View source for Biology:Quinoa

{{short description|Edible plant in the family Amaranthaceae}}
{{speciesbox
|name = Quinoa
|image = Reismelde.jpg
|genus = Chenopodium
|species = quinoa
 |authority = [[Biography:Carl Ludwig Willdenow|Willd.]]
|synonyms = 
{{Plainlist |style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*''Chenopodium canihua'' <small>O.F. Cook</small>
*''Chenopodium ccoyto'' <small>[[Biography:John Torrey|Torr.]]</small>
*''Chenopodium ccuchi-huila'' <small>[[Biography:John Torrey|Torr.]]</small>
*''Chenopodium chilense'' <small>Pers.</small> [[Biology:Validly published name|nom. inval.]]
*''Chenopodium guinoa'' <small>Krock.</small>
*''Chenopodium nuttalliae'' <small>Saff.</small>
}}
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2717733 |title=The Plant List: A working list of all plant species |access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref>
|range_map = Quinoa Distribution.png
|range_map_caption = Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
}}

'''Quinoa''' ('''''Chenopodium quinoa'''''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|iː|n|.|w|ɑː|,_|k|i|ˈ|n|oʊ|.|ə}},<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|quinoa}}</ref> from [[Biography:Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''{{lang|qu|kinwa}}'' or ''{{lang|qu|kinuwa}}'')<ref>{{Ref Laime}}</ref> is a flowering plant in the [[Biology:Amaranthaceae|amaranth family]]. It is an herbaceous [[Biology:Annual plant|annual plant]] grown as a crop primarily for its edible [[Biology:Seed|seed]]s; the seeds are rich in [[Biology:Protein|protein]], dietary fiber, [[Chemistry:B vitamins|B vitamins]] and [[Chemistry:Mineral (nutrient)|dietary mineral]]s in amounts greater than in many grains.<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" >{{Cite tech report |title=Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security |author-last1=Bojanic |author-first1=Alan |others=Rojas, Wilfredo (Coordinator), (PROINPA), Alandia, Gabriela, Irigoyen, Jimena, Blajos, Jorge (Technical team), Santivañez, Tania (FAO) |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/017/aq287e/aq287e.pdf |department=Food and Agriculture Organization |publisher=FAO |publication-place=[[Place:Quito|Quito]] |publication-date=July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Quinoa is not a [[Biology:Poaceae|grass]] but rather a pseudocereal [[Biology:Botany|botanically related]] to [[Biology:Spinach|spinach]] and [[Biology:Amaranth|amaranth]] (''Amaranthus'' spp.), and originated in the [[Place:Andes|Andean region]] of northwestern South America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=F. F. |last2=Martinez |first2=E. A. |last3=Hinrichsen |first3=P. V. |last4=Jellen |first4=E. N. |last5=Maughan |first5=P. J. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite markers |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |bibcode=2009ConG...10..369F |issn=1572-9737 |hdl=10533/128026 |s2cid=39564604}}</ref> It was first used to feed livestock 5,200{{ndash}}7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000{{ndash}}4,000 years ago in the [[Earth:Lake Titicaca|Lake Titicaca]] basin of Peru and Bolivia.<ref name="Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context">{{cite report |url=http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/KolataAlanL.pdf |year=2009 |title=Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context |last=Kolata |first=Alan L. |department=Department of Anthropology |publisher=The University of Chicago}}</ref>

The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein.<ref name=leonard>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Jonathan Norton |date=1970 |title=Recipes, Latin American cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8SLxAEACAAJ |location= |publisher=Time-Life International (Nederlands) |page=21 |isbn=9780809400638}}</ref> Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States and European countries.<ref name=FAO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/what-is-quinoa/distribution-and-production/en/ |title=Distribution and production |access-date=25 June 2019 |department=Food and Agriculture Organization |publisher=United Nations |year=2013}}</ref> As a result of increased popularity and consumption in North America, Europe, and [[Place:Australasia|Australasia]], quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web |title=Quinoa |series=Grains & oilseeds |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/quinoa |department=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=November 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/16/vegans-stomach-unpalatable-truth-quinoa |title=Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa? |newspaper=The Guardian |date=16 January 2013 |location=London, UK |first=Joanna |last=Blythman |access-date=17 Jan 2013}}</ref>

==Etymology and nomenclature==
The species ''Chenopodium quinoa'' was first described by [[Biography:Carl Ludwig Willdenow|Carl Ludwig Willdenow]] (1765{{snd}}1812),{{sfn|Linné|Willdenow|1797|p=1301}} a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers [[Biography:Alexander von Humboldt|Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Biography:Aimé Bonpland|Aimé Bonpland]].

The genus name ''Chenopodium'' is composed of two words coming from the Greek χήν,-νός, ''goose'' and πόδῖον, ''podion'' "little foot", or "goose foot", because of the resemblance of the leaves with the trace of a goose's foot.{{sfn|Bailly|1935|p=2136}}

The specific epithet ''quinoa'' is a borrowing from the Spanish ''quinua'' or ''quinoa'', itself derived from [[Biography:Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''kinwa''.

