View source for Biology:Persea

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the laurel family Lauraceae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Viñátigo hojas.JPG
|image_caption = ''[[Biology:Persea indica|Persea indica]]'' foliage and fruit
|image2 = Green avocado foliage (Persea americana).jpg
|image2_caption = [[Biology:Avocado|Avocado]] (''Persea americana'') foliage
|taxon = Persea
|authority = Mill.<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?9138 |title=Genus: ''Persea'' Mill. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-10-05 |access-date=2011-02-05}}</ref>
|subdivision_ranks = [[Biology:Species|Species]]
|subdivision = See text. [[Biology:List of Persea species|Complete list]]
|synonyms =
*''Machilus'' <small>[[Biography:Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck|Nees]]</small> (possible synonym)
*''Mutisiopersea'' <small>Kosterm.</small>
*''Tamala'' <small>[[Biography:Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Raf.]]</small><ref name="GRIN"/>
|type_species =''[[Biology:Persea americana|Persea americana]]''
}}

'''''Persea''''' is a [[Biology:Genus|genus]] of about 150 species of [[Biology:Evergreen|evergreen]] trees belonging to the laurel family, [[Biology:Lauraceae|Lauraceae]].<ref>André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans. 1993</ref> The best-known member of the genus is the [[Biology:Avocado|avocado]], ''P. americana'', widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible [[Biology:Fruit|fruit]].

==Overview==
They are medium-size trees, {{convert|15|–|30|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} tall at maturity. The [[Biology:Leaf|leaves]] are simple, lanceolate to broad lanceolate, varying with species from {{convert|5|–|30|cm|in|2|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|12|cm|in|2|abbr=on}} broad, and arranged spirally or alternately on the stems. The [[Biology:Flower|flower]]s are in short panicles, with six small greenish-yellow perianth segments {{convert|3|–|6|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} long, nine stamens and an ovary with a single embryo. The [[Biology:Fruit|fruit]] is an oval or pear-shaped [[Biology:Berry (botany)|berry]],<ref name="Essig2015">{{cite book|author=Frederick B. Essig|title=Plant Life: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvhzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|date=3 March 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-026658-5|pages=162–}}</ref> with a fleshy outer covering surrounding the single [[Biology:Seed|seed]]; size is very variable among the species, from {{convert|1|-|1.5|cm|in|2|abbr=in}} in e.g. ''P. borbonia'' and ''P. indica'', up to {{convert|10|–|20|cm|in|2|abbr=in}} in some cultivars of ''P. americana''.

==Distribution and ecology==
[[File:Persea americana flowers 3.JPG|thumb|right|220px|''Persea americana'' flowers]]
The species of ''Persea'' have a disjunct distribution, with about 70 [[Biology:Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] species, ranging from {{wipe|Brazil}} and {{wipe|Chile}} in [[Earth:South America|South America]] to Central America and Mexico, the Caribbean, and the southeastern United States; a single species, ''P. indica'', [[Biology:Endemism|endemic]] to Madeira and the Canary Islands off northwest Africa; and 80 species inhabiting [[Place:East Asia|east]] and [[Place:Southeast Asia|southeast Asia]]. None of the species are very tolerant of severe winter cold, with the hardiest, ''P. borbonia'', ''P. ichangensis'' and ''P. lingue'', surviving temperatures down to about {{convert|-12|°C|°F|1}}; they also require continuously moist soil, and do not tolerate drought. A number of these species are found in forests that face threats of destruction or deforestation; for example, ''P.&nbsp;lingue'' in Central Chile.

The family [[Biology:Lauraceae|Lauraceae]] was part of the land flora of [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]], and many genera had migrated to South America via [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]] over ocean landbridges by the time of the [[Earth:Paleocene|Paleocene]]. From South America they spread over most of the continent. When the North American and South American tectonic plates joined in the late [[Earth:Neogene|Neogene]], volcanic mountain building created island chains which later formed the Mesoamerican landbridge. Pliocene elevation created new habitats for speciation. While some genera died out in increasingly xerophytic mainland Africa, starting with the freezing of Antarctica about 20 million years ago and the formation of the Benguela current, others, which also reached South America and Mesoamerica, such as ''[[Biology:Beilschmiedia|Beilschmiedia]]'' and ''[[Biology:Nectandra|Nectandra]]'' are still surviving today in Africa in a number of species. The genus, however, died out in Africa, except for ''[[Biology:Persea indica|P. indica]]'', which is, today, a threatened species that survives in the fog-shrouded mountains of the Canary Islands and Madeira.

