View source for Biology:Rye

{{short description|Species of grain}}
{{speciesbox
|name = Rye
|image = Ear of rye.jpg
|genus = Secale
|species = cereale
|authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms = ''Secale fragile'' <small>M.Bieb.</small>
}}

'''Rye''' ('''''Secale cereale''''') is a [[Biology:Poaceae|grass]] grown extensively as a grain, a [[Earth:Cover crop|cover crop]] and a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe ([[Biology:Triticeae|Triticeae]]) and is closely related to both wheat and barley (genera ''[[Biology:Triticum|Triticum]]'' and ''[[Biology:Hordeum|Hordeum]]'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uwyo.edu/plantsciences/uwplant/forages/small-grains/rye.html |title=Forage Identification: Rye |date=September 26, 2017 |website=[[Organization:University of Wyoming|University of Wyoming]]: Department of Plant Sciences |access-date=September 26, 2017 |archive-date=August 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818200843/http://www.uwyo.edu/plantsciences/uwplant/forages/small-grains/rye.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Rye grain is used for flour, [[Biology:Rye bread|bread]], beer, crispbread, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder. It can also be eaten whole, either as boiled rye berries or by being rolled, similar to [[Biology:Rolled oats|rolled oats]].

Rye is a [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]] grain and should not be confused with unrelated ryegrass (''[[Biology:Lolium|Lolium]]''), which is used for lawns, pasture, and as hay for livestock.

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Wild rye.jpg|thumb|Wild rye]]

Rye is one of a number of [[Biology:Crop wild relative|cereals that grow wild]] in the [[Place:Levant|Levant]], central and eastern [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]] and in adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the [[History:Epipalaeolithic|Epipalaeolithic]] site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the [[Place:Euphrates|Euphrates]] valley of northern [[Place:Syria|Syria]] suggests that rye was among the first [[Biology:Cereal|cereal]] crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago.<ref name="Gordon Hillman">{{cite journal |last1=Hillman |first1=Gordon |last2=Hedges |first2=Robert |last3=Moore |first3=Andrew |last4=Colledge |first4=Susan |last5=Pettitt |first5=Paul |date=2001 |title=New evidence of Lateglacial cereal cultivation at Abu Hureyra on the Euphrates |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200033056 |url-status=live |journal= The Holocene |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=383–393 |bibcode=2001Holoc..11..383H |doi=10.1191/095968301678302823 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120221734/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200033056_New_evidence_of_Late_Glacial_cereal_cultivation_at_Abu_Hureyra_on_the_Euphrates |archive-date=November 20, 2021 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |s2cid=84930632}}</ref> However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on [[Biology:Chaff|chaff]].<ref name="Sue Colledge">{{cite journal |last1=Colledge |first1=Sue |last2=Conolly |first2=James |date=2010 |title=Reassessing the evidence for the cultivation of wild crops during the Younger Dryas at Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria |journal= Environmental Archaeology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=124–138 |doi=10.1179/146141010X12640787648504 |s2cid=129087203}}</ref>