The Incas nicknamed quinoa ''chisiya mama'', which in Quechua means "mother of all grains".{{sfn|Cumo|2013|p=859}}

==Botany==
[[File:QuinoaGrains.jpg|thumb|Quinoa seeds]]

=== Description ===
''Chenopodium quinoa'' is a [[Biology:Dicotyledon|dicotyledon]]ous [[Biology:Annual plant|annual plant]], usually about {{cvt|1|–|2|m|ft|0}} high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately. The woody central [[Biology:Plant stem|stem]] is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering [[Biology:Panicle|panicle]]s arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).<ref name="Lost crops"/> These are small, incomplete, sessile flowers of the same colour as the sepals, and both pistillate and perfect forms occur. Pistillate flowers are generally located at the proximal end of the glomeruli and the perfect ones at the distal end of it. A perfect flower has five sepals, five anthers and a superior ovary, from which two to three stigmatic branches emerge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertero |first1=Daniel |last2=Medan |first2=Diego |last3=Hall |first3=A. J. |date=1996-09-01 |title=Changes in apical morphology during floral initiation and reproductive development in quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1006/anbo.1996.0126 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The green hypogynous flowers have a simple [[Biology:Petal|perianth]] and are generally self-fertilizing,<ref name="Lost crops">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_iT0rAAAAYAAJ/page/n161 |page=149 |title=The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation |publisher=U.S. National Research Council |department=Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, National Academies |year=1989 |isbn=9780309042642}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Reinhard |last1=Lieberei |first2=Christoph |last2=Reissdorff |first3=Wolfgang |last3=Franke |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |title=Nutzpflanzenkunde |year=2007 |isbn=978-3135304076}}</ref> though cross-pollination occurs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=R. |title=Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, and Niger |year=1986 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref> In the natural environment, [[Chemistry:Betalain|betalain]]s serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination.<ref>{{cite book |title=Colour Additives for Foods and Beverages |edition=1st |url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/colour-additives-for-foods-and-beverages/scotter/978-1-78242-011-8 |publisher=Elsevier}}</ref> The fruits (seeds) are about {{cvt|2|mm|in|frac=16}} in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the [[Biology:Cultivar|cultivar]].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book |title=The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |author1=Vaughn, J.G. |author2=Geissler, C.A. |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199549467 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdKxFcen8zgC}}</ref>

In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of ''C.{{nbsp}}quinoa'', some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under the given conditions to which it may be exposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shabala |first1=Lana |last2=Mackay |first2=Alex |last3=Tian |first3=Yu |last4=Jacobsen |first4=Sven-Erik |last5=Zhou |first5=Daowei |last6=Shabala |first6=Sergey |date=September 2012 |title=Oxidative stress protection and stomatal patterning as components of salinity tolerance mechanism in quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'') |journal=Physiologia Plantarum |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=26–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01599.x |pmid=22324972}}</ref>

===Natural distribution===
''Chenopodium quinoa'' is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pickersgill, Barbara |date=31 August 2007 |title=Domestication of plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and molecular genetics |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=925–940 |pmc=2759216 |pmid=17766847 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcm193 |url=http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021154818/http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mcm193v1 |archive-date=21 October 2007}}</ref> There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (''Chenopodium quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'') that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Heiser, Charles B. Jr. |author2=Nelson, David C. |name-list-style=amp |date=September 1974 |title=On the origin of the cultivated Chenopods (''Chenopodium'') |journal=Genetics |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=503–505 |doi=10.1093/genetics/78.1.503 |pmid=4442716 |pmc=1213209 |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/78/1/503}}</ref>