Fossil evidence indicates that the genus originated in [[Place:West Africa|West Africa]] during the [[Earth:Paleocene|Paleocene]], and spread to Asia, to South America, and to Europe and thence to [[Earth:North America|North America]]. It is thought that the gradual drying of Africa, west Asia, and the Mediterranean from the [[Earth:Oligocene|Oligocene]] to the [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]], and the glaciation of [[Earth:Europe|Europe]] during the Pleistocene, caused the extinction of the genus across these regions, resulting in the present distribution.

Since this habitat is constantly threatened by encroaching agriculture, the laurel forest animal or vegetal species have already become rare in many of its former habitats and are threatened by further habitat loss.

In Mesoamerica, ''Persea'' proliferated into many new species, and the berries of some of them constitute a valuable food supply for [[Biology:Quetzal|quetzal]]s, [[Biology:Trogon|trogon]]iform birds that live in the montane rainforests of Mesoamerica. In particular, the [[Biology:Resplendent quetzal|resplendent quetzal]]'s favorite fruits are berries of wild relatives of the [[Biology:Avocado|avocado]]. Their differing maturing times in the cloudforest determine the migratory movements of the quetzals to differing elevation levels in the forests. With a gape width of {{convert|21|mm|in|2|abbr=on}}, the quetzal swallows the small berry (aguacatillo) whole, which he catches while flying through the lower canopy of the tree, and then regurgitates the seed within {{convert|100|m|0|sp=us}} from the tree. Wheelright in 1983 observed that parent quetzals take far less time intervals to deliver fruits to the young brood than insects or lizards, reflecting the ease of procuring fruits, as opposed to capturing animal prey. Since the young are fed exclusively berries in the first 2 weeks after hatching, these berries must be of high nutritional value. Usually only the total percentage of water, sugar, nitrogen, crude fats and carbohydrates are reported by ornithologists.<ref>http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_83_1999/CAS_1999_PG_163-171.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

''Persea'' species are also used as food plants by the [[Biology:Larva|larva]]e of some [[Biology:Lepidoptera|Lepidoptera]] species including [[Biology:Giant leopard moth|giant leopard moth]], ''[[Biology:Coleophora octagonella|Coleophora octagonella]]'' (which feeds exclusively on ''P. carolinensis'') and ''[[Biology:Hypercompe indecisa|Hypercompe indecisa]]''.

===Classification===
The genus ''Persea'' is treated in three subgenera. The Asian subgenus ''[[Biology:Machilus|Machilus]]'' is treated in a separate genus '''''Machilus''''' by many authors, including in the ''Flora of China'', while graft-incompatibility between subgenus ''Persea'' and subgenus ''Eriodaphne'' suggests that these too may be better treated as distinct genera, in fact Kostermans (1993) founded the genus ''Mutisiopersea'' for these. Another closely related genus, ''[[Biology:Beilschmiedia|Beilschmiedia]]'', is also sometimes included in ''Persea''.

In a phylogenetic analysis of the "''Persea'' group", which also includes ''[[Biology:Alseodaphne|Alseodaphne]]'', ''[[Biology:Phoebe (plant)|Phoebe]], [[Biology:Nothaphoebe|Nothaphoebe]], [[Biology:Dehaasia|Dehaasia]]'' and ''[[Biology:Apollonias|Apollonias]], Persea'' was found to be mostly monophyletic, with ''[[Biology:Apollonias barbujana|Apollonias barbujana]]'' from the Canary Islands nested within the core ''Persea'' group. The species [[Biology:Persea nudigemma|''Persea'' ''nudigemma'']] was found to be more closely related to ''Phoebe'', while ''Persea sphaerocarpa'' was found to be nested within a group of ''[[Biology:Alseodaphne|Alseodaphne]]'' species.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Lang |last2=Li |first2=Jie |last3=Rohwer |first3=Jens G. |last4=van der Werff |first4=Henk |last5=Wang |first5=Zhi-Hua |last6=Li |first6=Hsi-Wen |date=September 2011 |title=Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Persea group (Lauraceae) and its biogeographic implications on the evolution of tropical and subtropical Amphi-Pacific disjunctions |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.3732/ajb.1100006 |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=98 |issue=9 |pages=1520–1536 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100006|pmid=21860056 }}</ref>

