View source for Biology:Sugarcane

{{Short description|Several species of grass cultivated for sugar production}}
{{for multi|the EP by Tiwa Savage|Sugarcane (EP){{!}}''Sugarcane'' (EP)|the songs|Sugarcane (Camidoh song)|and|Sugarcane (New Order song)}}
[[File:Saccharum officinarum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-125.jpg|thumb|''Saccharum officinarum'']]

'''Sugarcane''' or '''sugar cane''' is a species of (often hybrid) tall, [[Biology:Perennial plant|perennial]] grass (in the genus ''[[Biology:Saccharum|Saccharum]]'', tribe [[Biology:Andropogoneae|Andropogoneae]]) that is used for [[Chemistry:Sugar|sugar]] production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20&nbsp;ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in [[Chemistry:Sucrose|sucrose]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Papini-Terzi|first1=Flávia S.|last2=Rocha|first2=Flávia R.|last3=Vêncio|first3=Ricardo ZN|last4=Felix|first4=Juliana M.|last5=Branco|first5=Diana S.|last6=Waclawovsky|first6=Alessandro J.|last7=Del Bem|first7=Luiz EV|last8=Lembke|first8=Carolina G.|last9=Costa|first9=Maximiller DL|last10=Nishiyama|first10=Milton Y.|last11=Vicentini|first11=Renato|date=2009-03-21|title=Sugarcane genes associated with sucrose content|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=10|issue=1|pages=120|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-10-120|issn=1471-2164|pmc=2666766|pmid=19302712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> which accumulates in the [[Biology:Plant stem|stalk internodes]]. Sugarcanes belong to the grass family, [[Biology:Poaceae|Poaceae]], an economically important [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]] family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and [[Biology:Sorghum|sorghum]], and many forage crops. It is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea.
Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totaling 1.9&nbsp;billion [[Tonne|tonne]]s in 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of the world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally (most of the rest is made from [[Biology:Sugar beet|sugar beet]]s). About 70% of the sugar produced comes from ''[[Biology:Saccharum officinarum|Saccharum officinarum]]'' and its hybrids.<ref name="kew2">{{cite web| title=Plants & Fungi: Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane)| publisher=Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew| url=http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Saccharum-officinarum.htm| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604003442/http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Saccharum-officinarum.htm| archive-date=4 June 2012}}</ref> All sugarcane species can [[Biology:Plant breeding|interbreed]], and the major commercial [[Biology:Cultivar|cultivar]]s are complex [[Biology:Hybrid|hybrids]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo/Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of ''Saccharum officinarum'' and ''Saccharum spontaneum''|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|volume=9|issue=2|pages=266–278|year=2017|doi=10.1093/gbe/evw293|pmid=28082603|pmc=5381655|last1=Vilela|first1=Mariane de Mendonça|last2=Del-Bem|first2=Luiz-Eduardo|last3=Van Sluys|first3=Marie-Anne|last4=De Setta|first4=Nathalia|last5=Kitajima|first5=João Paulo|last6=Cruz|first6=Guilherme Marcelo Queiroga|last7=Sforça|first7=Danilo Augusto|last8=De Souza|first8=Anete Pereira|last9=Ferreira|first9=Paulo Cavalcanti Gomes|last10=Grativol|first10=Clícia|last11=Cardoso-Silva|first11=Claudio Benicio|last12=Vicentini|first12=Renato|last13=Vincentz|first13=Michel|display-authors=5}}</ref>

Sucrose (table sugar) is extracted from sugarcane in specialized mill factories. It is consumed directly in confectionery, used to sweeten beverages, as a preservative in jams and conserves, as a decorative finish for cakes and pâtisserie, and as a raw material in the food industry. It can be fermented to produce ethanol, which is used to make alcoholic drinks like [[Biology:Falernum|falernum]], [[Chemistry:Rum|rum]], and [[Chemistry:Cachaça|cachaça]], but also to make [[Earth:Biofuel|biofuel]]. Sugarcane [[Biology:Reed (plant)|reeds]] are used to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded [[Biology:Inflorescence|flower head]] of ''[[Biology:Saccharum edule|Saccharum edule]]'' (''duruka'') is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia, such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as in [[Earth:Oceania|Oceanic]] countries like Fiji.<ref>{{cite web|title=Consumer Preference for Indigenous Vegetables|year=2009|publisher=World Agroforestry Centre|url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Publications/files/poster/PO0251-10.PDF|access-date=7 February 2012|archive-date=4 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204190308/http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Publications/files/poster/PO0251-10.PDF|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sugarcane was an ancient crop of the Austronesian and Papuan people. It was introduced to [[Place:Polynesia|Polynesia]], [[Place:Island Melanesia|Island Melanesia]], and {{wipe|Madagascar}} in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors. It was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC. The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous "reeds that produce honey without bees" in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture.<ref name=agrisugar1>{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbook: Sugar beet white sugar|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|year=2009|url=http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|access-date=6 February 2012|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234431/http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Merchants began to trade in sugar, which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice, from India. In the 18th century, sugarcane plantations began in the Caribbean, South American, Indian Ocean, and Pacific island nations. The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations, some people voluntarily accepting indentured servitude<ref name="nationalarchives1">{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Indian indentured labourers |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/indian-indentured-labourers/#2-who-were-the-indian-indentured-labourers |publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920160423/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/indian-indentured-labourers/#2-who-were-the-indian-indentured-labourers |url-status=live }}</ref> and others forcibly imported as [[Social:Slavery|slaves]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History|author=Mintz, Sidney |isbn=978-0-14-009233-2|year=1986|publisher=Penguin|url=https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The term 'sugarcane' is a combination of two words; sugar and cane. The former ultimately derives from [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] शर्करा (''śárkarā'') as the crop originated in Southeast Asia. As sugar was traded and spread West, this became سُكَّر (''sukkar'') in [[Social:Arabic|Arabic]], ''zúcchero'' in [[Social:Italian language|Italian]], ''zuccarum'' in [[Social:Latin|Latin]], and eventually ''sucre'' in both [[Social:Middle French|Middle French]] and [[Social:Middle English|Middle English]]. The second term "cane" began to be used alongside it as the crop was grown on plantations in the Caribbean; ''gana'' is the Hindi word for sugarcane (''gana'' = cane).{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

==Description==
[[File:World Production Of Primary Crops, Main Commodities.svg|thumb|Sugarcane is one of the most widely produced primary crops in the world.]]
Sugarcane, a perennial [[Biology:Axonopus compressus|tropical grass]], exhibits a unique growth pattern characterized by lateral shoots emerging at its base, leading to the development of multiple stems. These stems typically attain a height of 3 to 4 meters (approximately 10 to 13 feet) and possess a diameter of about 5 centimeters (approximately 2 inches). As these stems mature, they evolve into cane stalks, constituting a substantial portion of the entire plant, accounting for roughly 75% of its composition.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