==Nutrition==
{{nutritional value | name=Quinoa, uncooked
| kJ=1539
| water=13.3 g
| protein=14.1 g
| fat=6.1 g
| monofat=1.6 g
| polyfat=3.3 g
| carbs=64.2 g
| fibre=7.0 g
| calcium_mg=47
| iron_mg=4.6
| magnesium_mg=197
| phosphorus_mg=457
| potassium_mg=563
| sodium_mg=5
| zinc_mg=3.1
| copper_mg=0.590
| manganese_mg=2.0
| selenium_ug=8.5
| vitC_mg=0
| thiamin_mg=0.36
| riboflavin_mg=0.32
| niacin_mg=1.52
| vitB6_mg=0.49
| folate_ug=184
| choline_mg=70
| vitA_ug=1
| vitE_mg=2.4
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168874/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}}
{{nutritional value | name=Quinoa, cooked
| kJ=503
| protein=4.4 g
| fat=1.92 g
| water=72 g
| monofat=0.529 g
| polyfat=1.078 g
| carbs=21.3 g
| fibre=2.8 g
| calcium_mg=17
| iron_mg=1.49
| magnesium_mg=64
| phosphorus_mg=152
| potassium_mg=172
| sodium_mg=7
| zinc_mg=1.09
| copper_mg=0.192
| manganese_mg=0.631
| selenium_ug=2.8
| vitC_mg=0
| thiamin_mg=0.107
| riboflavin_mg=0.11
| niacin_mg=0.412
| vitB6_mg=0.123
| folate_ug=42
| choline_mg=23
| vitA_ug=0
| vitE_mg=0.63
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168917/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}}
Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates, 14% [[Biology:Protein|protein]], and 6% [[Chemistry:Fat|fat]]. Nutritional evaluations indicate that a {{cvt|100|g|oz|abbr=off|frac=2|adj=on}} serving of raw quinoa seeds has a food energy of {{cvt|1,539|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several [[Chemistry:B vitamins|B vitamins]], including 46%{{nbsp}}DV for [[Chemistry:Folate|folate]], and for several dietary minerals such as magnesium (55%{{nbsp}}DV), [[Chemistry:Manganese|manganese]] (95%{{nbsp}}DV), [[Chemistry:Phosphorus|phosphorus]] (65%{{nbsp}}DV), and [[Chemistry:Zinc|zinc]] (33%{{nbsp}}DV) (table).

After boiling, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a {{cvt|100|g|oz|frac=2}} serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat,<ref name="johnson">{{cite web |vauthors=Johnson DL, Ward SM |title=Quinoa |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1993/v2-222.html#Table%201 |publisher=Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York |date=1993 |access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref> and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to {{cvt|503|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}}. Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains a rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30%{{nbsp}}DV) and phosphorus (22%{{nbsp}}DV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being just a moderate source (10–19%{{nbsp}}DV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%). (table).

Quinoa is gluten-free.<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" /> Because quinoa has a high concentration of [[Biology:Protein (nutrient)|protein]] and is a good source of many micronutrients, has versatility in preparation, and a potential for increased yields in controlled environments,<ref name="AbugochJames2009">{{cite journal |last=Abugoch |first=James L. E. |title=Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.): Composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties |journal=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research |year=2009 |volume=58 |pages=1–31 |pmid=19878856 |doi=10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1 |type=review |isbn=9780123744418}}</ref> it has been selected as an experimental crop in [[Organization:NASA|NASA]]'s Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |title=Quinoa: An Emerging "New" Crop with Potential for CELSS |author1=Greg Schlick |author2=David L. Bubenheim |name-list-style=amp |work=NASA Technical Paper 3422 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940015664_1994015664.pdf |publisher=NASA |date=November 1993}}</ref>

Beside its food properties, Quinoa has several medical uses, among which antimicrobial and anticancer properties are promising.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Romero-Benavides |first1=Juan Carlos |last2=Guaraca-Pino |first2=Evelyn |last3=Duarte-Casar |first3=Rodrigo |last4=Rojas-Le-Fort |first4=Marlene |last5=Bailon-Moscoso |first5=Natalia |date=December 2023 |title=Chenopodium quinoa Willd. and Amaranthus hybridus L.: Ancestral Andean Food Security and Modern Anticancer and Antimicrobial Activity |journal=Pharmaceuticals |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1728 |doi=10.3390/ph16121728 |issn=1424-8247 |doi-access=free |pmid=38139854 |pmc=10747716 }}</ref>[[File:Red quinoa.png|thumb|Red quinoa, cooked]]
[[File:Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa Cachilaya Bolivia Lake Titicaca.jpg|thumb|''Chenopodium quinoa'' near Cachilaya, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia]]

==Saponins and oxalic acid==
In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting [[Chemistry:Saponin|saponin]]s, making them unpalatable.<ref name="Lost crops" /><ref name="jarvis">{{Cite journal |last1=Jarvis |first1=David E. |last2=Ho |first2=Yung Shwen |last3=Lightfoot |first3=Damien J. |last4=Schmöckel |first4=Sandra M. |last5=Li |first5=Bo |last6=Borm |first6=Theo J.A. |last7=Ohyanagi |first7=Hajime |last8=Mineta |first8=Katsuhiko |last9=Michell |first9=Craig T. |date=2017-02-08 |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |journal=Nature |language=en |type=advance online publication |volume=542 |issue=7641 |pages=307–312 |doi=10.1038/nature21370 |pmid=28178233 |bibcode=2017Natur.542..307J |doi-access=free|hdl=10754/622874 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.<ref name='AlternativeFieldCropsManual'>{{cite book |article=Quinoa |date=January 20, 2000 |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota |article-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/AFCM/quinoa.html}}</ref> The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative [[Biology:Heredity|inheritance]].<ref name=jarvis /> Although lowering the saponin content through [[Biology:Selective breeding|selective breeding]] to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% cross-pollination,<ref name="Quinoa saponin">{{cite journal |last1=Masterbroek |first1=H.D. |last2=Limburg |first2=H. |last3=Gilles |first3=T. |last4=Marvin |first4=H.J. |year=2000 |title=Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=80 |pages=152–156 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P}}</ref> it is a major goal of quinoa [[Biology:Breeding program|breeding program]]s, which may include [[Biology:Genetic engineering|genetic engineering]].<ref name=jarvis />