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of [[History:Neolithic|Neolithic]] sites in Asia Minor ([[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]], now Turkey), such as the [[History:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük,<ref name="Hillman">{{cite journal |last1=Hillman |first1=Gordon |date=1978 |title=On the Origins of Domestic rye: Secale Cereale: The Finds from Aceramic Can Hasan III in Turkey |journal= Anatolian Studies |volume=28 |pages=157–174 |doi=10.2307/3642748 |jstor=3642748 |s2cid=85225244}}{{Subscription required|via=[[Organization:JSTOR|JSTOR]]}}</ref><ref name="Sidhu">{{cite journal |last1=Sidhu |first1=Jagdeep |last2=Ramakrishnan |first2=Sai Mukund |last3=Shaukat |first3=Ali |last4=Amy |first4=Bernado |last5=Bai |first5=Guihua |last6=Sidrat |first6=Abdullah |last7=Ayana |first7=Girma |last8=Sehgal |first8=Sunish |date=2019 |title=Assessing the genetic diversity and characterizing genomic regions conferring Tan Spot resistance in cultivated rye |journal= PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=e0214519 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1414519S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0214519 |pmc=6438500 |pmid=30921415 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the [[History:Bronze Age|Bronze Age]] of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.<ref name="ZoharyHopf2012">{{cite book |last1=Zohary |first1=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hHSYoqY-AwC&pg=PA62 |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin |last2=Hopf |first2=Maria |last3=Weiss |first3=Ehud |date=2012 |publisher= [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-954906-1 |location=Oxford |page=62 |access-date=October 5, 2016 |via=Google Books}}</ref> It is possible that rye traveled west from Asia Minor as a minor admixture in wheat (possibly as a result of [[Biology:Vavilovian mimicry|Vavilovian mimicry]]), and was only later cultivated in its own right.<ref name="McElroy 2014 pp. 207–216">{{cite journal |last=McElroy |first=J. Scott |year=2014 |title=Vavilovian Mimicry: Nikolai Vavilov and His Little-Known Impact on Weed Science |journal= Weed Science |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=207–216 |doi=10.1614/ws-d-13-00122.1 |s2cid=86549764|doi-access=free}}</ref> Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in [[History:Ancient Rome|Roman]] contexts along the [[Place:Rhine|Rhine]] and the [[Place:Danube|Danube]] and in Ireland and Britain.<ref name="Gyulai">{{cite journal |last1=Gyulai |first1=Ferenc |date=2014 |title=Archaeobotanical overview of rye (''Secale Cereale'' L.) in the Carpathian-basin I. from the beginning until the Roman age |url=http://docplayer.net/3685335-Archaeobotanical-overview-of-rye-secale-cereale-l-in-the-carpathian-basin-i-from-the-beginning-until-the-roman-age.html |url-status=live |journal= Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=25–35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231225120/http://docplayer.net/3685335-Archaeobotanical-overview-of-rye-secale-cereale-l-in-the-carpathian-basin-i-from-the-beginning-until-the-roman-age.html |archive-date=December 31, 2019 |access-date=July 14, 2016}} page 26.</ref> Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation".<ref name="Pliny">{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=L. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HEQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Wheat Science: Today and Tomorrow |last2=Peacock |first2=W. J. |date=March 19, 1981 |publisher= {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} |isbn=978-0-521-23793-2 |page=11 |access-date=November 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526010205/https://books.google.com/books?id=HEQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11 |archive-date=May 26, 2020 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref> He said it was mixed with [[Biology:Spelt|spelt]] "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".<ref>{{cite book |author=Pliny the Elder |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D40 |title=The Natural History |date=1855 |publisher= Taylor and Francis (T&F) |location= [[Place:London|London]] |at=Book 18, Ch. 40 |translator1-last=Bostock |translator1-first=John |access-date=July 12, 2016 |translator2-last=Riley |translator2-first=H. T. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106201723/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D40 |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |url-status=live |via= Perseus Digital Library, Trufts University |orig-year=c. 77–79}}</ref>

Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds,<ref name="weed manage">{{cite book |last1=Burgos |first1=Nilda R. |title=Handbook of Sustainable Weed Management |last2=Talbert |first2=Ronald E. |last3=Kuk |first3=Yong In |date=2006 |publisher=Haworth Press, Inc |isbn=978-1-56022-957-5 |editor1-last=Sing |editor1-first=Harinder P. |location= {{wipe|New York City}} |page=110 |chapter=Grass-legume mixed cover crops for weed management |access-date=October 5, 2016 |editor2-last=Batish |editor2-first=Daisy Rani |editor3-last=Kohli |editor3-first=Ravinder Kumar |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Az-qoHPCnvYC&pg=PA110 |via= [[Google Books]] }}</ref> and can either be harvested as a bonus crop or tilled directly into the ground in spring to provide more organic matter for the next summer's crop. It is sometimes used in winter gardens and is a common [[Biology:Nurse crop|nurse crop]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy [[Earth:Clay|clay]] and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained [[Earth:Loam|loam]] or clay-loam soils.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |title=Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II |date=2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-368-0 |editor=Willy H. Verheye |page=121 |chapter=Growth And Production Of Oat And Rye |access-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511044506/https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Frost resistance ===
''S. cereale'' can thrive in subzero environments. The leaves of winter rye produce various [[Biology:Antifreeze protein|antifreeze polypeptide]]s (different from the antifreeze polypeptides produced by some fish and insects).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hon |first1=W. C. |last2=Griffith |first2=M. |last3=Chong |first3=P. |last4=Yang |first4=D. S.-C. |date=March 1, 1994 |title=Extraction and Isolation of Antifreeze Proteins from Winter Rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) Leaves |journal= Plant Physiology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=971–980 |doi=10.1104/pp.104.3.971 |issn=1532-2548 |pmc=160695 |pmid=12232141}}</ref>

==Ecology==
The nematode ''[[Biology:Ditylenchus dipsaci|Ditylenchus dipsaci]]'', and the insects [[Biology:Leaf beetle|leaf beetle]], [[Biology:Drosophila melanogaster|fruit fly]], gout fly, cereal chafer, dart moth, cereal bug, [[Biology:Hessian fly|Hessian fly]], and rustic shoulder knot are among the rye pests which can seriously affect plant health.<ref name="Matz1991">{{cite book |last=Matz |first=Samuel A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKY0h5YrQVwC&pg=PA182 |title=Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as Food and Feed |publisher= Van Nostrand Reinhold/AVI |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-442-30830-8 |location=New York |pages=181–182 |access-date=July 14, 2016 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Diseases===
{{Main|Biology:List of rye diseases}}

