|1989}}
* {{cite book|last1=Donoghue|first1=Michael J.|last2=Doyle|first2=James A.|title=Phylogenetic analysis of angiosperms and the relationships of Hamamelidae|date=1989|pages=17–45|url=http://donoghuelab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/023_donoghue89.pdf|ref={{harvid|Donoghue|Doyle|1989b}}}}, In {{harvtxt|Crane|Blackmore|1989}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dransfield|first1=John|title=Growth forms of rain forest palms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxT1M8-bu3IC&pg=PA247|pages=247–268|ref={{harvid|Dransfield|1978}}|isbn=9780521142472|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}, in {{harvtxt|Tomlinson|Zimmerman|1978}}
* {{cite book |last1=Givnish |first1=T.J. |last2=Pires |first2=J.C. |last3=Graham |first3=S.W. |last4=McPherson |first4=M.A. |last5=Prince |first5=L.M. |last6=Patterson |first6=T.B. |last7=Rai |first7=H.S. |last8=Roalson |first8=E.R. |last9=Evans |first9=T.M. |last10=Hahn |first10=W.J |last11=Millam |first11=K.C. |last12=Meerow |first12=A.W. |last13=Molvray |first13=M. |last14=Kores |first14=P. |last15=O'Brien |first15=H.E. |last16=Kress |first16=W.J. |last17=Hall |first17=J. |last18=Sytsma |first18=K.J. |author-link12=Alan Meerow |title=Phylogeny of the monocotyledons based on the highly informative plastid gene ''ndh''F: evidence for widespread concerted convergence |pages=28–51 |url=http://www.botany.wisc.edu/sytsma/pdf/ConcertedConvMonocots06.pdf |access-date=4 January 2014 |ref={{harvid|Givnish et al.|2006}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116103031/http://www.botany.wisc.edu/sytsma/pdf/ConcertedConvMonocots06.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2014 |url-status=dead }} In {{Harvtxt|Columbus|Friar|Porter|Prince|2006}}
* {{cite book |last1= Herendeen |first1= P. S. |last2=Crane|first2= P. R.|title=The fossil history of the monocotyledons| date=1995| pages=1–21 }} In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kubitzki|first1=K|last2=Rudall|first2=PJ|last3=Chase|first3=MW|author-link2=Paula Rudall|author-link3=Mark Wayne Chase|title=Systematics and evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|date=1998|pages=23–33|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783662035337}}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Panis|first1=Bart|title=Plant Cryopreservation: A Practical Guide|chapter=Cryopreservation of monocots|pages=241–280|date=2008|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-72276-4_11|isbn=978-0-387-72275-7}}, in {{harvtxt|Reed|2008}}
*{{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=John|title=A discourse on the seeds of plants|date=1674|pages=162–169|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2EVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA162}}, in {{harvtxt|Birch|1757}}
*{{cite book|last1=Rudall|first1=Paula J.|title=Developmental Genetics and Plant Evolution|volume=20020544|last2=Buzgo|first2=Matyas|chapter=Evolutionary history of the monocot leaf|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260967325|pages=431–458|doi=10.1201/9781420024982.ch23|series=Systematics Association Special Volumes|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-25790-9}}, in {{harvtxt|Cronk|Bateman|Hawkins|2002}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stevenson|first1= D.W.|last2=Loconte|first2= H.|title=Cladistic analysis of monocot families|pages=543–578|ref={{harvid|Stevenson|Loconte|1995}}}} in {{harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tillich|first1=H.-J.|title=Development and Organization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|pages=1–19|ref={{harvid|Tillich|1998}}|isbn=9783662035337|date=2013-06-29|publisher=Springer }}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Tomlinson|first= P. B. |title=Non-homology of vascular organisation in monocotyledons and dicotyledons|date=1995 | pages=589–622 }} In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vines|first1=Sydney Howard|title=Robert Morison 1620–1683 and John Ray 1627–1705|pages=8–43|ref={{harvid|Vines|1913}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Oliver|1913}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vogel|first1=S|title=Floral biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34|date=1998|pages=34–48|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783662035337}}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}.