A fully mature cane stalk generally comprises a composition of around 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water content. The successful cultivation of sugarcane hinges on a delicate interplay of several factors, including climatic conditions, soil properties, irrigation methods, fertilization practices, pest and disease management, the selection of specific varieties, and the timing of the harvest.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

In terms of yield, the average production of cane stalk stands at 60–70 tonnes per hectare (equivalent to 24–28 long tons per acre or 27–31 short tons per acre) annually. However, this yield figure is not fixed and can vary significantly, ranging from 30 to 180 tonnes per hectare. This variance is contingent upon the level of knowledge applied and the approach to crop management embraced in the cultivation of sugarcane. Ultimately, the successful cultivation of this valuable crop demands a thoughtful integration of various factors to optimize its growth and productivity.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

Sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perez |first=Rena |title=Feeding pigs in the tropics |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3647e/W3647E00.htm |year=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221075536/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3647e/W3647E00.htm |archive-date=21 February 2018 |chapter=Chapter 3: Sugar cane |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=2 September 2018}}</ref> Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known, mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vicentini|first1=R.|last2=Del Bem|first2=L. E. V.|last3=Van Sluys|first3=M. A.|last4=Nogueira|first4=F. T. S.|last5=Vincentz|first5=M.|date=2012-06-01|title=Gene Content Analysis of Sugarcane Public ESTs Reveals Thousands of Missing Coding-Genes and an Unexpected Pool of Grasses Conserved ncRNAs|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12042-012-9103-z|journal=Tropical Plant Biology|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=199–205|doi=10.1007/s12042-012-9103-z|s2cid=2986185|issn=1935-9764}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vilela|first1=Mariane de Mendonça|last2=Del Bem|first2=Luiz Eduardo|last3=Van Sluys|first3=Marie-Anne|last4=de Setta|first4=Nathalia|last5=Kitajima|first5=João Paulo|last6=Cruz|first6=Guilherme Marcelo Queiroga|last7=Sforça|first7=Danilo Augusto|last8=de Souza|first8=Anete Pereira|last9=Ferreira|first9=Paulo Cavalcanti Gomes|last10=Grativol|first10=Clícia|last11=Cardoso-Silva|first11=Claudio Benicio|date=2017-02-01|title=Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo/Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evw293|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|volume=9|issue=2|pages=266–278|doi=10.1093/gbe/evw293|pmid=28082603|pmc=5381655|issn=1759-6653}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" style="line-height:130%">
File:Cut sugarcane.jpg|Cut sugarcane
File:Sugarcane canopy.jpg|Sugarcane canopy
</gallery>

== History ==
The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one for ''[[Biology:Saccharum officinarum|Saccharum officinarum]]'' by Papuans in New Guinea and another for ''[[Biology:Saccharum sinense|Saccharum sinense]]'' by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both ''S. officinarum'' and ''S. sinense'' is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. ''[[Biology:Saccharum barberi|Saccharum barberi]]'' was only cultivated in India after the introduction of ''S. officinarum''.<ref name="Daniels1993">{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=John |last2=Daniels |first2=Christian |title=Sugarcane in Prehistory |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |date=April 1993 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.1993.tb00309.x }}</ref><ref name="Paterson2012"/>

[[File:Map showing centers of origin of Saccharum officinarum in New Guinea, S. sinensis in China, and S. barberi in India.png|right|upright=1.75|thumb|Map showing centers of origin of ''Saccharum officinarum'' in New Guinea, ''S. sinensis'' in southern China and Taiwan, and ''S. barberi'' in India; dotted arrows represent Austronesian introductions<ref name="danielsmenzies1996"/>]]

''S. officinarum'' was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity. Beginning around 6,000 [[Earth:Before Present|BP]], several strains were [[Biology:Selective breeding|selectively bred]] from the native ''[[Biology:Saccharum robustum|Saccharum robustum]]''. From New Guinea, it spread westwards to [[Place:Maritime Southeast Asia|Maritime Southeast Asia]] after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with ''[[Biology:Saccharum spontaneum|Saccharum spontaneum]]''.<ref name="Paterson2012">{{cite book|first1=Andrew H. |last1=Paterson|first2=Paul H.|last2=Moore|first3=Tew|last3=Tom L.|editor1-first=Andrew H. |editor1-last=Paterson|title =Genomics of the Saccharinae|chapter =The Gene Pool of ''Saccharum'' Species and Their Improvement|publisher =Springer Science & Business Media|year =2012|pages=43–72|isbn = 9781441959478|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=F282fp_IMI8C&pg=PA54}}</ref>

The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan, where ''S. sinense'' was a primary [[Biology:Cultigen|cultigen]] of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as ''*təbuS'' or ''*CebuS'' in [[Social:Proto-Austronesian|Proto-Austronesian]], which became ''*tebuh'' in [[Social:Proto-Malayo-Polynesian|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]]. It was one of the [[Biology:Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|original major crops]] of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter ''S. officinarum'' may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia.<ref name="Blust1984">{{cite journal|last1=Blust|first1=Robert|title=The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective|journal=Asian Perspectives|date=1984–1985|volume=26|issue=1|pages=44–67|hdl=10125/16918}}</ref><ref name="Spriggs2011">{{cite journal|last1=Spriggs|first1=Matthew|title=Archaeology and the Austronesian expansion: where are we now?|journal=Antiquity|date=2 January 2015|volume=85|issue=328|pages=510–528|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00067910|s2cid=162491927}}</ref><ref name="danielsmenzies1996">{{cite book|editor1-first=Joseph|editor1-last=Needham|first1=Christian|last1=Daniels|first2=Nicholas K.|last2=Menzies|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro-Industries and Forestry|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|pages=177–185|isbn=9780521419994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzqPvHlFkV4C&pg=PR8}}</ref><ref name="Aljanabi">{{cite book|first1=Salah M.|last1=Aljanabi|editor1-first=M. Raafat|editor1-last=El-Gewely|title=Biotechnology Annual Review|volume=4|chapter=Genetics, phylogenetics, and comparative genetics of ''Saccharum'' L., a polysomic polyploid Poales: Andropogoneae|publisher=Elsevier Science B.V.|year=1998|pages=285–320|isbn=9780444829719|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXuUuIp18n0C&pg=PA285}}</ref><ref name="Baldick2013">{{cite book|first1=Julian|last1=Baldick|title=Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan|publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2013|page=2|isbn=9780857733573|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7U6oBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP6}}</ref>
[[File:Spread sugarcane.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|left|The westward diffusion of sugarcane in pre-Islamic times (shown in red), in the medieval [[Religion:Muslim world|Muslim world]] (green), and in the 15th century by the Portuguese on the Madeira archipelago, and by the Spanish on the Canary Islands archipelago (islands west of Africa, circled by violet lines)<ref name="Watson"/>|alt=Map showing sugar cane India as the origin of the westward spread, followed by small areas in Africa, and then smaller areas on Atlantic Islands west of Africa]]
From Island Southeast Asia, ''S. officinarum'' was spread eastward into [[Place:Polynesia|Polynesia]] and [[Place:Micronesia|Micronesia]] by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with ''S. sinense'' and ''S. barberi''. From there, it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean.<ref name="Paterson2012"/><ref name="danielsmenzies1996"/>