Rye is highly susceptible to the [[Biology:Ergot|ergot]] fungus.<ref>[http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot ergot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?ergot|date=March 3, 2016}}, online medical dictionary</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090910032206/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=%2Fppdocs%2Fus%2Fcommon%2Fdorlands%2Fdorland%2Fthree%2F000036589.htm ergot], Dorland's Medical Dictionary</ref> Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as [[Medicine:Ergotism|ergotism]]. Ergotism can cause both physical and mental harm, including convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that have depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics of this condition. Such epidemics have been found to correlate with periods of frequent witch trials, such as the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692.<ref name="hawaii1">{{cite web |last=Wong |first=George J. |date=1998 |title=Ergot of Rye: History |url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/LECT12.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124221943/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/bot135/lect12.htm |archive-date=November 24, 2005 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |work=Botany 135 Syllabus |publisher= [[Organization:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa|University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]], Botany Department}}</ref> Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated the disease, but contaminated flour may end up in bread and other food products if the ergot is not removed before milling.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |last1=Petruzzello |first1=Melissa |title=Ergot |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ergot |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212012517/https://www.britannica.com/science/ergot |archive-date=February 12, 2019 |access-date=3 March 2019 |website=Britannica |publisher= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Inc.}}</ref>

After an absence of 60 years, stem rust (''Puccinia graminis'' f. sp. ''tritici'') has returned to [[Earth:Europe|Europe]].<ref name="Return-to-Europe">
:Multiple sources:
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|{{*}} {{Cite journal |last1=Annika |first1=Djurle |last2=Young |first2=Beth |last3=Berlin |first3=Anna |last4=Vågsholm |first4=Ivar |last5=Blomstrom |first5=Anne |last6=Nygren |first6=Jim |last7=Kvarnheden |first7=Anders |year=2022 |title=Addressing biohazards to food security in primary production |journal=Food Security |language=English |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1475–1497 |doi=10.1007/s12571-022-01296-7 |issn=1876-4517 |eissn=1876-4525 |doi-access=free |s2cid=250250761}}
|{{*}} {{Cite journal |last1=Patpour |first1=Mehran |last2=Hovmoller |first2=Mogens |last3=Rodriguez |first3=Julian |last4=Randazzo |first4=Biagio |last5=Villegas |first5=Dolors |last6=Shamanin |first6=Vladimir |last7=Berlin |first7=Anna |last8=Flath |first8=Kerstin |last9=Czembor |first9=Pawel |last10=Hanzalova |first10=Alena |last11=Slikova |first11=Svetlana |last12=Skolotneva |first12=Ekaterina |last13=Jin |first13=Yue |last14=Szabo |first14=Les |last15=Meyer |first15=Kevin |year=2022 |title=Wheat Stem Rust Back in Europe: Diversity, Prevalence and Impact on Host Resistance |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |language=English |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.882440 |issn=1664-462X |oclc=731659269 |pmc=9202592 |pmid=35720526 |id=882440 |doi-access=free |first19=Anne |first18=Jens |first17=Tine |first16=Romain |last19=Justesen |last18=Hansen |last17=Thach |last16=Valade |page=882440 |s2cid=249244042}}
}}
</ref> Areas affected include {{wipe|Germany}}, {{wipe|Russia}} (Western Siberia), {{wipe|Spain}}, and Sweden.<ref name="Return-to-Europe" /> Races PTGBH, PTGFH, RKBBK, SKGBC, SKGBH, SKGBR, TKDLK, TKGBK, TKGBR, and TKGDH are now present on rye in Spain.<ref name="Return-to-Europe" />

Rye was the gene donor of ''Sr31'' {{endash}} a stem rust resistance gene {{endash}} introgressed into wheat.<ref>
:{{ Cite journal
     | doi = 10.3389/fpls.2014.00641
     | title = The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat
     | vauthors = Ellis JG, Lagudah ES, Spielmeyer W, Dodds PN
     | journal = Frontiers in Plant Science
 | date = 2014
     | volume = 5
 | page = 641
 | pmid = 25505474
 | pmc = 4241819
 | doi-access = free
 }}
:Published by Frontiers but cited by Brown 2015 & Uauy 2017.
</ref>

===Invasiveness===
Rye is a common, unwanted invader of [[Biology:Winter wheat|winter wheat]] fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lyon |first1=Drew J. |last2=Klein |first2=Robert N |date=May 2007 |title=Rye Control in Winter Wheat |url=http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=106 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144910/http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=106 |archive-date=April 13, 2014 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |publisher=Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Extension |edition=Revised |orig-year=2002}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
[[File:Rye grains rotated.jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Grain]]s
]]