The [[Chemistry:Toxicity category rating|toxicity category rating]] of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.<ref name="johnson"/><ref name=Biopesticides>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/decision_PC-097094_28-Dec-07.pdf |title=Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |year=2009 |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine [[Chemistry:Antiseptic|antiseptic]] for skin injuries.<ref name="johnson"/>

Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus ''[[Biology:Chenopodium|Chenopodium]]'' and related genera of the family [[Biology:Amaranthaceae|Amaranthaceae]], including quinoa, contain high levels of [[Chemistry:Oxalic acid|oxalic acid]].<ref name="oxalic acid quinoa leaves">{{cite journal |last1=Siener |first1=Roswitha |first2=Ruth |last2=Honow |first3=Ana |last3=Seidler |first4=Susanne |last4=Voss |first5=Albrecht |last5=Hesse |year=2006 |title=Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Chenopodiaceae families |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=220–224 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059}}</ref>

==Cultivation==

===Climate requirements===
The plant's growth is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and [[Biology:Landrace|landrace]]s (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over {{cvt|4000|m|ft}} in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between {{cvt|2500|m|ft}} and {{cvt|4000|m|ft}}. Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between {{cvt|-4|C|F}} during the night to near {{cvt|35|C|F}} during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from {{cvt|300|to|1000|mm|in}} during the [[Biology:Growing season|growing season]]. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting.<ref name="Lost crops" />

==== United States ====
Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley of Colorado where it was introduced in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |date=February 19, 2016 |title=Growing Quinoa in Colorado: An interview with Paul New, White Mountain Farm |last=LeFrancois-Hanson |first=Zoe |website=Local Food Shift |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908172701/http://www.localfoodshift.pub/growing-quinoa-in-colorado-an-interview-with-paul-new-white-mountain-farm/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed {{cvt|30|°C|°F}} and night temperatures are about {{cvt|7|°C|°F}}. In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington,<ref>{{cite news |title=Quinoa seed of change for Palouse farmers |date=May 3, 2014 |author=Kara Mcmurray |newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2014/may/03/quinoa-seed-of-change-for-palouse-farmers/}}</ref> and farmers in Western Washington began producing the crop. The [[Organization:Washington State University|Washington State University]] Skagit River Valley research facility near Mount Vernon grew thousands of its own experimental varieties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing quinoa in Skagit County |author=Julia-Grace Sanders |date=October 23, 2018 |newspaper=Skagit Valley Herald |location=Burlington, Washington |url=https://www.goskagit.com/news/local_news/growing-quinoa-in-skagit-county/article_3f38b215-a2b3-5c43-8099-f249d058c848.html}}</ref> The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Seattle Times |title=Quinoa comes to the Northwest |date=August 2, 2016 |author=Rebekah Denn |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/pacific-nw-magazine/quinoa-comes-to-the-northwest/}}</ref> Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin. Quinoa is planted in Idaho where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude [[Earth:Snake River Plain|Snake River Plain]] is the largest planted variety in North America.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.capitalpress.com/ag_sectors/grains/western-innovator-processor-pioneers-quinoa-production/article_1c832fe8-dbef-11e9-91af-9f5a171f25ed.html |title=Western Innovator: Processor pioneers quinoa production |author=Dianna Troyer |work=Capital Press |access-date=2020-02-15 |date=3 October 2019}}</ref>

==== Europe ====
Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Quinoa Group |url=http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |website=www.quinoaeurope.eu |access-date=2015-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320224734/http://www.quinoaeurope.eu/ |archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>

===Sowing===
Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a [[Biology:Soil pH|soil pH]] of 6 to{{nbsp}}8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.<ref name="AlternativeFieldCropsManual" />

===Soil===
Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinojosa |first1=Leonardo |last2=González |first2=Juan |last3=Barrios-Masias |first3=Felipe |last4=Fuentes |first4=Francisco |last5=Murphy |first5=Kevin |last6=Hinojosa |first6=Leonardo |last7=González |first7=Juan A. |last8=Barrios-Masias |first8=Felipe H. |last9=Fuentes |first9=Francisco |date=November 2018 |title=Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review |journal=Plants |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=106 |doi=10.3390/plants7040106 |pmid=30501077 |pmc=6313892 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Yields are maximised when {{cvt|170|-|200|kg/ha|lb/acre}} of [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]] is available.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield.

