View source for Biology:Mycology

{{Short description|Branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi}}
[[File:Mycena leaiana var. australis.jpg|thumb|300px|Mushrooms are considered a kind of fungal reproductive organ.]]
'''Mycology''' is the branch of [[Biology:Biology|biology]] concerned with the study of [[Biology:Fungus|fungi]], including their [[Biology:Taxonomy|taxonomy]], [[Biology:Genetics|genetics]], [[Biology:Biochemistry|biochemical]] properties, and [[Biology:Ethnomycology|use by humans]]. Fungi can be a source of tinder, [[Biology:Edible mushroom|food]], [[Medicine:Traditional medicine|traditional medicine]], as well as entheogens, [[Chemistry:Poison|poison]], and [[Medicine:Fungal infection|infection]]. Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases. The two disciplines are closely related, because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a '''mycologist'''.

== Overview ==
Although mycology was historically considered a branch of [[Biology:Botany|botany]], the 1969 discovery<ref name="Whittaker organisms">{{cite journal|author=Whittaker RH|title=New concepts of kingdoms of organisms: evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms|journal=Science |volume=163|issue=3863|pages=150–160|date=10 January 1969|doi=10.1126/science.163.3863.150|pmid=5762760 }}</ref> of fungi's close [[Biology:Evolution|evolution]]ary relationship to animals resulted in the study's reclassification as an independent field.<ref name="Woese_1990">{{cite journal | vauthors = Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 87 | issue = 12 | pages = 4576–4579 | date = June 1990 | pmid = 2112744 | pmc = 54159 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |  doi-access = free | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.4576W | author-link1 = Carl Woese }}</ref> Pioneer mycologists included [[Biography:Elias Magnus Fries|Elias Magnus Fries]], Christian Hendrik Persoon, Anton de Bary, Elizabeth Eaton Morse, and Lewis David von Schweinitz. Beatrix Potter, author of ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'', also made significant contributions to the field.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casadevall A, Kontoyiannis DP, Robert V | title = On the Emergence of ''Candida auris'': Climate Change, Azoles, Swamps, and Birds | language = en-us | journal = mBio | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | date = July 2019 | pages = 1786–1787 | pmc = 6711238 | doi = 10.3201/eid2509.ac2509 | pmid = 31337723 }}</ref> 

Pier Andrea Saccardo developed a system for classifying the [[Biology:Deuteromycota|imperfect fungi]] by spore color and form, which became the primary system used before classification by DNA analysis. He is most famous for his ''Sylloge Fungorum''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saccardo |first=P. A. |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/5371 |title=Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum |last2=Saccardo |first2=P. A. |last3=Traverso |first3=G. B. |last4=Trotter |first4=A. |date=1882 |publisher=sumptibus auctoris |location=Patavii}}</ref>, which was a comprehensive list of all of the [[Biology:Binomial nomenclature|names]] that had been used for mushrooms. Sylloge is still the only work of this kind that was both comprehensive for the [[Biology:Kingdom|botanical kingdom]] [[Biology:Fungus|Fungi]] and reasonably modern.{{Citation needed|reason=Citation to Meyers Konversations-Lexikon book needed here.|date=March 2023}}

Many fungi produce [[Biology:Toxin|toxin]]s,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Wilson BJ | title = Microbial Toxins, Vol. VI Fungal Toxins | veditors = Ciegler A, Kadis S, Ajl SJ | publisher = Academic Press | location = New York | date = 1971 | page = 251 }}</ref> antibiotics,<ref name="Brian1951">{{cite journal| vauthors = Brian PW |title=Antibiotics produced by fungi|journal=The Botanical Review|volume=17|issue=6|year=1951|pages=357–430|issn=0006-8101|doi=10.1007/BF02879038|bibcode=1951BotRv..17..357B |s2cid=7772971}}</ref> and other secondary metabolites. For example, the [[Biology:Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] genus ''[[Biology:Fusarium|Fusarium]]'' and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Joffe.<ref name="JoffeYagen1978">E.g. {{cite journal | vauthors = Joffe AZ, Yagen B | title = Intoxication produced by toxic fungi Fusarium poae and F. sporotrichioides on chicks | journal = Toxicon | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 263–273 | year = 1978 | pmid = 653754 | doi = 10.1016/0041-0101(78)90087-9 }}</ref>

Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as [[Earth:Symbiosis|symbionts]], e.g. in the form of [[Biology:Mycorrhiza|mycorrhiza]]e, [[Biology:Insect|insect]] symbionts, and [[Biology:Lichen|lichen]]s.  Many fungi are able to break down complex [[Chemistry:Organic compound|organic]] biomolecules such as [[Biology:Lignin|lignin]], the more durable component of [[Biology:Wood|wood]], and pollutants such as [[Biology:Xenobiotic|xenobiotic]]s, [[Chemistry:Petroleum|petroleum]], and [[Astronomy:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. By decomposing these molecules, fungi play a critical role in the global [[Earth:Carbon cycle|carbon cycle]].

Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes (slime molds), often are economically and socially important, as some [[Biology:Fungal disease|cause diseases]] of animals (including humans) and of plants.<ref name="De Lucca 2007 pp. 3–13">{{cite journal | vauthors = De Lucca AJ | title = Harmful fungi in both agriculture and medicine | journal = Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–13 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17592884 }}</ref>

Apart from pathogenic fungi, many fungal species are very important in controlling the plant diseases caused by different pathogens. For example, species of the filamentous fungal genus ''[[Biology:Trichoderma|Trichoderma]]'' are considered one of the most important biological control agents as an alternative to chemical-based products for effective crop diseases management.<ref name=BioControl/>

Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as 'forays', after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club in 1868 and entitled "A foray among the funguses{{Sic|}}".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anon |title=A foray among the funguses |journal=Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club |volume=1868 |year=1868 |pages=184–192 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/44662#page/254/mode/1up|publisher=Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.}}</ref>

Some fungi can cause disease in humans and other animals; the study of pathogenic fungi that infect animals is referred to as medical mycology.<ref name= SanBlasCalderone>{{cite book | veditors = San-Blas G, Calderone RA | title = Pathogenic Fungi | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/pat2 | isbn= 978-1-904455-32-5}}</ref>

==History==
It is believed that humans started [[Biology:Mushroom hunting|collecting mushrooms]] as food in prehistoric times. Mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides (480–406 BC). The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eresos (371–288 BC) was perhaps the first to try to systematically classify plants; mushrooms were considered to be plants missing certain organs. It was later Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD), who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia ''Naturalis historia''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pliny the Elder|title=Book 19, Chapter 11.|trans-title=Natural History|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=19:chapter=11&highlight=truffle,tuber|access-date=February 28, 2021|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The word ''mycology'' comes from the [[Social:Greek language|Ancient Greek]]: μύκης (''mukēs''), meaning "fungus" and the suffix {{lang|grc|-λογία}} (''-logia''), meaning "study".<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Henry A |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0idbAAAAcAAJ&q=muk%C4%93s&pg=PA113|title=A Glossary of Scientific Terms for general use|date=1861|pages=131|language=en}}</ref>

{{Rquote|right|Fungi and truffles are neither herbs, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds, but merely the superfluous moisture or earth, of trees, or rotten wood, and of other rotting things. This is plain from the fact that all fungi and truffles, especially those that are used for eating, grow most commonly in thundery and wet weather.|Jerome Bock (Hieronymus Tragus)|1552<ref name=Buller>''De stirpium maxime earum quae in Germania nostra nascuntur, usitatis nomenclaturis''. Strasbourg. In {{harvnb|Ainsworth|1976|p=13}} quoting {{cite journal | vauthors = Buller AH | date = 1915 | title = Micheli and the discovery of reproduction in fungi. | journal =Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada | series = 3 | volume = 9 | pages = 1–25 }}</ref>}}

The [[History:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi. However, the invention of the printing press allowed authors to dispel superstitions and misconceptions about the fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors.{{sfn|Ainsworth|1976|p=13}}

[[File:British Mycological Society 1913 a.jpg|thumb|Group photograph taken at a meeting of the [[Organization:British Mycological Society|British Mycological Society]] in 1913 ]]

The start of the modern age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Micheli's 1737 publication of ''Nova plantarum genera''.{{sfn|Ainsworth|1976|p=4}} Published in [[Place:Florence|Florence]], this seminal work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses and fungi.  He originated the still current genus names ''[[Biology:Polyporus|Polyporus]]''<ref name=SF_Polyporus/> and [[Biology:Tuber (fungus)|''Tuber'']],<ref name=SF_Tuber/> both dated 1729 (though the descriptions were later amended as invalid by modern rules).