The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India.   The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref>Watt, George (1893), ''The Economic Products of India'', W. H. Allen & Co., Vol 6, Part II, pp. 29–30</ref><ref>Hill, J.A. (1902), ''The Anglo-American Encyclopedia'', Vol. 7, p. 725</ref><ref>Luckey, Thomas D. (1973) ''CRC Handbook of Food Additives'', 2nd edition, Furia, Thomas E. (ed.) Vol. 1, Ch. 1. p. 7. {{ISBN|978-0849305429}}</ref><ref>
Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2004) ''Encyclopedia of Kitchen History'', [[Company:Routledge|Routledge]], pp. 145–146. {{ISBN|978-1579583804}}</ref> Around the eighth century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from medieval India to the other parts of the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate]] in the Mediterranean, [[Place:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]], [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]], North Africa, and Andalusia. By the 10th century, sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane.<ref name = Watson>Watson, Andrew (1983). ''Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world''. {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}. pp. 26–27. {{ISBN|9780521247115}}</ref> It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in the Canary Islands, and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands. An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century ''Book on Agriculture''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ibn al-'Awwam|first=Yaḥyá|title=Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |year=1864|location=Paris|publisher=A. Franck|translator=J.-J. Clement-Mullet |pages=365–367 (ch. 7 – Article 47)|url=https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |language=fr|oclc=780050566}} (pp. [https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n468/mode/2up 365]–367 (Article XLVII)</ref>

In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African [[Social:Slavery|slaves]]. Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to the Caribbean (and the [[Earth:New World|New World]]) during his second voyage to the Americas, initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; many sugar mills were constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Benitez-Rojo |first=Antonio |year=1996 |orig-year=1992 |title=The Repeating Island |location=Durham |publisher=Duke University Press  |isbn=978-0-8223-1865-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTYWZnlz0akC |page=93}}</ref> The Portuguese introduced sugarcane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Suriname.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

Sugar, often in the form of molasses, was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make [[Chemistry:Rum|rum]]. The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe. Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network of [[History:Atlantic slave trade|forced population movement]], supplying people to work under brutal coercion.
[[File:The Mill Yard - Ten Views in the Island of Antigua (1823), plate V - BL.jpg|thumb|Lithograph of a sugar plantation in the British colony of Antigua, 1823]]

[[File:Cannes-sucre-Georgi.jpg|thumb|right|A sugar plantation on the island of Jamaica in the late 19th century|alt=Black-and-white photograph of sugarcane standing in field]]

The passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act led to the abolition of slavery through most of the [[Place:British Empire|British Empire]], and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice. West Indian planters, therefore, needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China and India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lai, Walton |title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918| year=1993|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn= 978-0-8018-7746-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vertovik, Steven |editor=Robin Cohen|title=The Cambridge survey of world migration|year=1995|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 57–68]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7}}</ref> The people were subject to indenture, a long-established form of contract, which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term. The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal, owing to a lack of care among the planters.<ref>{{cite book|title=New System of Slavery|first= Hugh | last=Tinker| year=1993| isbn=978-1-870518-18-5| publisher= Hansib Publishing, London}}</ref> The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836.<ref name=britain1>{{cite web| title=Forced Labour| year=2010| publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom| url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm| access-date=1 February 2012| archive-date=4 December 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204015712/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm| url-status=live}}</ref> The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875–1917|author=Laurence, K |publisher=St Martin's Press| year= 1994| isbn=978-0-312-12172-3}}</ref> In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50% of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji, {{wipe|South Africa}}, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, the {{wipe|Philippines}}, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Suriname, [[Earth:Nevis|Nevis]], and [[Earth:Mauritius|Mauritius]].<ref name=britain1/><ref>{{cite web|title=St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day|year=2009|publisher=Caribbean Repeating Islands|url=http://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/|access-date=1 February 2012|archive-date=24 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085806/https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Old-fashioned Indian Sugar=cane Press.jpg|thumb|Old-fashioned Indian sugarcane press, ''circa'' 1905]]

Between 1863 and 1900, merchants and plantation owners in Queensland and New South Wales (now part of the Commonwealth of Australia) brought between 55,000 and 62,500 people from the South Pacific Islands to work on sugarcane plantations. An estimated one-third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery (known as [[Social:Blackbirding|blackbirding]]). Many others were paid very low wages. Between 1904 and 1908, most of the 10,000 remaining workers were deported in an effort to keep Australia racially homogeneous and protect [[Biography:White people|white]] workers from cheap foreign labour.<ref name="AHRC">{{cite web|author=Flanagan, Tracey |author2=Wilkie, Meredith |author3=Iuliano, Susanna|url=http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/forum/Erace/south_sea.html|title=Australian South Sea Islanders: A century of race discrimination under Australian law|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080249/http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/forum/Erace/south_sea.html|archive-date=14 March 2011|publisher=Australian Human Rights Commission}}</ref>

Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to the [[Place:Soviet Union|USSR]], where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry.

Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Cuba, Guyana, Belize, Barbados, and Haiti, along with the
Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands.

About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from ''S. officinarum'' and hybrids using this species.<ref name="kew2"/>

[[File:Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3581-33h Ingekleurde litho voorstellende de oo (crop).jpg|thumb|A 19th-century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing a sugarcane plantation: On the right is the "white officer", the European overseer. Slave workers toil during the harvest. To the left is a flat-bottomed vessel for cane transportation.]]

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Sugarcane plantation in Mauritius (reduced colour saturation).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Sugarcane plantation, Mauritius]]
[[File:Sugarcane fields.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Sugarcane plantation in Bangladesh]]
[[File:Planting Sugar Cane in Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Planting sugarcane in Puerto Rico]]
[[File:Sugarcane field in Salem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Sugarcane fields]]

Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of {{convert|60| cm|in|abbr=on}} of annual moisture. It is one of the most [[Biology:Photosynthetic efficiency|efficient]] [[Earth:Photosynthesis|photosynthesizers]] in the plant kingdom. It is a [[Biology:C4 carbon fixation|C<sub>4</sub> plant]], able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into [[Biology:Biomass|biomass]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#58|author=Whitmarsh, John|publisher=Narosa Publishers/[[Place:New Delhi|New Delhi]] and Kluwer Academic/Dordrecht|pages=11–51|editor=GS Singhal|editor2=G Renger|editor3=SK Sopory|editor4=K-D Irrgang|editor5=Govindjee|year=1999|isbn=978-9401060264|chapter=The Photosynthetic Process|title=Concepts in Photobiology: Photosynthesis and Photomorphogenesis|access-date=4 January 2011|archive-date=14 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814191216/http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#58|url-status=live}}</ref> In primary growing regions across the tropics and [[Earth:Subtropics|subtropics]], sugarcane crops can produce over 15&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> of cane. 

Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total).<ref name=":142">{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 {{!}} FAO {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=FAODocuments | date=2023 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en| isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 }}</ref>

Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century, and is primarily confined to small plantations in Florida, Louisiana, and southeast Texas in the 21st century. Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when the last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016.<ref name="Hawaii">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/17/505861855/the-final-days-of-hawaiian-sugar|title=The final days of Hawaiian sugar|publisher=US National Public Radio – Hawaii|date=17 December 2016|access-date=21 October 2019|author=Solomon, Molly|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021223044/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/17/505861855/the-final-days-of-hawaiian-sugar|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6–7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S, and some up to 33°N and 33°S.<ref>{{cite book|title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution|author=Rolph, George |year=1873|url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich|publisher=San Francisco, J. J. Newbegin}}</ref> When sugarcane crops are found outside this range, such as the Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crops are found up to {{convert|1600|m|ft|-2|disp=or|abbr=on}} close to the equator in countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Abhishek |first=Aditya |title=Sugarcane Farming: Complete Guide [to the] Farming of Sugarcane |url=https://agriculturereview.com/2021/02/sugarcane-farming-guide.html |year=2021 |website=Agriculture Review |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416104826/https://agriculturereview.com/2021/02/sugarcane-farming-guide.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile, well-drained [[Earth:Mollisol|mollisol]]s, through heavy cracking [[Earth:Vertisol|vertisol]]s, infertile acid [[Earth:Oxisol|oxisol]]s and [[Earth:Ultisol|ultisol]]s, peaty [[Earth:Histosol|histosol]]s, to rocky [[Earth:Andisol|andisol]]s. Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions. Sugarcane consumes 9% of the world's [[Chemistry:Potash|potash]] fertilizer production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uralkali.com/about/potassium/|title=What is potash?|website=www.uralkali.com|access-date=10 December 2020|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028082055/https://www.uralkali.com/about/potassium/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zRW3_QwQhTIC&q=%C2%A0Although+sugarcanes+produce+seeds,+modern+stem+cutting+has+become+the+most+common+reproduction+method&pg=PA351|title=Handbook of Bioenergy Crops: A Complete Reference to Species, Development and Applications|last=Bassam|first=Nasir El|date=2010|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=9781849774789|language=en}}</ref> Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries, such as the United States and Australia, billet planting is common. Billets (stalks or stalk sections) harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tayyab |first1=Muhammad |last2=Yang |first2=Ziqi |last3=Zhang |first3=Caifang |last4=Islam |first4=Waqar |last5=Lin |first5=Wenxiong |last6=Zhang |first6=Hua |date=2021-09-01 |title=Sugarcane monoculture drives microbial community composition, activity and abundance of agricultural-related microorganisms |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14033-y |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|language=en |volume=28 |issue=35 |pages=48080–48096 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-14033-y |pmid=33904129 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2848080T |s2cid=233403664 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref> Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, as in North America, sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, as in the French island of Réunion, sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns up dry leaves, and chases away or kills venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or [[Engineering:Machete|machete]]s. A skilled harvester can cut {{convert|500|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of sugarcane per hour.{{failed verification|date=March 2022|reason=reference doesn't support much of this}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sugarcane |url=http://www.sasecrtn.edu.np/index.php/en/resources/usefulinfo/how-to-grow-harvest-food-cash-crops/cash-crops/sugarcane |date=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308185401/http://www.sasecrtn.edu.np/index.php/en/resources/usefulinfo/how-to-grow-harvest-food-cash-crops/cash-crops/sugarcane |archive-date=8 March 2022 |website=The Village: A Network Portal (Nepal) |access-date=29 March 2022}}</ref>

Mechanical harvesting uses a [[Engineering:Combine harvester|combine]], or [[Engineering:Sugarcane harvester|sugarcane harvester]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-QDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=-PA94 |title= Sugar-Cane Harvester Cuts Forty-Tons an Hour |work=Popular Mechanics Monthly |date=July 1930 |access-date=2 April 2012|publisher= Hearst Magazines }}</ref> The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco&nbsp;/&nbsp;John Deere.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}} The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest {{convert|100 |LT|MT}} each hour, but harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting does not require the field to be set on fire; the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves, which serve as mulch for the next planting.

{{wide image|Panorama canaviais interior Sao Paulo 2006 06.jpg|600px|align-cap=center|Plantations in {{wipe|Brazil}}, the largest producer in the world}}

=== Pests ===
The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with [[Chemistry:Imidacloprid|imidacloprid]] (Confidor) or [[Chemistry:Chlorpyrifos|chlorpyrifos]] (Lorsban). Other important pests are the [[Biology:Larva|larva]]e of some [[Biology:Lepidoptera|butterfly/moth]] species, including the [[Biology:Turnip moth|turnip moth]], the sugarcane borer (''Diatraea saccharalis''), the [[Biology:Eldana|African sugarcane borer]] (''Eldana saccharina''), the Mexican rice borer (''[[Biology:Eoreuma loftini|Eoreuma loftini]]''), the [[Biology:African armyworm|African armyworm]] (''Spodoptera exempta''), [[Biology:Leafcutter ant|leafcutter ant]]s, [[Biology:Termite|termite]]s, spittlebugs (especially ''Mahanarva fimbriolata'' and ''[[Biology:Deois flavopicta|Deois flavopicta]]''), and ''Migdolus fryanus'' (a [[Biology:Beetle|beetle]]). The [[Biology:Planthopper|planthopper]] insect ''[[Biology:Eumetopina flavipes|Eumetopina flavipes]]'' acts as a virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biology.ox.ac.uk/sugarcane_nov.html|author=Malein, Patrick |title=How to find brand-new diseases of sugarcane!|website=Biological Sciences at Oxford|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811221942/http://www.biology.ox.ac.uk/sugarcane_nov.html|archive-date=11 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Odiyo|first=Peter Onyango|s2cid=85994702|date=December 1981|title=Development of the first outbreaks of the African armyworm, ''Spodoptera exempta'' (Walk.), between Kenya and Tanzania during the 'off-season' months of July to December|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science/article/development-of-the-first-outbreaks-of-the-african-armyworm-spodoptera-exempta-walk-between-kenya-and-tanzania-during-the-off-season-months-of-july-to-december/501568FBCD83BA6A69859D08FBCD3AA2|journal=International Journal of Tropical Insect Science|volume=1|issue=4|pages=305–318|doi=10.1017/S1742758400000606|access-date=15 November 2017|archive-date=12 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212150338/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science/article/development-of-the-first-outbreaks-of-the-african-armyworm-spodoptera-exempta-walk-between-kenya-and-tanzania-during-the-off-season-months-of-july-to-december/501568FBCD83BA6A69859D08FBCD3AA2|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Biology:Sesamia grisescens|Sesamia grisescens]]'' is a major pest in Papua New Guinea and so is a serious concern for the Australian industry were it to cross over.<ref name = "New-Threats" /> To head off such a problem, the Federal Government has pre-announced that they would cover 80% of response costs if it were necessary.<ref name = "New-Threats" >
 {{ Cite journal |
       language=en|
           year=2011|
      publisher=Elsevier BV|
         volume=3|
          issue=1–2|
        journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|
           issn=1877-3435|
          last2=Nader|
          last1=Goebel|
         first2=Sallam|
         first1=Francois|
          pages=81–89|
            doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2010.12.005|
          title=New pest threats for sugarcane in the new bioeconomy and how to manage them|
 bibcode=2011COES....3...81G}}
</ref>