[[File:Avocado Hass - single and halved.jpg|The avocado fruit, ''Persea americana''|thumb]]
;Subgenus ''Persea'' — Central America. Two species.
*''[[Biology:Avocado|Persea americana]]'' <small>Mill.</small> &ndash; Avocado
**''Persea americana'' var. ''drymifolia'' <small>(Schltdl. & Cham.) S.F.Blake</small>
**''Persea americana'' var. ''floccosa'' <small>(Mez) Scora</small>
**''Persea americana'' var. ''guatemalensis'' <small>(L.O.Williams) Scora</small>
**''Persea americana'' var. ''nubigena'' <small>(L.O.Williams) L.E.Kopp</small>
**''Persea americana'' var. ''steyermarkii'' <small>(C.K.Allen) Scora</small>
*''[[Biology:Persea schiedeana|Persea schiedeana]]'' <small>Nees</small> &ndash; Coyo

[[File:Red Bay (2969188297).jpg|thumb|''Persea borbonia'']]
;Subgenus ''Eriodaphne'' (''Mutisiopersea'') — The Americas, Macaronesia. About 70 species, including:
*''Persea alpigena''
*''[[Biology:Persea borbonia|Persea borbonia]]'' <small>(L.) Spreng.</small> &ndash; Redbay
*''[[Biology:Persea brevipetiolata|Persea brevipetiolata]]'' <small>van der Werff</small> from Mexico
*''[[Biology:Persea caerulea|Persea caerulea]]'' <small>(Ruiz & Pav.) Mez</small>
*''Persea cinerascens''
*''Persea donnell-smithii'' <small>Mez</small>
*''[[Biology:Persea indica|Persea indica]]'' <small>(L.) Spreng.</small> &ndash; Viñátigo (possibly better treated in a fourth subgenus of its own)
*''[[Biology:Persea lingue|Persea lingue]]'' <small>(Ruiz & Pav.) Nees</small> &ndash; Lingue
*''Persea longipes'' <small>(Schltdl.) Meisn.</small>
*''[[Biology:Persea palustris|Persea palustris]]'' <small>(Raf.) Sarg.</small> &ndash; Swampbay
*''Persea skutchii''

[[File:Persea macrantha2.jpg|thumb|''Persea macrantha'' leaves]]
;Subgenus ''Machilus'' — [[Earth:Asia|Asia]]. About 80 species, including:
*''Persea ichangensis''
*''Persea japonica'' <small>(Siebold & Zucc.) Kosterm.</small>
*''Persea kadooriei'' From Hong Kong.
*''Persea kobu''
*''[[Biology:Persea macrantha|Persea macrantha]]''
*''Persea nanmu'' <small>Oliv.</small>
*''Persea thunbergii'' <small>(Siebold & Zucc.) Kosterm.</small>
*''Persea yunnanensis''<ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9138 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001027145933/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9138 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2000-10-27 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Persea'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=2011-02-05 }}</ref>

===Formerly placed here===
*''Cinnamodendron cinnamomifolium'' <small>(Kunth) Kosterm.</small> (as ''P. cinnamomifolia'' <small>Kunth</small> or ''P. mexicana'' <small>(Meisn.) Hemsl.</small>)
*''[[Biology:Laurus azorica|Laurus azorica]]'' <small>(Seub.) Franco</small> (as ''P. azorica'' <small>Seub.</small>)<ref name="GRINSpecies"/>