Since the [[History:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], people have cultivated rye widely in [[Place:Central Europe|Central]] and [[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]. It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the France–Germany border and north of Hungary. In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Behre |first=Karl-Ernst |date=1992 |title=The history of rye cultivation in Europe |url=https://www.academia.edu/17566065 |url-status=live |journal= Vegetation History and Archaeobotany |volume=1 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF00191554 |issn=0939-6314 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020416/https://www.academia.edu/17566065 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |access-date=February 17, 2022 |s2cid=129518700}}</ref>

Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or [[Earth:Peat|peat]]. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains do. Rye will survive with snow cover that would otherwise result in winter-kill for winter wheat. Most farmers grow winter ryes, which are planted and begin to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop and produce their crop.<ref name="hawaii1" />

Autumn-planted rye shows fast growth; by the [[Astronomy:Summer solstice|summer solstice]], plants reach their maximum height of about a {{Convert|120|cm|ft|abbr=off|frac=2}}, while spring-planted wheat has only recently germinated. Vigorous growth suppresses even the most [[Biology:Noxious weed|noxious weed]] competitors and rye can be grown without application of herbicides.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size and surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time.<ref name="Jouki-2012">
:{{cite journal |last1=Jouki |first1=Mohammad |last2=Emam-Djomeh |first2=Zahra |last3=Khazaei |first3=Naimeh |date=2012 |title=Physical Properties of Whole Rye Seed (''Secale cereal'') |journal=International Journal of Food Engineering |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/1556-3758.2054|s2cid=102003836}}
:Species binomial misspelled in original.
</ref> Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower amounts of porosity also have lower tendencies to lose water during the process of drying.<ref name="Jouki-2012" />

===Diversity and use===
Along with ''S. cereale''{{'}}s relationship and impact on the environment, it is also a valuable species because of its expansive diversity and uses. In northern Portugal, fourteen different populations of ''S.&nbsp;cereale'' were analyzed in order to better understand their differences. It was discovered that the storage proteins are very diverse and possess a lot of overall genetic variation as well, which is useful information to know because scientists can use its diversity in breeding to produce the most efficient cultivar of ''S.&nbsp;cereale''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Miguel |last2=Seabra |first2=Luís |last3=Ramos |first3=António |last4=Santos |first4=Sofia |last5=Pinto-Carnide |first5=Olinda |last6=Carvalho |first6=Carlos |last7=Igrejas |first7=Gilberto |date=April 1, 2012 |title=Polymorphism of the storage proteins in Portuguese rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) populations |journal=Hereditas |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=72–84 |doi=10.1111/j.1601-5223.2012.02239.x |issn=1601-5223 |pmid=22568702 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, the beneficial characteristics of ''S.&nbsp;cereale'' can also be used to improve certain characteristics of other useful plants, like wheat. The pollination abilities of wheat were vastly improved when there was cross-pollination with ''S.&nbsp;cereale''. The addition of the rye chromosome 4R increased the size of the wheat anther along with increasing the number of pollen grains present.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Vy |last2=Fleury |first2=Delphine |last3=Timmins |first3=Andy |last4=Laga |first4=Hamid |last5=Hayden |first5=Matthew |last6=Mather |first6=Diane |last7=Okada |first7=Takashi |date=February 26, 2015 |title=Addition of rye chromosome 4R to wheat increases anther length and pollen grain number |journal= Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=128 |issue=5 |pages=953–964 |doi=10.1007/s00122-015-2482-4 |issn=0040-5752 |pmid=25716820 |s2cid=16421403}}</ref>