=== Pathogens ===
{{Main|Biology:List of sugarcane diseases}}

Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by [[Biology:Candidatus Phytoplasma sacchari|''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma sacchari]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirdat |first1=K |last2=Tiwarekar |first2=B |last3=Thorat |first3=V |last4=Sathe |first4=S |last5=Shouche |first5=Y |last6=Yadav |first6=A |title={{'}}''Candidatus'' Phytoplasma sacchari{{'}}, a novel taxon - associated with Sugarcane Grassy Shoot (SCGS) disease. |journal= [[Biology:International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology]] |date=January 2021 |volume=71 |issue=1 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.004591 |pmid=33289626|s2cid=227948269 |doi-access=free }}</ref> whiptail disease or [[Biology:Sugarcane smut|sugarcane smut]], ''pokkah boeng'' caused by ''Fusarium moniliforme'', ''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and [[Engineering:Red rot|red rot]] disease caused by ''Colletotrichum falcatum''. [[Biology:Virus|Viral]] diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus, [[Biology:Maize streak virus|maize streak virus]], and sugarcane yellow leaf virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gonçalves|first1=Marcos|last2=Pinto|first2=Luciana|last3=Creste|first3=Silvana|last4=Landell|first4=Marcos|date=9 November 2011|title=Virus Diseases of Sugarcane. A Constant Challenge to Sugarcane Breeding in Brazil|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271384608|journal= Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |volume=6|pages=108–116}}</ref>

Yang ''et al.'', 2017 provides a genetic map developed for USDA ARS-run [[Biology:Breeding program|breeding program]]s for brown rust of sugarcane.<ref name = "NGS-SNP" > {{ Cite journal | date = 2020 | issue = 6 | volume = 40 | publisher = Taylor & Francis (T&F) | journal = [[Engineering:Critical Reviews in Biotechnology|Critical Reviews in Biotechnology]] | issn = 0738-8551 | first5 = Mallikarjuna | first4 = Selvi | first3 = Hemaprabha | first2 = Gayathri | first1 = Ramaswamy | last5 = Kandalam | last4 = Athiappan  | last3 = Govinda | last2 = Suresh | last1 = Manimekalai | pages = 865–880 | s2cid = 219537026 | pmid = 32508157 | doi = 10.1080/07388551.2020.1765730 | title = Role of NGS and SNP genotyping methods in sugarcane improvement programs }} </ref>

===Nitrogen fixation===
Some sugarcane varieties are capable of [[Biology:Nitrogen fixation|fixing atmospheric nitrogen]] in association with the bacterium ''[[Biology:Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus|Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yamada|first1=Y.|last2=Hoshino|first2=K. |last3=Ishikawa|first3=T.|date=1998|title=''Gluconacetobacter'' corrig.‡ (''Gluconoacetobacter'' [sic]). In Validation of Publication of New Names and New Combinations Previously Effectively Published Outside the IJSB, List no. 64|journal=Int J Syst Bacteriol|volume=48|issue=1|pages=327–328|doi= 10.1099/00207713-48-1-327|access-date=13 March 2020|url= https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/docserver/fulltext/ijsem/48/1/ijs-48-1-327.pdf?expires=1584128345&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=1D33F9B462D438C0C052FEE532AD4595|doi-access=free}}</ref> Unlike [[Biology:Legume|legume]]s and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form [[Biology:Root nodule|root nodule]]s in the soil in association with bacteria, ''G. diazotrophicus'' lives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane's stem.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dong, Z.|display-authors=et al|title=A Nitrogen-Fixing Endophyte of Sugarcane Stems (A New Role for the Apoplast)|journal=Plant Physiology|date=1994|volume=105|issue=4|pages=1139–1147|doi=10.1104/pp.105.4.1139|pmid=12232271|pmc=159442}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=R. M.|last1=Boddey|first2=S.|last2=Urquiaga|first3=V.|last3=Reis|first4=J.|last4=Döbereiner|s2cid=27437118|doi=10.1007/BF02187441|title=Biological nitrogen fixation associated with sugar cane|journal=Plant and Soil|volume=137|issue=1|date=November 1991|pages=111–117|bibcode=1991PlSoi.137..111B }}</ref> Coating seeds with the bacteria was assayed in 2006 with the intention of enabling crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cocking|first1=E. C.|last2=Stone|first2=P. J.|last3=Davey|first3=M. R.|s2cid=24642832|title=Intracellular colonization of roots of Arabidopsis and crop plants by ''Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus''|doi= 10.1079/IVP2005716|journal=In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant|volume=42|pages=74–82|year=2006}}</ref>

===Conditions for sugarcane workers===
At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades – most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lakhani |first=Nina |title=Nicaraguans demand action over illness killing thousands of sugar cane workers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/16/-sp-nicaragua-kidney-disease-killing-sugar-cane-workers |date=16 February 2015 |newspaper={{wipe|The Guardian}} |access-date=9 April 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408022312/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/16/-sp-nicaragua-kidney-disease-killing-sugar-cane-workers |url-status=live }}</ref>
Additionally, some of the workers are being exposed to hazards such as: high temperatures, harmful pesticides, and poisonous or venomous animals. This occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually, causing physical ailments due to constant repetitive  movements for hours every work day.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leite |first1=Rocha, Marceli |title=Sugarcane cutting work, risks, and health effects: a literature review |publisher=Universidade de São Paulo. Faculdade de Saúde Pública }}</ref>