=== Articles ===

* {{cite journal|last1=Bentham|first1=George|title=On the Distribution of the Monocotyledonous Orders into Primary Groups, more especially in reference to the Australian Flora, with notes on some points of Terminology.|journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany|date=February 1877|volume=15|issue=88|pages=490–520|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1877.tb00261.x|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1432977|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last = Bessey|first = Charles E.|year = 1915|title = The phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants|journal = Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden|volume = 2|pages = 109–164|doi = 10.2307/2990030|jstor = 2990030|issue = 1/2|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/17811}} (also at {{cite web|url= http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753999990002|title= Botanicus.org|publisher= [[Organization:Missouri Botanical Garden|Missouri Botanical Garden]]|access-date= 5 February 2017}})
* {{cite journal |last= Bremer |first= K. |year= 2000 |title= Early Cretaceous lineages of monocot flowering plants |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume= 97 |issue= 9 |pages= 4707–4711 |url= http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/9/4707.pdf |doi= 10.1073/pnas.080421597 |pmid= 10759567 |pmc= 18297 |bibcode= 2000PNAS...97.4707B |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bremer |first=K. |year=2002 |title=Gondwanan evolution of the grass alliance families (Poales) |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=1374–1387 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1554%2F0014-3820(2002)056%5B1374%3AGEOTGA%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01451.x |pmid=12206239 |s2cid=221734079 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1= Bremer |first1= Kåre |last2= Janssen |first2= Thomas |year= 2006 |title= Gondwanan origin of major monocot groups inferred from dispersal-vicariance analysis |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228700636 |journal= Aliso |volume= 22 |pages= 22–27 |doi= 10.5642/aliso.20062201.03 |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Cameron|first1= K. M. |last2=Dickison|first2= W. C. |year= 1998 |title=Foliar architecture of vanilloid orchids: Insights into the evolution of reticulate leaf venation in monocots |journal= Bot. J. Linn. Soc. |volume=128 |pages=45–70 |doi=10.1006/bojl.1998.0183|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz | first1 = Maarten JM | last2 = Byng | first2 = J. W. |  author-link2 = James W. Byng | name-list-style = amp | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite book|last1=Clifford|first1=H T|chapter=Quantitative Studies of Inter-relationships Amongst the Liliatae |title=Flowering Plants|journal=Plant Syst. Evol.|date=1977|volume=Suppl. 1|pages=77–95|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-7076-2_6|isbn=978-3-211-81434-5}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cronquist|first1=Arthur|last2=Takhtajan|first2=Armen|last3=Zimmermann|first3=Walter|author-link2=Takhtajan|author-link3=Walter Max Zimmermann|title=On the Higher Taxa of Embryobionta|journal=Taxon|date=April 1966|volume=15|issue=4|pages=129–134|doi=10.2307/1217531|jstor=1217531}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cronquist|first1=Arthur|title=Broad Features of the System of Angiosperms|journal=Taxon|date=April 1969|volume=18|issue=2|pages=188–193|doi=10.2307/1218676|jstor=1218676 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=Gertrud|title=An updated angiosperm classification|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=July 1989|volume=100|issue=3|pages=197–203|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01717.x}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=R. M. T.|title=A revised system of classification of the angiosperms|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=February 1980|volume=80|issue=2|pages=91–124|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=Rolf|last2=Rasmussen|first2=Finn N.