Along with improved wheat, the optimal characteristics of ''S.&nbsp;cereale'' can also be combined with another perennial rye, specifically ''[[Biology:Secale montanum|S.&nbsp;montanum]] Guss'', in order to produce ''S.&nbsp;cereanum'', which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye (''S.&nbsp;cereanum'') can be grown in all environments, even with less than favorable soil and protects some soils from erosion. In addition, the plant mixture has improved forage and is known to contain digestible fiber and protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sipos |first1=Tamás |last2=Halász |first2=Erika |date=April 25, 2007 |title=The role of perennial rye (''Secale cereale'' × ''S. montanum'') in sustainable agriculture |journal=Cereal Research Communications|volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=1073–1075 |doi=10.1556/CRC.35.2007.2.227 |issn=0133-3720}}</ref> Information about the diversity, the genome<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=Eva |last2=Schmutzer |first2=Thomas |last3=Barilar |first3=Ivan |last4=Mascher |first4=Martin |last5=Gundlach |first5=Heidrun |last6=Martis |first6=Mihaela M. |last7=Twardziok |first7=Sven O. |last8=Hackauf |first8=Bernd |last9=Gordillo |first9=Andres |date=2017-03-01 |title=Towards a whole-genome sequence for rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) |journal=The Plant Journal |language=en |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=853–869 |doi=10.1111/tpj.13436 |issn=1365-313X |pmid=27888547 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and ''S.&nbsp;cereanum''{{'}}s ability to cross fertilize with other species is useful information for scientists to know as they attempt to come up with various plant species that will be able to feed humanity in the future without leaving a negative footprint on the environment.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The {{Vanchor|1R}} chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes.<ref name="Sc-to-Ta"/> {{ Visible anchor |Petkus}} is a variety which has donated 1R-originating resistance to [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]], as have several other varieties including 'Insave', 'Amigo', and 'Imperial'.<ref name="Sc-to-Ta">
 {{ Cite journal |
         year=2017|
        issue=1|
        pages=1–9|
       volume=154|
    publisher=[[Company:BioMed Central|BioMed Central]]|
         issn=1601-5223|
      journal=Hereditas|
       first3=Inger|
       first2=Larisa|
       first1=Leonardo|
        last3=Åhman|
        last2=Gustavsson|
        last1=Herrera|
          doi=10.1186/s41065-017-0033-5|
        title=A systematic review of rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) as a source of resistance to pathogens and pests in wheat (''Triticum aestivum'' L.)|
 pmid=28559761|
 pmc=5445327|
 doi-access=free}}
</ref> [[Biology:AC Hazlet rye|AC Hazlet rye]] is a medium-sized fall variety rye that showed resistance to both lodging and [[Biology:Shattering (agriculture)|shattering]].<ref>SeCan. (2014). ''AC® Hazlet''. Retrieved from {{cite web|url=https://www.secan.com/en/data/files/_workspace/secan_searchvalues/R016/AC%20Hazlet%20July%202007%20Gene.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-11-28 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080402/https://www.secan.com/en/data/files/_workspace/secan_searchvalues/R016/AC%20Hazlet%20July%202007%20Gene.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

Li ''et al.'', 2021 provides a genome assembly for rye.<ref name = "High-Quality" >
:{{ Cite book | year = 2021 | publisher = [[Company:Springer Nature|Springer Nature]] | last1 = Rabanus-Wallace | first1 = M. | last2 = Stein | first2 = Nils | pages = 85–100 | isbn = 978-3-030-83383-1 | title = The Rye Genome }}
:
:This book cites this research.
:
:{{ Cite journal | issue = 4 | publisher = [[Company:Nature Portfolio|Nature Portfolio]] | year = 2021 | last1 = Li | first1 = Guangwei | last2 = Wang | first2 = Lijian | last3 = Yang | first3 = Jianping | last4 = He | first4 = Hang | last5 = Jin | first5 = Huaibing | last6 = Li | first6 = Xuming | last7 = Ren | first7 = Tianheng | last8 = Ren | first8 = Zhenglong | last9 = Li | first9 = Feng | last10 = Han | first10 = Xue | last11 = Zhao | first11 = Xiaoge | last12 = Dong | first12 = Lingli | last13 = Li | first13 = Yiwen | last14 = Song | first14 = Zhongping | last15 = Yan | first15 = Zehong | last16 = Zheng | first16 = Nannan | last17 = Shi | first17 = Cuilan | last18 = Wang | first18 = Zhaohui | last19 = Yang | first19 = Shuling | last20 = Xiong | first20 = Zijun | last21 = Zhang | first21 = Menglan | last22 = Sun | first22 = Guanghua | last23 = Zheng | first23 = Xu | last24 = Gou | first24 = Mingyue | last25 = Ji | first25 = Changmian | last26 = Du | first26 = Junkai | last27 = Zheng | first27 = Hongkun | last28 = Doležel | first28 = Jaroslav | last29 = Deng | first29 = Xing Wang | last30 = Stein | first30 = Nils | last31 = Yang | first31 = Qinghua | last32 = Zhang | first32 = Kunpu | last33 = Wang | first33 = Daowen|display-authors=3 | pages = 574–584 | volume = 53 | journal = Nature Genetics | issn = 1061-4036 | s2cid  =  232298036 | doi = 10.1038/s41588-021-00808-z | title = A high-quality genome assembly highlights rye genomic characteristics and agronomically important genes | pmid = 33737755 | pmc = 8035075 }}
</ref>

===Harvesting===
The harvesting of rye is similar to that of wheat. It is usually done with [[Engineering:Combine harvester|combine harvester]]s, which cut the plants, thresh and [[Chemistry:Winnowing|winnow]] the grain, and release the [[Biology:Straw|straw]] to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local [[Engineering:Silo|silo]]s or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of [[Engineering:Mechanised agriculture|mechanised agriculture]], rye harvesting was a manual task performed with [[Scythe|scythe]]s or [[Sickle|sickle]]s.<ref name="Jensen1988">{{cite book |last=Jensen |first=Joan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8OSv8QQQgoC&pg=PA47 |title=Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750–1850 |publisher= Yale University Press (YUP) |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-300-04265-8 |location=New Haven |page=47 |access-date=2016-07-17 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Jones2016">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Peter M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv3VCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |title=Agricultural Enlightenment: Knowledge, Technology, and Nature, 1750–1840 |publisher= [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] (OUP) |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-102515-0 |location=Oxford |page=123 |access-date=2016-07-17 |via=Google Books}}</ref> The cut rye was often shocked for drying or storage, and the threshing was done by manually beating the seed heads against a floor or other object.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