== Processing ==
[[File:MyanmarJaggery.webm|thumb|[[Chemistry:Non-centrifugal cane sugar|Non-centrifugal cane sugar]] (jaggery) production near Inle Lake (Myanmar), crushing and boiling stage]]
Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white" sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation.<ref>{{cite conference|last=Steindl|first=Roderick|date=2005|title=Syrup Clarification for Plantation White Sugar to meet New Quality Standards|editor-last=Hogarth|editor-first=DM|book-title=Proceedings of the XXV Congress of International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists|pages=106–116|location=Guatemala, Guatemala City|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/en/|title=Home&nbsp;&#124; CODEXALIMENTARIUS FAO-WHO|website=www.fao.org|access-date=1 January 2022|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231231629/https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which is 99% sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugarcane-producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flórez-Martínez |first1=Diego Hernando |last2=Contreras-Pedraza |first2=Carlos Alberto |last3=Rodríguez |first3=Jader |date=2021-01-01 |title=A systematic analysis of non-centrifugal sugar cane processing: Research and new trends |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224420306828 |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=107 |pages=415–428 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.011 |s2cid=228847326 |issn=0924-2244}}</ref>

===Milling===
[[File:Sugarcane drink.JPG|thumb|upright=1.0|Manually extracting juice from sugarcane|alt=Photo of man holding bar that penetrates large tank]]
[[File:Cane-truck-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.0|A truck hauls cane to a sugar mill in Florida.|alt=Photo of truck hauling trailer]]
Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake.

[[Biology:Bagasse|Bagasse]], the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted, is used for several purposes:<ref name=epa2005>{{cite web|title=Sugarcane processing|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency, United States|year=2005|url=http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s10-1a.pdf|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=3 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103201400/http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s10-1a.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* fuel for the boilers and kilns
* production of paper, paperboard products, and reconstituted panelboard
* agricultural mulch
* as a raw material for production of chemicals
[[File:UsinaSantaElisa.jpg|upright=1.0|thumb|right|Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant in Sertãozinho, one of the largest and oldest in Brazil|alt=Photo of shorter building with smoke coming out of smokestack next to five-story office building]]

The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of [[Chemistry:Sugarcane wax|sugarcane wax]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

Molasses is produced in two forms: [[Chemistry:Molasses#Blackstrap Molasses|blackstrap]], which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer [[Chemistry:Molasses|molasses]] syrup. Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, and is used to produce ethanol, rum, and [[Chemistry:Citric acid|citric acid]]. Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup, invert sugars, or [[Chemistry:Corn syrup|corn syrup]]. Both forms of molasses are used in baking.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

=== Refining ===
{{multiple image
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[[Engineering:Sugar refinery|Sugar refining]] further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60% solids by weight.

The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of [[Chemistry:Phosphoric acid|phosphoric acid]] and [[Chemistry:Calcium hydroxide|calcium hydroxide]], which combine to precipitate [[Chemistry:Calcium phosphate|calcium phosphate]]. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is "[[Chemistry:Carbonatation|carbonatation]]", which is similar, but uses [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] and calcium hydroxide to produce a [[Chemistry:Calcium carbonate|calcium carbonate]] precipitate.

After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through [[Physics:Activated carbon|activated carbon]]. Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Yacoubou|first=Jeanne|title=Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices|magazine=Vegetarian Journal|volume=26|issue=4|pages=15–19|year=2007|url= https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf|access-date=4 April 2007}}</ref> Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce [[Chemistry:Brown sugar|brown sugar]]. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30% sucrose and 15–25% glucose and fructose.

To produce granulated sugar, in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

=== Ribbon cane syrup ===
Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina. The juice was extracted with horse- or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup, in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener.<ref>{{Cite journal
  |title=Cooking Ribbon Cane Syrup
  |url=http://saltillotexas.homestead.com/Syrup.html
  |author=Cowser, R. L.
  |journal=The Kentucky Folklore Record
  |date=Jan–Mar 1978
  |access-date=25 April 2012
  |archive-date=19 November 2011
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119094020/http://saltillotexas.homestead.com/Syrup.html
  |url-status=live
  }}</ref> It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product.{{Citation needed| date= November 2009}}

[[File:Production of sugar cane (2019).svg|thumb|250x250px|Production of sugarcane (2019)<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |year=2021 |page=60 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |s2cid=240163091 |language=en |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103083611/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

==Production==

{{Infobox agricultural production
| year               = 2020
|plant = Sugarcane
| country1           ={{BRA}}
| amount1            =757.1
| country2           ={{IND}}
| amount2            =370.5
| country3           ={{CHN}}
| amount3            =108.1
| country4           ={{PAK}}
| amount4            =81.0
| country5           ={{THA}}
| amount5            =75.0
| country6           ={{MEX}}
| amount6            =54.0
| country7           ={{USA}}
| amount7            =32.7
| country8           = {{AUS}}
| amount8            =30.0
| world              =1,869.7
| source             = FAOSTAT<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Sugarcane production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2022|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=28 March 2022|archive-date=7 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807083330/http://faostat.fao.org/Portals/_Faostat/documents/pdf/FAOSTAT-Forestry-def-e.pdf#data/QC|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

In 2020, global production of sugarcane was 1.87&nbsp;billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 40% of the world total, India with 20%, and China producing 6% (table).

Worldwide, 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020.<ref name=faostat/> The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2020 was 71 tonnes per hectare, led by Peru with 123 tonnes per hectare.<ref name=faostat/> The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 tonnes of cane per hectare.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants (Tropical Agriculture)|author=Bogden AV|year=1977|publisher=Longman Group (Far East), Limited |isbn=978-0582466760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lp4_AAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saccharum officinarum L.|author=Duke, James|year=1983|publisher=Purdue University|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html|access-date=7 February 2012|archive-date=6 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606151350/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

From 2008 to 2016, production of standards-compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52%, while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1%.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Voora, V. |author2=Bermudez, S. |author3=and Larrea, C. |title=Sugar Coverage |url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/sugar-coverage/ |date=2019 |website=International Institute for Sustainable Development |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320062933/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/sugar-coverage/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Environmental impacts ==
=== Soil degradation and erosion ===
The cultivation of sugarcane can lead to increased soil loss through the removal of soil at harvest, as well as improper irrigation practices, which can result in erosion.<ref name="WWFN-1986">{{Cite web |year=1986 |title=Sugar and the Environment: Encouraging Better Management Practices in Sugar Production and Processing |url=https://foodsecurecanada.org/sites/foodsecurecanada.org/files/sugarandtheenvironmentnovember2004.pdf |url-status=live |publisher=World Wide Fund for Nature |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327161413/https://foodsecurecanada.org/sites/foodsecurecanada.org/files/sugarandtheenvironmentnovember2004.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Cheesman-2004">{{Cite book |last=Cheesman |first=Oliver |title=Environmental Impacts of Sugar Production: The Cultivation and Processing of Sugarcane and Sugar Beet |publisher=CABI Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=0851999816 |location=United Kingdom}}</ref> Erosion is especially significant when the sugarcane is grown on slopes or hillsides, which increases the rate of water runoff.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref name="Cheesman-2004" /> Generally, it is recommended that sugarcane is not planted in areas with a slope greater than 8%.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> However, in certain areas, such as parts of the Caribbean and South Africa, slopes greater than 20% have been planted.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Increased erosion can lead to the removal of organic and nutrient-rich material, which can decrease future crop yields. It can also result in sediments and other pollutants being washed into aquatic habitats, which can result in a wide range of environmental issues, including eutrophication and acidification.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref name="Cheesman-2004" />