|title=Monocotyledon Evolution: Characters and Phylogenetic Estimation|journal=Evolutionary Biology|date=1983|volume=16|pages=255–395|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-6971-8_7}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Donoghue | first1 = Michael J. | title = Key innovations, convergence, and success: macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny | url = http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2005/149_MJD_Paleo05.pdf | doi = 10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0077:KICASM]2.0.CO;2 | year = 2005 | volume = 31 | pages = 77–93 | journal = Paleobiology | s2cid = 36988476 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=James A|last2=Donoghue|first2=Michael J|title=Fossils and seed plant phylogeny reanalyzed|journal=Brittonia|date=April–June 1992|volume=44|issue=2|pages=89–106|url=http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1992/039_Doyle_Britt92.pdf|jstor=2806826|doi=10.2307/2806826|s2cid=25304267}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fay|first1=Michael F.|title=Monocots|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=May 2013|volume=172|issue=1|pages=1–4|doi=10.1111/boj.12052|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Friis |first1= E. M. |last2=Pedersen|first2= K. R. |last3=Crane|first3=P. R.|year= 2004 |title= Araceae from the early Cretaceous of Portugal: Evidence on the emergence of monocotyledons |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=101 |issue=47 |pages= 16565–16570 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407174101 |pmid=15546982 |pmc=534535|bibcode= 2004PNAS..10116565F |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Friis|first1= E. M. |last2=Pedersen|first2= K. R. |last3=Crane|first3= P. R.|year=2006 |title=Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction |journal= Palaeogeog. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. |volume=232 |issue= 2–4 |pages=251–293 | doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.006|bibcode= 2006PPP...232..251F }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gandolfo|first1=M. A|last2=Nixon|first2=K. C.|last3=Crepet|first3=W. L.|last4=Stevenson|first4=D. W.|last5=Friis|first5=E. M.|title=Oldest known fossils of monocotyledons|journal=Nature|date=6 August 1998|volume=394|issue=6693|pages=532–533|doi=10.1038/28974|ref={{harvid|Ganfolfo et al|1998}}|bibcode=1998Natur.394..532G|s2cid=4382842}}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Gandolfo|first1= M. A. |last2= Nixon| first2=K. C.|first3=W. L.|last3= Crepet |year=2002 |title=Triuridaceae fossil flowers from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=89 |issue= 12 |pages=1940–1957 |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.12.1940|pmid=21665623}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hallier|first= Hans |title=Provisional scheme of the natural (phylogenetic) system of the flowering plants |journal= New Phytologist |volume=4 |issue=7|pages=151–162 |date= 31 July 1905 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1905.tb05894.x|hdl= 2027/hvd.32044107266454 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last =Henslow|first= George |title=A Theoretical Origin of Endogens from Exogens, through Self-Adaptation to an Aquatic Habit|journal= Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=29 |issue=204|pages=485–528 |date=May 1893 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1893.tb02273.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1= Herendeen |first1= Patrick S. |first2=Peter R.|last2= Crane|first3=Andrew N. |last3=Drinnan |date= January 1995 | title= Fagaceous flowers, fruits, and cupules from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of Central Georgia, USA |journal= International Journal of Plant Sciences | volume=156 | issue=1|pages=93–116 |jstor=2474901| doi=10.1086/297231|s2cid= 83651698 }}
* {{citation |last1=Hertweck|first1=Kate L.|last2=Kinney|first2=Michael S.|last3=Stuart|first3=Stephanie A.|last4=Maurin|first4=Olivier|last5=Mathews|first5=Sarah|last6=Chase|first6=Mark W.|last7=Gandolfo|first7=Maria A.|last8=Pires|first8=J. Chris|title=Phylogenetics, divergence times and diversification from three genomic partitions in monocots|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=July 2015|volume=178|issue=3|pages=375–393|doi=10.1111/boj.12260|ref={{harvid|Hertwick et al.|2015}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last=Huber|first=H|title=Die Samenmerkmale und Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Liliiflorae|journal=Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml.[Mitteilungen der Botanischen Staatssammlung München]|year=1969|volume=8|pages=219–538|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52263#page/639/mode/1up|access-date=10 February 2015|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Moore|first1= John P. |last2=Lindsey|first2= George G. |last3=Farrant|first3= Jill M. |last4=Brandt|first4= Wolf F. |year=2007 |title=An Overview of the Biology of the Desiccation-tolerant Resurrection Plant ''Myrothamnus flabellifolia'' |journal= Annals of Botany |volume= 99 |issue= 2 |pages=211–217|url= |doi=10.1093/aob/mcl269|pmid= 17218343 |pmc= 2803006 |ref={{harvid|Moore et al|2007}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Petit|first1=G.