===Pests===
In eastern North America, it is susceptible to a [[Biology:Leaf miner|leaf miner]] that may reduce crop success. (The miner also affects the common weed and close relative ''[[Biology:Chenopodium album|Chenopodium album]]'', but ''C.{{nbsp}}album'' is much more resistant.){{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

[[Earth:Crop rotation|Rotation]] is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with [[Biology:Potato|potato]], [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]]s and [[Biology:Legume|legume]]s including ''[[Biology:Lupinus mutabilis|Lupinus mutabilis]]''.<ref name="Zhang-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Heng |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Zhu |first3=Jian-Kang |title=Developing naturally stress-resistant crops for a sustainable agriculture |journal=Nature Plants |volume=4 |issue=12 |date=2018-11-26 |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0309-4 |pages=989–996 |pmid=30478360 |s2cid=53770458}}</ref><ref name="Rasmussen-et-al-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Claus |last2=Lagnaoui |first2=Aziz |last3=Esbjerg |first3=Peter |title=Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |date=2003-01-05 |doi=10.1081/fri-120018868 |pages=61–75 |s2cid=55311455 |url=http://orgprints.org/28718/7/28718.pdf}}</ref>

===Genetics===
The [[Biology:Genome|genome]] of quinoa was sequenced in 2017.<ref name="jarvis" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-38908321 |title=Quinoa genome could see 'super-food' prices tumble |work=BBC News |date=8 February 2017 |access-date=9 February 2017 |last1=McGrath |first1=Matt}}</ref> Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, [[Biology:Genetic engineering|genetic engineering]], the plant is being modified to have higher [[Earth:Crop yield|crop yield]], improved tolerance to heat and [[Biology:Biotic stress|biotic stress]], and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition.<ref name="jarvis" />

===Harvesting===
Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://homeguides.sfgate.com/harvest-quinoa-90172.html |title=How to Harvest Quinoa |website=homeguides.sfgate.com |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/how-does-quinoa-grow_n_592e1cf0e4b0e95ac194de75 |title=Bet You Had No Idea What Quinoa Looks Like When It Grows |date=2017-06-01 |website=HuffPost |access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> The [[Earth:Crop yield|crop yield]] in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

=== Processing ===
The plants are allowed to stand until the stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%.
Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the [[Biology:Chaff|chaff]] and [[Chemistry:Winnowing|winnowing]] the seed to remove the [[Biology:Husk|husk]]. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid [[Biology:Germination|germination]].<ref name="Lost crops" /> Dry seeds can be stored raw,{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} until being washed or mechanically processed to remove the pericarp to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins. This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive.<ref name='Bazile2014'>{{cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Martínez |first2=Enrique A. |last3=Fuentes |first3=Francisco |date=2014-12-02 |title=Diversity of quinoa in a biogeographical island: A review of constraints and potential from arid to temperate regions of Chile |url=https://www.notulaebotanicae.ro/index.php/nbha/article/view/9733 |journal=Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=289–298 |doi=10.1583/nbha4229733 |doi-broken-date=1 August 2023}}</ref> The seeds must be dried again before being stored and sold in stores.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Production==
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; clear:left; width:13em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Quinoa production – 2020
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| <small>([[Tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{Flagu|Peru}} || 100,115
|-
| {{Flagu|Bolivia}} || 70,170
|-
| {{Flagu|Ecuador}} || 4,903
|-
| '''World''' || '''175,188'''
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: FAOSTAT of the {{wipe|United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Quinoa production in 2019, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists) |date=2020 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=14 January 2021}}</ref></small>
|}

In 2020, world production of quinoa was 175,188 [[Tonne|tonne]]s, led by Peru and Bolivia with 97% of the total when combined (table).<ref name=faostat/>

===Price===
Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and [[Place:Australasia|Australasia]] where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.<ref name="Collyns">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=17 Jan 2013 |location=London |first=Dan |last=Collyns |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.<ref name="amrc"/><ref name="The Guardian"/> In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.<ref name="Collyns"/> This compares with [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]] prices of about US$340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>{{rp|176}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Alastair Bland |title=Quinoa Craze Inspires North America To Start Growing Its Own |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/11/29/166155875/quinoa-craze-inspires-north-america-to-start-growing-its-own |publisher=NPR |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=29 November 2012}}</ref> By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries.<ref name=FAO2013/> As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years.<ref name="nacla">{{Cite web |title=The Quinoa Boom Goes Bust in the Andes |author=Emma McDonell |url=https://nacla.org/news/2018/03/12/quinoa-boom-goes-bust-andes |access-date=2021-01-14 |publisher=North American Congress on Latin America |date=12 March 2018}}</ref> From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%.<ref name=faostat/> Some refer to this as the "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry.<ref name=nacla/>

===Effects of rising demand on growers===
[[File:Peru Chenopodium quinoa.jpg|thumb|Farmer field school on crop husbandry and quinoa production, near Puno, Peru]]

Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers.<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref name="complicated">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/01/quinoa-good-evil-or-just-really-complicated |title=Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated? |author=Tom Philpott |magazine=Mother Jones |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref><ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>{{rp|176–77}} However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Marc F. |last2=Fajardo-Gonzalez |first2=Johanna |last3=Gitter |first3=Seth R. |date=2018-12-01 |title=Foods and fads: The welfare impacts of rising quinoa prices in Peru |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X18302419 |journal=World Development |volume=112 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.012 |s2cid=155556494 |issn=0305-750X}}</ref> and other commentary indicated similar conclusions,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/07/16/202737139/is-our-love-of-quinoa-hurting-or-helping-farmers-who-grow-it |title=Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers |author=Allison Aubrey |date=2013-06-07 |work=NPR |access-date=2013-08-01}}
</ref> including for women specifically.<ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/jul/17/quinoa-threat-food-security-improving-peruvian-farmers-lives-superfood |title=Quinoa isn't a threat to food security. It's improving Peruvian farmers' lives |newspaper=The Guardian |author=Alexander Kasterine |date=17 July 2016 |access-date=28 July 2018}}</ref> Impacts of the price surge on quinoa consumption in the Andes mainly affected urban poor rather than farmers themselves, and these impacts were reduced when the price fell in 2015.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income, they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than a traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value.<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref name="complicated" /><ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>{{rp|176–77}} Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free school breakfasts and government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.<ref name="complicated" />

In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised a complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its [[Social:Mode of production|mode of production]], for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically integrated private firms, or wage labor.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Andrew |last=Ofstehage |title=The construction of an alternative quinoa economy: balancing solidarity, household needs, and profit in San Agustín, Bolivia |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=2012 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=441–454 |doi=10.1007/s10460-012-9371-0 |s2cid=154918412 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record/uuid:efbd39e1-0203-4c99-9ef0-7a1c900fd92d}}</ref> State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and a shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugees to return to working the land, outcomes with complex and varied social effects.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Tanya M. |last=Kerssen |date=2015 |title=Food sovereignty and the quinoa boom: challenges to sustainable re-peasantisation in the southern Altiplano of Bolivia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=489–507 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2015.1002992 |s2cid=153909114}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |author=Dan Collyns |date=14 January 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=5 September 2013}}</ref>

The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over [[Earth:Food security|food security]] of the original consumers, unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013">{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Small |date=2013 |title=Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity? |journal=Biodiversity |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=169–179 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2013.835551 |bibcode=2013Biodi..14..169S |s2cid=128872124}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=S.-E. |last=Jacobsen |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=197 |issue=5 |date=2011 |pages=390–99 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x|bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J }}</ref><ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016" />

World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising [[Philosophy:Veganism|veganism]],<ref name="The Guardian" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://inews.co.uk/opinion/sanctimonious-vegans-well-look-closely-diets-global-impact/ |title=Sanctimonious vegans would do well to think about their diet's global impact |last=Alibhai-Brown |first=Yasmin |date=January 8, 2018}}</ref> but one academic has commented that despite the drawbacks of quinoa, meat production in most cases is still less sustainable than quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>{{rp|177}}

==Culture==
===United Nations recognition===
[[File:Official Logo for the International Year of Quinoa.jpg|150px|right|Logo of the International Year of Quinoa, 2013]]
The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "{{visible anchor|International Year of Quinoa}}",<ref name="UN Resolution 66/221. International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |format=PDF |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly |author=United Nations |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530160211/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=2013-05-30}}</ref><ref name="International Year of Quinoa, 2013" >{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/ |title=International Year of Quinoa |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/observances/years.shtml |title=International Years |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing [[Earth:Food security|food security]], [[Biology:Nutrition|nutrition]] and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>

===Kosher certification===
Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411105834/http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 11, 2013 |title=Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? |author=Hopper, Tristin |date=March 25, 2013 |work=National Post |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |author=Nemes, Hody |date=December 23, 2013 |title=Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover |publisher=Forward |access-date=2014-02-07 |archive-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326000801/http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Calca Peru- Quinoa seller at mercado II.jpg|thumb|left|Quinoa seller at market in Calca, Peru]]
Quinoa is an allotetraploid plant, containing two full sets of [[Biology:Chromosome|chromosome]]s from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to a 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either ''[[Biology:Chenopodium berlandieri|Chenopodium berlandieri]]'', from North America, or the Andean species ''Ch. hircinum'', although more recent studies, in 2011, even suggest Old World relatives. On the other hand, morphological features relate ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' of the Andes and [[Biology:Chenopodium nuttalliae|''Ch. nuttalliae'']] of Mexico. Some studies have suggested that both species may have been derived from the same wild type. A weedy quinoa, ''Ch.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' var. ''melanospermum'', is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to ''Ch.{{nbsp}}nutalliae'' has been reported from Mexico so far.<ref name=Bazile2014/>