=== Phylogeny ===
Based on<ref name=":0" />
{{clade|{{clade
  |1={{clade
   |1={{clade
    |label1='''clade I''' &nbsp;
    |1={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1={{clade
           |1=''Mac. robusta'' |barbegin1=red
           |2=''Mac.'' sp. W14071 |bar2=red
           |3=''Mac.'' sp. W14068 |bar3=red }}
          |2=''Pho. minutiflora'' |bar2=red }}
         |2=''Mac. japonica'' |bar2=red
         |3=''Mac. decursinervis'' |bar3=red }}
        |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1=''Mac. grijsii'' |bar1=red
          |2=''Mac. platycarpa'' |bar2=red }}
         |2=''Mac. yunnanensis'' |bar2=red }} }}
       |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1=''Mac. kwangtungensis'' |bar1=red
          |2=''Mac. oculodracontis'' |bar2=red
          |3=''Mac. duthiei'' |bar3=red
          |4=''Mac. gamblei'' |bar4=red }}
         |2={{clade
          |1=''Mac. oreophila'' |bar1=red
          |2=''Mac. leptophylla'' |bar2=red }} }}
        |2=''Pho. faberi'' |bar2=red }}
       |3={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1=''Mac. salicoides'' |bar1=red
         |2=''Mac. pomifera'' |bar2=red }}
        |2={{clade
         |1=''Mac. salicina'' |bar1=red
         |2=''Mac. thunbergii'' |bar2=red }}
        |3=''Mac. breviflora'' |bar3=red }}
       |4={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1=''Mac. pingii'' |bar1=red
         |2=''Mac. shweliensis'' |bar2=red }}
        |2={{clade
         |1=''Mac gongshanensis'' |bar1=red
         |2=''Mac. phoenicis'' |bar2=red }}
        |3=''Mac. monticola'' |barend3=red }} }}
      |2=''Deh. caesia'' }}
     |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1={{clade
           |1=''Deh. hainanensis'' |barbegin1=orange
           |2=''Als.'' sp. W17084 |bar2=orange }}
          |2=''Deh.'' sp. L20070187 |bar2=orange }}
         |2=''Als. semecarpifolia'' |bar2=orange }}
        |2=''Als. huanglianshanensis'' |bar2=orange }}
       |2={{clade
        |1=''Als. gigaphylla'' |bar1=orange
        |2=''Not. umbelliflora'' |bar2=orange }} }}
      |2={{clade
       |1=''Deh.'' sp. A34 |bar1=orange
       |2=''Deh. incrassata'' |barend2=orange }} }} }}
    |label2='''clade II''' &nbsp;
    |2={{clade
     |label1='''''Persea'' clade I'''  &nbsp;
     |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1={{clade
           |1={{clade
            |1=''Per. aurata'' |barbegin1=green
            |2=''Per. splendens'' |bar2=green }}
           |2={{clade
            |1=''Per. major'' |bar1=green
            |2=''Per. weberbaueri'' &nbsp;|bar2=green }} }}
          |2={{clade
           |1=''Per.'' sp. V25232 |bar1=green
           |2=''Per.'' sp. W19517 |bar2=green }} }}
         |2=''Per. alba'' |bar2=green }}
        |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1=''Per.'' sp. W14875 |bar1=green
          |2=''Per.'' sp. B21834 |bar2=green
          |3=''Per. lingue'' |bar3=green }}
         |2=''Per. caerulea'' |bar2=green }} }}
       |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1=''Per. borbonia'' |bar1=green
          |2=''Per. haenkeana'' |bar2=green }}
         |2=''Per. palustris'' |bar2=green }}
        |2=''Per. indica'' |bar2=green }} }}
      |2=''Per. areolatocostae'' |bar2=green }}
     |label2='''''Persea'' clade II'''  &nbsp;
     |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1=''Per. americana'' |bar1=green
       |2=''Per. styermarkii'' |bar2=green }}
      |2=''Apo. barbujana'' |barend2=green }} }} }}
   |label2='''clade III''' &nbsp; 
   |2={{clade
    |1={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |label1='''''Phoebe'' clade I''' &nbsp;
      |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1={{clade
           |1={{clade
            |1=''Pho. formosana'' |barbegin1=blue
            |2=''Pho. chekiangensis'' &nbsp; |bar2=blue }}
           |2=''Pho. nanmu'' |bar2=blue }}
          |2=''Pho. neurantha'' |bar2=blue }}
         |2=''Pho. lanceolata'' |bar2=blue }}
        |2={{clade
         |1=''Pho.'' sp. L20070260 |bar1=blue
         |2=''Pho. zhennan'' |bar2=blue }} }}
       |2=''Pho. macrocarpa'' |bar2=blue
       |3=''Pho. angustifolia'' |bar3=blue }}
      |label2='''''Phoebe'' clade II''' &nbsp;
      |2={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1=''Pho. cuneata'' |bar1=blue
         |2=''Pho. elliptica'' |bar2=blue }}
        |2=''Pho.'' sp. A49 |bar2=blue }}
       |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
         |1=''Pho. puwenensis'' |bar1=blue
         |2=''Pho. hungmaoensis'' |bar2=blue }}
        |2=''Pho. megacalyx'' |barend2=blue }} }} }}
     |2=''Per. nudigemma'' }}
    |2={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1=''Als. rugosa'' |barbegin1=purple
       |2=''Als. hainanensis'' &nbsp; |bar2=purple }}
      |2=''Als.'' sp. W14264 |bar2=purple }}
     |2={{clade
      |1=''Per. sphaerocarpa'' |bar1=purple
      |2=''Per.'' sp. W21874 |bar2=purple }} }}
    |3={{clade
     |1=''Als. petiolaris'' |bar1=purple
     |2=''Als. andersonii'' |barend2=purple }} }} }}
  |2={{clade
   |1={{clade
    |1={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1=''Neo. sericea'' |barbegin1=black
       |2=''Neo. howii'' |bar2=black }}
      |2=''Neo. cambodiana'' &nbsp; |bar2=black }}
     |2={{clade
      |1=''Act. cupularis'' |bar1=black
      |2=''Act. trichocarpa'' |bar2=black }} }}
    |2=''Lit. verticillata'' |bar2=black }}
   |2={{clade 
    |1=''Lin. megaphylla'' |bar1=black
    |2=''Lit. auriculata'' |bar2=black
    |3=''Lin. erythrocarpa'' |barend3=black }} }} }}|style=font-size:85%;line-height:70%|grouplabel1={{clade labels |width=10em;
             |label1='''''Machias'' clade'''              |top1=15% |color1=red
             |label2='''''Alseodaphne-Dehaasia'' clade''' |top2=35% |color2=orange
             |label3='''''Persea'' clade'''               |top3=52% |color3=green
             |label4='''''Phoebe'' clade'''               |top4=70% |color4=blue
             |label5='''''Alseodaphne-Persea'' group'''   |top5=85% |color5=purple
             |label6='''Outgroups'''                      |top6=95% |color6=black
             }}}}