|last2=DeClerck|first2=F. A. J.|last3=Carrer|first3=M.|last4=Anfodillo|first4=T.|title=Axial vessel widening in arborescent monocots|journal=Tree Physiology|date=31 January 2014|volume=34|issue=2|pages=137–145|doi=10.1093/treephys/tpt118|pmid=24488857|ref={{harvid|Petit et al|2014}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sanderson|first= Michael J. |year=1997 |title=A nonparametric approach to estimating divergence times in the absence of rate constancy |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=14 |issue= 12 |pages=1218–1231 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025731|doi-access= }}
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* {{cite journal |last=Thorne |first=R. F. |title=Classification and geography of the flowering plants |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=225–348| year=1992a |doi=10.1007/BF02858611 |s2cid=40348158 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Thorne |first=R. F. |title=An updated phylogenetic classification of the flowering plants |journal=Aliso |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=365–389 |year=1992b |doi=10.5642/aliso.19921302.08 |s2cid=85738663 |url=https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1401&context=aliso |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Tomlinson|first1=P. B.|title=Monocotyledons - towards an understanding of their morphology and anatomy|journal=Adv. Bot. Res.|date=1970|volume=3|pages=207–292|doi=10.1016/S0065-2296(08)60321-3|series=Advances in Botanical Research|isbn=9780120059034}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Tomlinson|first1=P. B.|last2=Esler|first2=A. E.|title=Establishment growth in woody monocotyledons native to New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany|date=1 December 1973|volume=11|issue=4|pages=627–644|doi=10.1080/0028825X.1973.10430305|doi-access=free}}
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==== Phylogenetics ====

* {{cite journal|last1=Bremer|first1=Kåre|last2= Wanntorp |first2=Hans-Erik|title=Phylogenetic Systematics in Botany|journal=Taxon|date=Aug 1978|volume= 27|issue=4|pages=317–329|jstor=1220367|doi=10.2307/1220367}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cantino|first1=Philip D.|first2=James A.|last2=Doyle|first3=Sean W.|last3=Graham|first4=Walter S.|last4=Judd|first5=Richard G.|last5=Olmstead|first6=Douglas E.|last6=Soltis|author-link6=Douglas E. Soltis|first7=Pamela S.|last7=Soltis|author-link7=Pamela S. Soltis|first8=Michael J.|last8=Donoghue|author-link8=Michael Donoghue|year=2007|title=Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of ''Tracheophyta''|journal=Taxon|volume=56|issue=3|pages=822–846|url=http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2007/164_Cantino_Taxon07.pdf|doi=10.2307/25065865|ref={{harvid|Cantino et al|2007}}|jstor=25065865}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chase|first1=Mark W.|last2=Soltis|first2=Douglas E.|author-link2=Douglas E. Soltis|last3=Olmstead|first3=Richard G.|last4=Morgan|first4=David|last5=Les|first5=Donald H.|last6=Mishler|first6=Brent D.|last7=Duvall|first7=Melvin R.|last8=Price|first8=Robert A.|last9=Hills|first9=Harold G.|last10=Qiu|first10=Yin-Long|last11=Kron|first11=Kathleen A.|last12=Rettig|first12=Jeffrey H.|last13=Conti|first13=Elena|last14=Palmer|first14=Jeffrey D.|last15=Manhart|first15=James R.|last16=Sytsma|first16=Kenneth J.|last17=Michaels|first17=Helen J.|last18=Kress|first18=W. John|last19=Karol|first19=Kenneth G.|last20=Clark|first20=W. Dennis|last21=Hedren|first21=Mikael|last22=Gaut|first22=Brandon S.|last23=Jansen|first23=Robert K.|last24=Kim|first24=Ki-Joong|last25=Wimpee|first25=Charles F.|last26=Smith|first26=James F.|last27=Furnier|first27=Glenn R.|last28=Strauss|first28=Steven H.|last29=Xiang|first29=Qui-Yun|last30=Plunkett|first30=Gregory M.|last31=Soltis|first31=Pamela S.|author-link31=Pamela S. Soltis|last32=Swensen|first32=Susan M.|last33=Williams|first33=Stephen E.|last34=Gadek|first34=Paul A.|last35=Quinn|first35=Christopher J.|last36=Eguiarte|first36=Luis E.|last37=Golenberg|first37=Edward|last38=Learn|first38=Gerald H.|last39=Graham|first39=Sean W.|last40=Barrett|first40=Spencer C. H.|last41=Dayanandan|first41=Selvadurai|last42=Albert|first42=Victor A.