===Production and consumption statistics===
[[File:2014 Rye Countries Export Treemap.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Exports by country (2014)<ref>[http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/export/show/all/1002/2014/ Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity]</ref>]]
[[File:RyeYield.png|frameless|right|upright=1.6|alt=Production map]]
[[File:MapRice-1907-0823.jpg|alt=Map of rice and rye cultivation, 1907|thumb|Map of rice and rye cultivation, 1907]]
Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern [[Earth:Europe|Europe]]. The main rye belt stretches from northern {{wipe|Germany}} through {{wipe|Poland}}, {{wipe|Ukraine}}, {{wipe|Belarus}}, Lithuania and Latvia into central and northern {{wipe|Russia}}. Rye is also grown in North America ({{wipe|Canada}} and the United States), in South America ({{wipe|Argentina}}, {{wipe|Brazil}} and {{wipe|Chile}}), in Oceania ({{wipe|Australia}} and [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]]), in Turkey, in Kazakhstan and in northern {{wipe|China}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|+ Top rye producers (in metric tons)
|-
! Producer
! 2021<ref name="FAOSTAT2021">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize |website=www.fao.org |access-date=27 July 2023}}</ref>
! 2019<ref name="FAOSTAT2017">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize |website=www.fao.org |access-date=31 July 2023}}</ref>
! 2017<ref name="FAOSTAT2017"/>
! 2015<ref name="FAOSTAT2017"/>
! 2013<ref name="FAOSTAT2017"/>
|-
|{{left}} {{EU}}  || 7,958,440 || 8,367,410 || 7,357,245 || 7,851,644 || 10,210,326
|-
|{{left}} {{GER}} || 3,325,600 || 3,237,600 || 2,737,400 || 3,487,800 ||  4,689,100
|-
|{{left}} {{POL}} || 2,472,860 || 2,415,640 || 2,673,642 || 2,013,148 ||  3,359,271
|-
|{{left}} {{RUS}} || 1,721,912 || 1,428,421 || 2,548,719 || 2,086,675 ||  3,359,873
|-
|{{left}} {{BLR}} ||   845,000 ||   755,547 ||   669,841 ||   752,600 ||    648,432
|-
|{{left}} {{DEN}} ||   672,490 ||   883,510 ||   723,200 ||   771,700 ||    526,800
|-
|{{left}} {{UKR}} ||   593,150 ||   334,680 ||   507,850 ||   391,070 ||    637,730
|-
|{{left}} {{CHN}} ||   512,248 ||   525,944 ||   526,728 ||   496,971 ||    620,000
|-
|{{left}} {{CAN}} ||   472,790 ||   333,400 ||   341,300 ||   225,500 ||    222,900
|-
|{{left}} {{ESP}} ||   315,750 ||   261,550 ||   139,178 ||   331,930 ||    384,300
|-
|{{left}} {{USA}} ||   249,130 ||   269,810 ||   260,410 ||   292,010 ||    193,710
|-
|{{left}} {{TUR}} ||   200,000 ||   310,000 ||   320,000 ||   330,000 ||    365,000
|-
|{{left}} '''World total''' || '''13,223,426''' || '''12,816,515''' || '''13,011,548''' || '''12,937,204''' ||'''16,649,965'''
|}
{{Clear}}

Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, {{as of|2021|lc=y}}. For instance, production of rye in Russia fell from {{convert|13.9|e6t|e9lb|abbr=off|lk=in}} in 1992 to {{convert|1.7|e6t|e9lb|abbr=off}} in 2021. Corresponding figures for other countries are as follows: Poland{{snd}}falling from {{convert|4.0|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in|lk=on}} in 1992 to {{convert|2.5|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 2021; Belarus{{snd}}falling from {{convert|3.1|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 1992 to {{convert|0.8|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 2021; China{{snd}}falling from {{convert|1.7|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 1992 to {{convert|0.5|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 2021. However, production levels rose in Germany from {{convert|2.4|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 1992 to {{convert|3.3|Mt|e9lb|abbr=in}} in 2021.<ref name="FAOQCL">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Crops and livestock products |work=FAOSTAT |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016 was $186M<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/show/all/100200/2016/ |title=OEC - Countries that export Rye (2016) |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020546/https://oec.world/en/home-a |url-status=live}}</ref> compared with $30.1B for wheat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/show/all/100190/2016/ |title=OEC - Countries that export Wheat except durum wheat, and meslin (2016) |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323020450/https://oec.world/en/home-a |url-status=live}}</ref>