Studies regarding the genetic diversity of quinoa suggest that it may have passed through at least three bottleneck genetic events, with a possible fourth expected:
*The first occurred when the species was created, as its two diploid ancestors underwent a hybridization followed by chromosome doubling, this new species was genetically isolated from its parent species, and thus lost a great deal of genetic diversity. These ancestors are still not known, but are ''not'' the higher altitude crop species ''[[Biology:Chenopodium pallidicaule|Chenopodium pallidicaule]]'' (cañahua), a diploid.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium pallidicaule'': An emerging Andean super grain |year=2019 |last1=Mangelson |first1=Hayley |last2=Jarvis |first2=David E. |last3=Mollinedo |first3=Patricia |last4=Rollano-Penaloza |first4=Oscar M. |last5=Palma-Encinas |first5=Valeria D. |last6=Gomez-Pando |first6=Luz Rayda |last7=Jellen |first7=Eric N. |last8=Maughan |first8=Peter J. |journal=Applications in Plant Sciences |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e11300 |doi=10.1002/aps3.11300 |pmid=31832282 |pmc=6858295 }}</ref>
*A second bottleneck may have occurred when quinoa was domesticated from its unknown but possible wild tetraploid form. It might have been domesticated twice: once in the high Andes and a second time in the Chilean and Argentinean lowlands.
*A third bottleneck can be considered "political", and has lasted more than 400&nbsp;years, from the Spanish conquest of the new continent until the present time. During this phase quinoa has been replaced with [[Biology:Maize|maize]], marginalized from production processes possibly due to its important medicinal, social and religious roles for the indigenous populations of South America, but also because it is very difficult to process (dehusk) compared with maize.
*In the 21st century, a fourth bottleneck event may occur, as traditional farmers migrate from rural zones to urban centers, which exposes quinoa to the risk of further [[Biology:Genetic erosion|genetic erosion]]. Better breeding may also result in loss of genetic diversity, as breeders would be expected to reduce unwanted alleles to produce uniform cultivars, but cross-breeding between local landraces has and will likely produce high-diversity cultivars.<ref name=Bazile2014/>

Over the last 5,000{{nbsp}}years the biogeography of ''Ch. quinoa'' has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in the area of distribution, but also in regards to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000{{nbsp}}years.<ref name=Bazile2014/> Quinoa is also cultivated, since an early date, near the coast of northern Chile, where it was grown by the Chinchorro culture.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} ''Ch.&nbsp;quinoa'' was brought to the lowlands of south-central Chile at an early date from the Andean highlands.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}}{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} Varieties in the lowlands of south-central Chile derive directly from ancestral cultivars which then evolved in parallel to those of the highlands.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}} It has been suggested that the introduction of ''Ch.&nbsp;quinoa'' occurred before highland varieties with [[Biology:Flour|flour]]y perisperm emerged.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}}{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} There are wide discrepancies in the suggested dates of introduction, one study suggests c. 1000 BC as the introduction date while another suggests 600–1100 AD.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=148}} In colonial times the plant is known to have been cultivated as far south as Chiloé Archipelago and the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=147}} The cuisine of Chiloé included bread made of Quinoa until at least the mid-19th century.{{sfn|Pardo|Pizarro|2015|p=150}}

In Chile it had almost disappeared by the early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in Mapuche reserves.<ref name=Bazile2014/>

When Amaranthaceae became abundant in Lake Pacucha, Peru, the lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a [[Earth:Salt marsh|saltmarsh]]. Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of ''C.{{nbsp}}quinoa'' became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five [[Earth:Ecotype|ecotype]]s today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it was and is a vital crop.{{sfn|Murphy|Matanguihan|2015|p=14}}

Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in [[Finance:Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized crop]] studies in the 1970s.<ref name="McDonell">{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Wilk |last2=McDonell |first2=Emma |title=Critical Approaches to Superfoods |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/critical-approaches-to-superfoods-9781350123878/ |publication-place=London |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-350-12387-8 |oclc=1204141540 |page=}}</ref> The grain, however, has received much less attention than crops like maize or wheat.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Particularly for the high variety of Chilean landraces, in addition to how the plant has adapted to different latitudes, this crop is now potentially cultivable almost anywhere in the world.<ref name=Bazile2014/>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Quinoa size.jpg|alt=Profile of Quinoa Seed on Millimeter Ruler|Quinoa size in millimeters
File:Dev_black_seed_in_quinoa_flower.JPG|Developing black quinoa seed
File:Quinoa.jpg|Quinoa seeds
File:Chenopodium quinoa before flowering.jpg|Quinoa plant before flowering
File:Quinoa_flower.JPG|Quinoa flower
File:Camino a Puno Golpeando quinoa.JPG|Threshing quinoa in Peru
File:Chenopodium quinoa0.jpg|Quinoa plant in Bolivia
File:White, red, and black quinoa.jpg|White, red, and black quinoa mix
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Biology:List of edible seeds#Cereals|List of cereals]]
*2010s in food
*[[Biology:Amaranthus caudatus|Kiwicha]]
*[[Biology:Salvia hispanica|Chia]]