Sugarcane cultivation can also result in soil compaction, which is caused by the use of heavy, infield machinery.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Along with impacting invertebrate and fauna within the upper layers of the soil, compaction can also lead to decreased porosity.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref name="Cheesman-2004" /> This in turn can increase [[Earth:Surface runoff|surface runoff]], resulting in greater leaching and erosion.<ref name="WWFN-1986" />

=== Habitat destruction ===
[[File:Starr-160324-0644-Saccharum officinarum-sugar mill smoke stacks last harvest season-Puunene-Maui (26861749342).jpg|thumb|Gases produced from sugarcane processing. ]]
Due to the large quantity of water required, sugarcane cultivation heavily relies on irrigation.<ref name="epa20052">{{cite web |year=2005 |title=Sugarcane processing |url=http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s10-1a.pdf |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency, United States |access-date=2 February 2012 |archive-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103201400/http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s10-1a.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, since large amounts of soil are removed with the crop during harvest, significant washing occurs during the processing phase.<ref name="epa20052" /> In many countries, such as India and Australia, this requirement has placed a strain on available resources, requiring the construction of barrages and other dams.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref name="epa20052" /> This has altered the amount of water reaching aquatic habitats, and has contributed to the degradation of ecosystems such as the Great Barrier Reef and Indus Delta.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref name="epa20052" />
[[File:US Navy 100219-N-9643W-340 Haitian children carry sugarcane across a field as Sailors from Amphibious Construction Battalion (ACB) 2 clear land for a construction site.jpg|thumb|Land cleared for sugarcane production. ]]
Sugarcane has also contributed to habitat destruction through the clearance of land.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Seven countries around the world devote more than 50% of their land to the cultivation of sugarcane.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Sugarcane fields have replaced tropical rain forests and wetlands.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> While the majority of this clearance occurred in the past, expansions have occurred within the past couple decades, further contributing to habitat destruction.<ref name="Cheesman-2004" />

=== Mitigation efforts ===
A wide variety of mitigation efforts can be implemented to reduce the impacts of sugarcane cultivation.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Among these efforts is switching to alternative irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, which are more water efficient.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> Water efficiency can also be improved by employing methods such as trash mulching, which has been shown to increase water intake and storage.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prosdocimi |first1=Massimo |last2=Tarolli |first2=Paolo |last3=Cerdà |first3=Artemi |date=2016-10-01 |title=Mulching practices for reducing soil water erosion: A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216302264 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |language=en |volume=161 |pages=191–203 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.08.006 |bibcode=2016ESRv..161..191P |issn=0012-8252}}</ref> Along with reducing the overall water use, this method can also decrease soil runoff, and therefore prevent pollutants from entering the environment.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> In areas with a slope greater than 11%, it is also recommended that zero tillage or cane strip planting are implemented to help prevent soil loss.<ref name="WWFN-1986" />

Sugarcane processing produces a wide variety of pollutants, including heavy metals and bagasse, which can be released into the environment through wastewater discharge.<ref name="WWFN-1986" /> To prevent this, alternative treatment methods such as high rate anerobic digestions can be implemented to better treat this wastewater.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fito |first1=Jemal |last2=Tefera |first2=Nurelegne |last3=Van Hulle |first3=Stijn W. H. |date=2019-03-28 |title=Sugarcane biorefineries wastewater: bioremediation technologies for environmental sustainability |journal=Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=6 |doi=10.1186/s40538-019-0144-5 |issn=2196-5641|hdl=1854/LU-8753281 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> Stormwater drains can also be installed to prevent uncontrolled runoff from reaching aquatic ecosystems.<ref name="WWFN-1986" />

== Ethanol ==
[[File:Sao Paulo ethanol pump 04 2008 74 zoom.jpg|thumb|A fuel pump in Brazil, offering cane ethanol (A) and gasoline (G)]]
Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is an alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing, rather than sugar{{cn|date=October 2023}}

In Brazil, gasoline is required to contain at least 22% bioethanol.<ref name=iea1>{{cite web|title=IEA Energy Technology Essentials: Biofuel Production|publisher=International Energy Agency|year=2007|url=http://www.iea.org/techno/essentials2.pdf|access-date=1 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615183307/http://www.iea.org/techno/essentials2.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil's large sugarcane crop.

The production of ethanol from sugarcane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm/vegetable oils, particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process. Furthermore, if biofuels are used for crop production and transport, the fossil energy input needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low. EIA estimates that with an integrated sugarcane to ethanol technology, the well-to-wheels CO<sub>2</sub> emissions can be 90% lower than conventional gasoline.<ref name=iea1/> A textbook on renewable energy<ref>da Rosa, A. (2005) ''Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes''. Elsevier. pp. 501–502. {{ISBN|978-0-12-088510-7}}</ref> describes the energy transformation:

<blockquote>
Presently, 75 tons of raw sugarcane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil. The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped (b&c), and represents 77% of the mass of the raw cane. The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves (which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer), and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop. Average cane production is, therefore, 58 tons of b&c per hectare per year.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Each ton of b&c yields 740 kg of juice (135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water) and 260 kg of moist bagasse (130 kg of dry bagasse). Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16.5 M[[Joule|J]]/kg, and that of the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%).
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on. Thus, the solar energy-to-ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.
</blockquote>

==Bagasse applications==
[[File:Sugarcane bagasse.jpg|thumb|left|Sugarcane bagasse]]
Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries. It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency. Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy, yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually. After harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production. Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rainey|first1=Thomas|last2=Covey|first2=Geoff|last3=Shore|first3=Dennis|title=An analysis of Australian sugarcane regions for bagasse paper manufacture|journal=International Sugar Journal|volume=108|issue=1295|pages=640–644|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/6781/|date=December 2006|access-date=15 June 2015|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101142953/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/6781/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, such as Brazil, India, and China. According to one report, with use of latest technologies, bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20% of Brazil's energy consumption by 2020.<ref name=bw2009/>

===Electricity production===
A number of countries, in particular those lacking fossil fuels, have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize the energy used in cane processing, and export any excess electricity to the grid. Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam, which in turn creates electricity. Current technologies, such as those in use in [[Earth:Mauritius|Mauritius]], produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse. With a total world harvest of over one billion tonnes of sugarcane per year, the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100,000 GWh.<ref>{{cite press release|date=15 June 2004|title=Wade Report on Global Bagasse Cogeneration: High Efficiency Bagasse Cogeneration Can Meet Up To 25% of National Dower Demand in Cane Producing Countries|publisher=World Alliance for Decentralized Energy|url=https://www.localpower.org/documents/pr_bagasse.pdf|access-date=13 March 2020}}<br />{{cite report|title=Bagasse Cogen – Global Review and Potential|publisher=World Alliance for Decentralized Energy|year=2004}}</ref> Using Mauritius as a reference, an annual potential of 10,000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sugar Cane Bagasse Energy Cogeneration – Lessons from Mauritius|publisher=The United Nations|year=2005|url=https://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/energy/op/parliamentarian_forum/deepchand_bagasse.pdf|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809012831/http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/energy/op/parliamentarian_forum/deepchand_bagasse.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important, particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations.

Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Steam economy and cogeneration in cane sugar factories|year=1990|journal=International Sugar Journal|volume=92|issue=1099|pages=131–140|url=http://www.princeton.edu/pei/energy/publications/texts/International-Sugar-Journal.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224132518/http://www.princeton.edu/pei/energy/publications/texts/International-Sugar-Journal.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Trade and Environment Review|author=Hollanda, Erber|pages=68–80|publisher=United Nations|year=2010|isbn=978-92-1-112782-9}}</ref> As sugarcane is a seasonal crop, shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak, requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse.

===Biogas production===
A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse into [[Physics:Biogas|biogas]]. Technologies are being developed to use [[Biology:Enzyme|enzyme]]s to transform bagasse into advanced [[Earth:Biofuel|biofuel]] and biogas.<ref name=bw2009>{{cite web|title=Cetrel and Novozymes to Make Biogas and Electricity from Bagasse|date=14 December 2009|publisher=Business Wire|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20091214005749/en/Cetrel-Novozymes-Biogas-Electricity-Bagasse|access-date=1 February 2012|archive-date=12 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512060001/http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20091214005749/en/Cetrel-Novozymes-Biogas-Electricity-Bagasse|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Sugarcane as food ==

{{Further|Chemistry:Sugar}}

{{Nutritional value
| name =Cane juice<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Food Composition Tables|year=2017|publisher=National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research|url=http://www.ifct2017.com/frame.php?page=food|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613031416/http://www.ifct2017.com/frame.php?page=food|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image = Sugarcanejuice.jpg
| caption = Freshly squeezed sugarcane juice
| serving_size = 100 grams
| kJ= 242
| protein=0.16 g
| fat= 0.40
| carbs= 13.11 g
| fiber= 0.56 g
| sugars= 12.85 g
| glucose= 2.27 g
| fructose= 0.55 g
| iron_mg= 1.12
| calcium_mg= 18
| magnesium_mg= 13.03
| phosphorus_mg= 22.08
| potassium_mg= 150
| sodium_mg = 1.16
| zinc_mg= 0.14
| vitA_ug =
| vitC_mg= 6.73
| pantothenic_mg=
| vitB6_mg= 0.40
| vitK_ug =
| folate_ug= 44.53
| thiamin_mg=
| riboflavin_mg=
| niacin_mg=
| float=right
| note = Nutrient Information from Indian Food Composition Database
| source_usda=0
}}

In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, several foods and popular dishes are derived directly from it, such as:
* Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
* ''Sayur nganten'': an Indonesian soup made with the stem of trubuk (''Saccharum edule''), a type of sugarcane
* [[Chemistry:Sugarcane juice|Sugarcane juice]]: a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink, known variously as ''air tebu'', ''usacha rass'', ''guarab'', ''guarapa,'' ''guarapo,'' ''papelón'', ''aseer asab'', ''ganna sharbat'', ''mosto'', ''caldo de cana'', or ''nước mía''
* [[Chemistry:Syrup|Syrup]]: a traditional sweetener in soft drinks worldwide but now largely supplanted in the US by high fructose corn syrup, which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs<ref>{{cite news |author=Pollan M |url=http://michaelpollan.com/articles-archive/the-way-we-live-now-the-agricultural-contradictions-of-obesity/ |title=The (Agri)Cultural Contradictions Of Obesity |newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}} |date=12 October 2003 |access-date=4 September 2015 |archive-date=16 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916193657/http://michaelpollan.com/articles-archive/the-way-we-live-now-the-agricultural-contradictions-of-obesity/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Chemistry:Molasses|Molasses]]: used as a [[Chemistry:Sugar substitute|sweetener]] and a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese or cookies
* [[Chemistry:Jaggery|Jaggery]]: a solidified molasses, known as ''gur'', ''gud'', or ''gul'' in South Asia, is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge, and then cooling and molding it in buckets. Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets, and desserts.
* [[Biology:Falernum|Falernum]]: a sweet, and slightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice
* ''[[Chemistry:Cachaça|Cachaça]]'': the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil; it is a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice.
* [[Chemistry:Rum|Rum]] is a liquor made from sugarcane products, typically molasses, but sometimes also cane juice. It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs.
* Basi is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in the {{wipe|Philippines}} and Guyana.
* ''[[Chemistry:Panela|Panela]]'', solid pieces of sucrose and [[Chemistry:Fructose|fructose]] obtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice, is a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America.
* ''Rapadura'' is a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice, common in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela (where it is known as ''papelón'') and the Caribbean.
* [[Earth:Rock candy|Rock candy]]: crystallized cane juice
* '' Gâteau de Sirop''
* Viche, a homebrewed Colombian alcoholic beverage

==Sugarcane as feed==
Many parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as animal feeds where the plants are cultivated. The leaves make a good forage for ruminants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heuzé |first1=V. |last2=Thiollet |first2=H. |last3=Tran |first3=G. |last4=Lebas |first4=F. |title=Sugarcane forage, whole plant |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/14462 |date=5 July 2018 |website=Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO |access-date=11 April 2019 |archive-date=12 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212151644/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/14462 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Sugarcane flowering.JPG|Sugarcane flowering
File:Sugarcane Flowers in Java.jpg|Flowers of sugarcane
File:Cane syrup evaporator 1330.jpg|alt=Outdoor photo of series of rectangular metal trays divided by short internal metal sheets|Evaporator with baffled pan and foam dipper for making ribbon cane syrup
File:A video of Sugarcane juice extraction.ogv|A video of sugarcane juice extraction
File:Cocktail Caipirinha raw.jpg|''Caipirinha'', a cocktail made from sugarcane-derived ''cachaça''
</gallery>

==See also==
* Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
* Sugar plantations in Hawaii
* Sugar industry of the Philippines
* Trapiche
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = FAO
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

==External links==
* Global sugar & sugar cane production stats [https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/969526b0-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/969526b0-en from oecd].

{{Bioenergy}}

[[Category:Saccharum|*]]
[[Category:Sugar]]
[[Category:Plant common names]]

{{Sourceattribution|Sugarcane}}