Poland consumes the most rye per person at {{cvt|32.4|kg}} per capita (2009). Nordic and Baltic countries are also very high. The EU in general is around {{cvt|5.6|kg}} per capita. The entire world only consumes {{cvt|0.9|kg|sigfig=1}} per capita.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ryeandhealth.org/statistics-a-usage |title=Statistics and Usage - www.ryeandhealth.org |access-date=October 22, 2017 |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615152805/http://www.ryeandhealth.org/statistics-a-usage |url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Uses==
[[File:Sultsina.png|thumb|Sultsina, a traditional Karelian dish made of unleavened rye dough and a farina filling]]

Rye grain is refined into a [[Biology:Flour|flour]] high in gliadin but low in glutenin. It has a lower gluten content than [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]] flour.{{CN|date=July 2023}} It also contains a higher proportion of soluble fiber. [[Chemistry:Alkylresorcinol|Alkylresorcinol]]s are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. pericarp, testa and [[Biology:Aleurone|aleurone]] layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suzuki |first1=Yoshikatsu |last2=Esumi |first2=Yasuaki |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Isamu |date=1999 |title=Structures of 5-alkylresorcinol-related analogues in rye |journal= Phytochemistry |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00196-X|bibcode=1999PChem..52..281S }}</ref> [[Biology:Rye bread|Rye bread]], including pumpernickel, is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe.<ref>[http://www.bakkerijmuseum.nl/kalwiblo/index.php?t=2&h=5&s=8#Minderwaardig "Grains: Rye"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113134555/http://www.bakkerijwiki.nl/index.php?t=2&h=5&s=8#Minderwaardig |date=November 13, 2018}} ('''in Dutch''') bakkerijmuseum.nl</ref><ref name="rye bread">{{cite journal |last1=Prättälä |first1=Ritva |last2=Helasoja |first2=Ville |last3=Mykkänen |first3=Hannu |title=The consumption of rye bread and white bread as dimensions of health lifestyles in Finland |journal=Public Health Nutrition |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=813–819 |doi=10.1079/PHN2000120 |pmid=11415489 |doi-access = free}}</ref> Rye is also used to make crisp bread.

Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer. Other uses of rye grain include kvass and an [[Biology:Herbalism|herbal medicine]] known as rye extract. Rye [[Biology:Straw|straw]] is used as livestock bedding, as a [[Earth:Cover crop|cover crop]] and [[Earth:Green manure|green manure]] for soil amendment, and to make crafts such as [[Biology:Corn dolly|corn dollies]].

Rye flour is used in the original way to make Falun red paint (in addition to linseed oil and iron oxide) in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.colouredearthpigments.co.uk/guides/swedish-red-paint-falu-rod/ |title=Swedish Red Paint - Falu Röd |access-date=March 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925105652/https://www.colouredearthpigments.co.uk/guides/swedish-red-paint-falu-rod/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Rye grain (aka "Rye Berries") is a popular medium to use as a grain spawn when cultivating some varieties of edible mushrooms. The grain is cleaned, hydrated, and sterilized and then injected with mushroom spores and the [[Biology:Mycelium|mycelium]] grow using the grain to obtain water and nutrients.

===Food===
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Rye
| kJ=1414
| protein=10.34 g
| water=10.6 g
| fat=1.63 g
| carbs=75.86 g
| fiber=15.1 g
| sugars=0.98 g
| calcium_mg=24
| iron_mg=3
| magnesium_mg=110
| phosphorus_mg=332
| potassium_mg=510
| sodium_mg=2
| zinc_mg=3
| manganese_mg=3
| thiamin_mg=0.3
| riboflavin_mg=0.3
| niacin_mg=4
| pantothenic_mg=1
| vitB6_mg=0.3
| folate_ug=38
| choline_mg=30
| vitE_mg=1
| vitK_ug=6
| opt1n=Selenium
| opt1v=14 µg
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168884/nutrients=Full Link to USDA Database Entry]
}}

====Nutrition====
A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off|adj=on|frac=2}} reference serving of rye provides {{convert|338|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value [DV]) of essential nutrients, including [[Biology:Protein (nutrient)|protein]], dietary fiber, the [[Chemistry:B vitamins|B vitamins]], [[Chemistry:Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] (27% DV) and [[Biology:Vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] (23% DV), and several dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents are for [[Chemistry:Manganese|manganese]] (143% DV) and [[Chemistry:Phosphorus|phosphorus]] (47% DV).