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last=Bixio |first=Jacques-Alexandre |date=1839 |title=Journal d'agriculture pratique et de jardinage |trans-title=Journal of Practical Agriculture and Gardening |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1ZTAAAAcAAJ |journal=Journal d'agriculture pratique |language=fr |publisher=Maison Rustique |volume=3 |issue=19 |page=42}}
*{{cite magazine |last=Bunney |first=Sarah |date=1984-11-15 |title=When goosefoots stepped into the New World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=siZ1j_5wdqwC |magazine=New Scientist |publisher=[[Company:RELX|Reed Business Information]] |volume=104 |issue=1430 |page=24 |issn=0028-6664}}
*{{cite magazine |last=Goeze |first=Edmund |date=1886 |title=Hamburger Garten- und Blumenzeitung |trans-title=Hamburg's garden and flower newspaper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=erMCAAAAYAAJ |magazine=Neue allgemeine deutsche Garten- und Blumenzeitung |language=de |edition=42 |publisher=Robert Kittler |publication-place=Hamburg |pages=260–62}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Pulvento |first1=C. |first2=M. |last2=Riccardi |first3=A. |last3=Lavini |first4=R. |last4=d’Andria |first5=R. |last5=Ragab |title=SALTMED model to simulate yield and dry matter for quinoa crop and soil Moisture content under different irrigation strategies in south Italy |journal=Irrigation and Drainage |doi=10.1002/ird.1727 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=229–238 |year=2013 |bibcode=2013IrrDr..62..229P |s2cid=53978228 |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/506200/1/N506200PP.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Cocozza |first1=C. |first2=C. |last2=Pulvento |first3=A. |last3=Lavini |first4=M. |last4=Riccardi |first5=R. |last5=d’Andria |first6=R. |last6=Tognetti |year=2012 |title=Effects of increasing salinity stress and decreasing water availability on ecophysiological traits of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' <small>Willd.</small>) |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |doi=10.1111/jac.12012 |volume=199 |issue=4 |pages=229–240}}
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*{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/20/world/americas/20bolivia.html |title=Quinoa's global success creates quandary at home |last1=Romero |first1=Simon |last2=Shahriari |first2=Sara |date=March 19, 2011 |newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}} |access-date=July 22, 2012}}
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*{{cite thesis |last=Torres |first=Raul Oswaldo Castillo |title=A Study of the Long-term Storage Behaviour of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd. Seeds |date=1987 |publisher=[[Organization:University of Birmingham|University of Birmingham]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWszAQAAMAAJ |place=Birmingham}}

==Bibliography==
<!-- The entries in the bibliography are in alphabetical order. Comments show names of named references -->
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book |last=Bailly |first=Anatole |url=http://archive.org/details/BaillyDictionnaireGrecFrancais |title=Dictionnaire Grec Francais |date=1935 |publisher=Hachette |volume=1 |language=fr |trans-title=Greek - French dictionary}}
*{{Cite book |last=Cumo |first=Christopher |title=Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-59884-775-8 |location=Santa Barbara, California}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Linné |first1=Carl von |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/37657 |title=Species Plantarum |last2=Willdenow |first2=Karl Ludwig |date=1797 |publisher=G. C. Nauk |edition=4. |location=[[Place:Berlin|Berlin]] |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.37657}}
*{{Cite book |last=Itier |first=César |title=Parlons quechua - La langue du Cuzco |date=1997 |publisher=Ed. l' Harmattan |isbn=2-7384-5602-2 |location=Paris |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Kevin S. |last2=Matanguihan |first2=Janet |date=2015-09-28 |title=Quinoa: Improvement and Sustainable Production |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-62805-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwmeCAAAQBAJ}}
*{{Cite book |title=Chile: Plantas alimentarias Prehispánicas |last1=Pardo B. |first1=Oriana |publisher=Ediciones Parina |year=2014 |isbn=9789569120022 |edition=2015 |location=Arica, Chile |pages=146–150 |language=Spanish |last2=Pizarro |first2=José Luis |ref={{sfnref|Pardo|Pizarro|2015}} }}
*{{Cite book |last=Rey |first=Alain |title=Dictionnaire historique de la langue française (Vol I, II) |date=2006 |publisher=Dictionnaires le Robert |isbn=2-84902-236-5 |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=Historical dictionary of the French language}}
{{refend}}

{{Library resources box}}
{{Subject bar |portal1=Agriculture |portal2=Plants |portal3=Peru}}

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[[Category:Chenopodium|+]]

{{Sourceattribution|Quinoa}}