|title=Phylogenetics of Seed Plants: An Analysis of Nucleotide Sequences from the Plastid Gene ''rbc''L|journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden|date=1993|volume=80|issue=3|pages=528|doi=10.2307/2399846|ref={{harvid|Chase et al|1993}}|jstor=2399846|url=https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/6741/1/Dayanandan_AnnalsMissouriBotanicalGardens_1993.pdf|hdl=1969.1/179875|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chase|first=Mark W.  |date=2004 |title=Monocot relationships: an overview |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1645–1655 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645 |pmid=21652314|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Jerrold I.|last2=Stevenson|first2=Dennis W.|last3=Petersen|first3=Gitte|last4=Seberg|first4=Ole|last5=Campbell|first5=Lisa M.|last6=Freudenstein|first6=John V.|last7=Goldman|first7=Douglas H.|last8=Hardy|first8=Christopher R.|last9=Michelangeli|first9=Fabian A.|last10=Simmons|first10=Mark P.|last11=Specht|first11=Chelsea D.|last12=Vergara-Silva|first12=Francisco|last13=Gandolfo|first13=María|title=A Phylogeny of the Monocots, as Inferred from ''rbcL'' and ''atpA'' Sequence Variation, and a Comparison of Methods for Calculating Jackknife and Bootstrap Values|url=http://spechtlab.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/spechtlab/publications/11%20Davis%20et%20al%202004.pdf|journal=Systematic Botany|date=1 July 2004|volume=29|issue=3|pages=467–510|doi=10.1600/0363644041744365|s2cid=13108898|ref={{harvid|Davis et al|2004}}|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121800/https://spechtlab.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/spechtlab/publications/11%20Davis%20et%20al%202004.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Du|first1=Zhi-Yuan|last2=Wang|first2=Qing-Feng|title=Phylogenetic tree of vascular plants reveals the origins of aquatic angiosperms|journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution|date=July 2016|volume=54|issue=4|pages=342–348|doi=10.1111/jse.12182|s2cid=83881036|ref={{harvid|Du et al|2016}}|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Duvall|first1=Melvin R.|last2=Clegg|first2=Michael T.|last3=Chase|first3=Mark W.|last4=Clark|first4=W. Dennis|last5=Kress|first5=W. John|last6=Hills|first6=Harold G.|last7=Eguiarte|first7=Luis E.|last8=Smith|first8=James F.|last9=Gaut|first9=Brandon S.|last10=Zimmer|first10=Elizabeth A.|last11=Learn|first11=Gerald H.|title=Phylogenetic Hypotheses for the Monocotyledons Constructed from ''rbc''L Sequence Data|journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden|date=1 January 1993|volume=80|issue=3|pages=607–619|doi=10.2307/2399849|jstor=2399849|s2cid=20316595}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Endress|first1=P. K.|last2=Doyle|first2=J. A.|title=Reconstructing the ancestral angiosperm flower and its initial specializations|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=8 January 2009|volume=96|issue=1|pages=22–66|doi=10.3732/ajb.0800047|pmid=21628175|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Givnish |first1= Thomas J.|last2=Pires |first2=J.Chris |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=McPherson |first4=Marc A. |last5=Prince |first5=Linda M. |last6=Patterson |first6=Thomas B. |last7=Rai |first7=Hardeep S. |last8=Roalson |first8=Eric H. |last9=Evans |first9=Timothy M. |last10=Hahn |first10=William J |last11=Millam |first11=Kendra C. |last12=Meerow |first12=Alan W |last13=Molvray |first13=Mia |last14=Kores |first14=Paul J. |last15=O'Brien |first15=Heath E. |last16=Hall |first16=Jocelyn C. |last17=Kress |first17=W. John |last18=Sytsma |first18=Kenneth J. |author-link12=Alan Meerow|title=Repeated evolution of net venation and fleshy fruits among monocots in shaded habitats confirms ''a priori'' predictions: evidence from an ''ndhF'' phylogeny |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| year=2005| volume=272 |issue=1571|pages=1481–1490 |pmc=1559828 |pmid=16011923 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3067|ref={{harvid|Givnish et al.|2005}}}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Janssen|first1=Thomas|last2=Bremer|first2=Kare|title=The age of major monocot groups inferred from 800+ ''rbcL'' sequences|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=December 2004|volume=146|issue=4|pages=385–398|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228815327|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2004.00345.x|doi-access=}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Loconte|first1=Henry|last2=Stevenson|first2=Dennis W.