====Health effects====
According to [[Organization:Health Canada|Health Canada]] and the U.S. [[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]], consuming at least {{convert|4|g}} per day of rye [[Chemistry:Beta-glucan|beta-glucan]] or {{convert|0.65|g}} per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |title=21 CFR Part 101 [Docket No. 2004P-0512], Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Dietary Fiber From Certain Foods and Coronary Heart Disease |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |date=22 May 2006 |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155008/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-labelling/health-claims/assessments/assessment-health-claim-about-barley-products-blood-cholesterol-lowering.html |title=Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Barley Products and Blood Cholesterol Lowering |publisher=Health Canada |date=12 July 2012 |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref>

Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harris KA, Kris-Etherton PM |s2cid=29100975 |title=Effects of whole grains on coronary heart disease risk |journal=Current Atherosclerosis Reports |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=368–76 |date=November 2010 |pmid=20820954 |doi=10.1007/s11883-010-0136-1}}</ref> Consuming [[Engineering:Breakfast cereal|breakfast cereal]]s containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Williams PG |title=The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: a systematic review of the evidence base |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=636S–673S |date=September 2014 |pmid=25225349 |pmc=4188247 |doi=10.3945/an.114.006247}}</ref>

====Health concerns====
Like wheat, [[Biology:Barley|barley]], and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains glutens and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and [[Medicine:Wheat allergy|wheat allergy]], among others.<ref name="TovoliMasi">{{cite journal |last1=Tovoli |first1=F. |last2=Masi |first2=C. |last3=Guidetti |first3=E. |last4=Negrini |first4=G. |last5=Paterini |first5=P. |last6=Bolondi |first6=L. |title=Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders |journal=World Journal of Clinical Cases|volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=275–284 |date=March 16, 2015 |pmid=25789300 |pmc=4360499 |doi=10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley.<ref name="Pietzak">{{cite journal |last=Pietzak |first=M. |title=Celiac Disease, Wheat Allergy, and Gluten Sensitivity |journal=Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition|volume=36 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=68S–75S |date=January 2012 |pmid=22237879 |doi=10.1177/0148607111426276}}</ref>

[[Medicine:Ergotism|Ergotism]] is an illness that can result from eating rye and other grains infected by ergot fungi (which produce [[Chemistry:Ergoline|ergoline]] toxins in infected products). Although it is no longer a common illness because of modern food safety efforts, it was common before the 20th century, and it can still happen today if food safety vigilance breaks down.<ref name=BelserEhrlichHarper2013>{{cite journal |vauthors=Belser-Ehrlich S, Harper A, Hussey J, Hallock R |s2cid=26814635 |title=Human and cattle ergotism since 1900: symptoms, outbreaks, and regulations |journal=Toxicol Ind Health|year=2013 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=307–16 |pmid=22903169 |doi=10.1177/0748233711432570 |type=Review}}</ref>

===Hybridization===
Rye has long been considered an inferior grain to wheat in quality and digestibility, but has far larger seeds and is hardier. In the 19th century, efforts were made to create a hybrid with the best qualities of both, known initially as triticosecale, but eventually becoming known as [[Biology:Triticale|triticale]]. Initially fraught with fertility and germination problems, triticale is becoming more common worldwide in the 21st century, with millions of acres/hectares being produced.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Gallery==
{{gallery|mode=packed
|Secale cereale - cereal rye 2 - Steve Hurst USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.jpg|Seed in [[Biology:Husk|husk]]
|Secale cereale - cereal rye - Steve Hurst USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database.jpg|Different types|alt2=Different types of grains
|Wheat, rye, triticale montage.jpg|[[Biology:Wheat|Wheat]], rye, [[Biology:Triticale|triticale]]|alt3=Grains of [[Biology:Wheat|wheat]], rye, [[Biology:Triticale|triticale]]. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat.
|Ivan Shishkin - Рожь - Google Art Project.jpg|1878 oil painting ''A Rye Field'' by Ivan Shishkin
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |first=Rolf |last=Schlegel |date=2006 |chapter=Rye (''Secale cereale'' L.): A Younger Crop Plant with Bright Future |editor1-first = R. J. |editor1-last = Sing |editor2-first = P. |editor2-last = Jauhar |title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement |volume=II – Cereals |pages=365–394 |publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-0-8493-1430-8}} Schlegel provides a [http://www.plant-breeding.privat.t-online.de/Rye_cytogenetics/Content/content.html 2011 updated version] online.

==External links==
*{{cite web |title=Genes, Markers, and Linkage Data of Rye (''Secale cereale'' L.) |url=http://www.rye-gene-map.de |first1=Rolf |last1=Schlegel |first2=V. |last2=Korzun |version=08.16 |date=2016 |access-date = July 12, 2016}}
*{{cite web |title=Current List of Wheats with Rye and Alien Introgression |url=http://www.rye-gene-map.de/rye-introgression |work=Rye-Gene-Map.de |first=Rolf |last=Schlegel |version=05.16 |date=2016 |access-date = July 12, 2016}}
*{{cite web |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1498/m1/1/ |title=Growing Rye |via=[[Organization:University of North Texas|University of North Texas]] Library, Government Documents Department|access-date=July 12, 2016 |date=December 1959}}
{{unimelb|Secale.html}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q12099}}

[[Category:Rye| ]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Pooideae]]

{{Sourceattribution|Rye}}