The founding [[Biology:Binomial nomenclature|nomenclaturist]] [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Carl Linnaeus]] included fungi in his [[Biology:Binomial nomenclature|binomial naming system]] in 1753, where each type of organism has a two-word name consisting of a [[Biology:Genus|genus]] and [[Biology:Species|species]] (whereas up to then organisms were often designated with Latin phrases containing many words).<ref name="Kibby" /> He originated the scientific names of numerous well-known mushroom taxa, such as ''[[Biology:Boletus|Boletus]]''<ref name="SF_Boletus" /> and ''[[Biology:Agaricus|Agaricus]]'',<ref name=SF_Agaricus/> which are still in use today. During this period, fungi were still considered to belong to the plant kingdom, so they were categorized in his ''[[Biology:Species Plantarum|Species Plantarum]]''. Linnaeus' fungal taxa were not nearly as comprehensive as his plant taxa, however, grouping together all gilled mushrooms with a stem in genus ''Agaricus''.<ref name="Kiger" /><ref name="Linnaeus" /> Thousands of gilled species exist, which were later divided into dozens of diverse genera; in its modern usage, ''Agaricus'' only refers to mushrooms closely related to the common shop mushroom, ''[[Biology:Agaricus bisporus|Agaricus bisporus]]''.<ref name="Laessoe2019"/> For example, Linnaeus gave the name ''Agaricus deliciosus'' to the saffron milk-cap, but its current name is ''[[Biology:Lactarius deliciosus|Lactarius deliciosus]]''.<ref name=SF_Ldeliciosus/> On the other hand, the field mushroom ''[[Biology:Agaricus campestris|Agaricus campestris]]'' has kept the same name ever since Linnaeus's publication.<ref name=SF_Acampestris/> The English word "[[Biology:Agaric|agaric]]" is still used for any gilled mushroom, which corresponds to Linnaeus's use of the word.<ref name=Laessoe2019/>

The term ''mycology'' and the complementary term ''mycologist'' are traditionally attributed to [[Biography:Miles Joseph Berkeley|M.J. Berkeley]] in 1836.{{sfn|Ainsworth|1976|p=2}} However, ''mycologist'' appeared in writings by English botanist [[Biography:Robert Kaye Greville|Robert Kaye Greville]] as early as 1823 in reference to [[Biography:Lewis David de Schweinitz|Schweinitz]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greville |first1=Robert Kaye |title=Observations on a New Genus of Plants, belonging to the Natural Order Gastromyci |journal=The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal |date=April 1823 |volume=8 |issue=16 |page=257 }}</ref>

==Mycology and drug discovery==
{{main|Chemistry:Medicinal fungi}}
For centuries, certain mushrooms have been documented as a [[Medicine:Traditional medicine|folk medicine]] in {{wipe|China}}, {{wipe|Japan}}, and {{wipe|Russia}}.<ref name=Smith/> Although the use of mushrooms in folk medicine is centered largely on the Asian continent, people in other parts of the world like the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]], {{wipe|Poland}}, and {{wipe|Belarus}} have been documented using mushrooms for medicinal purposes.<ref name=Shashkina/>

Mushrooms produce large amounts of [[Chemistry:Vitamin D|vitamin D]] when exposed to [[Physics:Ultraviolet|ultraviolet (UV) light]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cardwell G, Bornman JF, James AP, Black LJ | title = A Review of Mushrooms as a Potential Source of Dietary Vitamin D | journal = Nutrients | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | page = 1498 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30322118 | pmc = 6213178 | doi = 10.3390/nu10101498 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Chemistry:Penicillin|Penicillin]], [[Chemistry:Ciclosporin|ciclosporin]], [[Chemistry:Griseofulvin|griseofulvin]], [[Chemistry:Cephalosporin|cephalosporin]] and [[Chemistry:Psilocybin|psilocybin]] are examples of drugs that have been isolated from molds or other fungi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fungal Bioactive Metabolites of Pharmacological Relevance {{!}} Frontiers Research Topic|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/18261/fungal-bioactive-metabolites-of-pharmacological-relevance|access-date=2021-02-01|website=www.frontiersin.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Aspergillus alliaceus - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/aspergillus-alliaceus|access-date=2021-02-01|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Biology:Ethnomycology|Ethnomycology]]
* [[Biology:Glossary of mycology|Glossary of mycology]]
* [[Biology:Fungal biochemical test|Fungal biochemical test]]
* List of mycologists
* List of mycology journals
* Marine fungi
* [[Biology:Mushroom hunting|Mushroom hunting]]
* Mycotoxicology
* Pathogenic fungi
* [[Biology:Protistology|Protistology]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=BioControl>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Ruano-Rosa D, Prieto P, Rincón AM, Gómez-Rodríguez MV, Valderrama R, Barroso JB, Mercado-Blanco J |date=2015-11-07 |title=Fate of ''Trichoderma harzianum'' in the olive rhizosphere: time course of the root colonization process and interaction with the fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae|journal=BioControl|language=en|volume=61|issue=3|pages=269–282|doi=10.1007/s10526-015-9706-z|issn=1386-6141|hdl=10261/157852|s2cid=12336349|url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/157852/3/Biocontrol%202016b.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