|title=Cladistics of the Magnoliidae|journal=Cladistics|date=September 1991|volume=7|issue=3|pages=267–296|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00038.x|pmid=34933465 |s2cid=84872583}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=T. B. |first2=T. J. |last2=Givnish |title=Phylogeny, concerted convergence, and phylogenetic niche conservatism in the core Liliales: insights from ''rbcL'' and ''ndhF'' sequence data |journal=Evolution |year=2002 |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=233–252 |url=http://www.botany.wisc.edu/givnish/Conc.converg.Liliales2002.pdf |access-date=14 January 2014 |pmid=11926492 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01334.x |s2cid=39420833 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040421165805/http://www.botany.wisc.edu/givnish/Conc.converg.Liliales2002.pdf |archive-date=April 21, 2004 |doi-access=free }}
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==== APG ====
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* {{cite journal |last = APG III |title=An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |year = 2009 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last = APG IV |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV |year=2016 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1111/boj.12385 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chase|first1=Mark W|last2=Reveal|first2=James L|author-link2=James L Reveal|title=A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=2009|volume=161|issue=2|pages=122–127|url=http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf|access-date=21 April 2015|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haston|first1=Elspeth |last2=Richardson |first2=James E. |last3=Stevens |first3=Peter F. |last4=Chase |first4=Mark W. |last5=Harris |first5=David J. |author-link4=Mark W Chase|title=The Linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (LAPG) III: a linear sequence of the families in APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |year=2009 |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=128–131 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01000.x |ref={{harvid|LAPGIII|2009}}|doi-access=free }}

=== Websites and databases ===

* {{cite web|last1=Hahn|first1=William J.|title=Monocotyledons|url=http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Monocotyledons&contgroup=Euangiosperms|publisher=Tree of Life web project|access-date=6 February 2017|date=1997}}
* {{citation|last=Stevens|first=P.F.|date=2015|orig-year=2001|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|publisher=[[Organization:Missouri Botanical Garden|Missouri Botanical Garden]]|url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/APWeb/orders/acoralesweb.htm#Monocots|access-date=31 January 2017}} (''see also'' [[Biology:Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]])
* {{cite web|last1=Givnish|first1=Thomas|title=Assembling the phylogeny of the monocots|url=http://www.botany.wisc.edu/monatol/welcome.htm|website=Monocot AToL Project|publisher=Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin|access-date=1 March 2017|location=Madison|archive-date=14 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914144837/http://www.botany.wisc.edu/monatol/welcome.htm|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|last=CoL|title=Catalogue of Life|url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org|publisher=ITIS|access-date=6 February 2017|date=2015}}
* {{cite web|last=IUCN|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources|access-date=6 February 2017|date=2016}}
* {{cite web|title=National Botanic Gardens of Ireland|url=http://www.botanicgardens.ie/|access-date=19 January 2016|date=2016|ref={{harvid|NBGI|2016}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Tropicos|url=http://www.tropicos.org/Home.aspx|publisher=[[Organization:Missouri Botanical Garden|Missouri Botanical Garden]]|access-date=30 December 2015|date=2015|ref={{harvid|Tropicos|2015}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Class: Monocotyledoneae - Monocot|url=http://www.plantlifeforms.com/Classes128/MONOCOT_MONOCOTYLEDONEAE_503902_128.aspx|website=Plant Life Forms|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=13 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113173134/http://www.plantlifeforms.com/Classes128/MONOCOT_MONOCOTYLEDONEAE_503902_128.aspx|url-status=dead}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==

{{Taxonbar|from=Q78961}}

[[Category:Monocots| ]]
[[Category:Plant unranked clades]]
[[Category:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances]]

{{Sourceattribution|Monocotyledon}}