==Etymology==
Philip Miller derived ''Persea'' from the Greek name {{lang|grc|Περσέα}}.  It was applied by [[Biography:Theophrastus|Theophrastus]] and [[Biography:Hippocrates|Hippocrates]] to an uncertain Egyptian tree, possibly ''[[Biology:Cordia myxa|Cordia myxa]]'' or a ''[[Biology:Mimusops|Mimusops]]'' species.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaN-hLL-3qEC |title=CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names |volume=3 M-Q |first=Umberto |last=Quattrocchi |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8493-2677-6 |page=2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*André Joseph Guillaume Henri Kostermans. 1993. Mutisiopersea Kostermans, a new genus in Lauraceae. ''Rheedea'' 3: 132–135.
*C. Michael Hogan. 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121017013207/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=82831 ''Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg]
*Lucille E. Kopp. 1966. "A taxonomic revision of the genus Persea in the Western Hemisphere (''Persea-Lauracese'')" ''Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden'' 14(1): pp.&nbsp;1–117

==External links==
*[http://www.avocadosource.com Avocado source] Extensive information on the [[Biology:Avocado|Avocado]] and the genus generally, particularly the subgenera ''Persea'' and ''Eriodaphne''
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=124627 Flora of North America: ''Persea'']
*[http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=3&start_taxon_id=119262 Flora of China: ''Machilus''] Full list of species in ''Machilus'' in China

{{Taxonbar|from=Q132039}}

[[Category:Persea| ]]
[[Category:Lauraceae genera]]

{{Sourceattribution|Persea}}