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<ref name=Hecht>{{Cite web| vauthors = Hecht J |title=Science: Animals and fungi closer than anyone expected|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13818773-300-science-animals-and-fungi-closer-than-anyone-expected/ |access-date=2020-06-18|website=New Scientist|language=en-US}}</ref>
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<ref name="Kibby">{{cite book | vauthors = Kibby G |title=Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe |publisher=Geoffrey Kibby |location=Great Britain |year=2017 |pages=xiv-xv |isbn=9780957209428}}</ref>

<ref name=Kiger>{{cite web |url=http://fmhibd.library.cmu.edu/HIBD-DB/Species/home.php |title=Index to Binomials Cited in the First Edition of Linnaeus' ''Species Plantarum'' | vauthors = Kiger RW |publisher=[[Organization:Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation|Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation]] |access-date=2018-07-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712163756/http://fmhibd.library.cmu.edu/HIBD-DB/Species/home.php |archive-date=2018-07-12}} Searching on the names ''Agaricus'' or ''Boletus'', for instance, finds many mushroom species described by Linnaeus under those genera.</ref>

<ref name="Laessoe2019">{{cite book | vauthors = Læssøe H, Petersen J |title=Fungi of Temperate Europe |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |page=500 |isbn=9780691180373}} Page 8 defines the word "agaric" and page 500 gives the modern definition of ''Agaricus''.</ref>

<ref name="Linnaeus">{{cite book | vauthors = Linnaeus C |title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753 |publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm |edition=1st |language=la}} The entries for fungi start with ''Agaricus'' on page 1171 of volume 2.</ref>

<ref name=SF_Agaricus>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=17030 |title=the ''Agaricus'' L. page |work=Index Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref>

<ref name=SF_Acampestris>{{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=356498 |title=the ''Agaricus campestris'' L. page |work=Species Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-22}}</ref>

<ref name=SF_Boletus>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=17175 |title=the ''Boletus'' L. page |work=Index Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref>

<ref name=SF_Ldeliciosus>{{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=196882 |title=the ''Agaricus deliciosus'' L. page |work=Species Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-22}}</ref>

<ref name=SF_Polyporus>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=39251 |title=the ''Polyporus'' P. Micheli page |work=Index Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref>

<ref name=SF_Tuber>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=39296 |title=the ''Tuber'' P. Micheli page |work=Index Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2020-06-20 }}</ref>

<ref name=Shashkina>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shashkina MI, Shashkin PN, Sergeev AV |title=[Chemical and medicobiological properties of Chaga (review)] |doi=10.1007/s11094-006-0194-4 |journal=Farmatsevtychnyĭ Zhurnal |volume=40 |issue=10 |date=October 2006 |pages=560–568|s2cid=22139534 }}</ref>

<ref name=Smith>{{cite web |vauthors=Smith JE, Rowan NJ, Sullivan R |title=Medicinal Mushrooms: Their therapeutic properties and current medical usage with special emphasis on cancer treatments |publisher=Cancer Research UK |page=5 |date=May 2002 |url=http://sci.cancerresearchuk.org/labs/med_mush/med_mush.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831052918/http://sci.cancerresearchuk.org/labs/med_mush/med_mush.html |archive-date=2009-08-31 }}</ref>

}}

=== Cited literature ===
* {{cite book| vauthors = Ainsworth GC |title=Introduction to the History of Mycology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R09AAAAIAAJ|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21013-3}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box
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*Professional organizations
**[[Organization:British Mycological Society|BMS]]: [http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/ British Mycological Society] (United Kingdom)
**MSA: [http://www.msafungi.org Mycological Society of America] (North America)
*Amateur organizations
**MSSF: [http://www.mssf.org/ Mycological Society of San Francisco]
**[http://namyco.org/clubs/index.html North American Mycological Association] (list of amateur organizations in North America)
**[http://psms.org/ Puget Sound Mycological Society]
**[http://www.wildmushrooms.org/ Oregon Mycological Society]
**IMA [http://www.illinoismyco.org/ Illinois Mycological Association]
*Miscellaneous links
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20080509061914/http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in mycology] University of South Carolina
**[http://mycology.cornell.edu/ The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology]
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20060114142535/http://www.mykoweb.com/links.html MykoWeb links page]
**[http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/greatlakesdata/Terms/TermsFrame.html Mycological Glossary at the Illinois Mycological Association]
**[http://www.fungimag.com/ FUNGI Magazine] for professionals and amateurs – largest circulating U.S. publication concerning all things mycological
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928010349/http://129.215.156.68/index.html Fungal Cell Biology Group] at University of Edinburgh, UK.
**[http://exhibits.mannlib.cornell.edu/mycological/ Mycological Marvels] Cornell University, Mann Library

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