View source for Biology:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event

{{short description|Mass extinction ending the Triassic period}}
{{annotated image/Extinction}}
The '''Triassic–Jurassic (Tr-J) extinction event''' ('''TJME'''), often called the '''end-Triassic extinction''', was a [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]] [[Biology:Extinction event|extinction event]] that marks the boundary between the [[Earth:Triassic|Triassic]] and [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] periods, {{Ma|Jurassic}},<ref>Some sources (Whiteside et al 2010) give a date 181.8268 Ma.</ref> and is one of the top five major [[Biology:Extinction event|extinction event]]s of the [[Earth:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]] eon,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=P.D. |last2=Haggart |first2=J.W. |last3=Carter |first3=E.S. |last4=Wilbur |first4=D. |last5=Tipper |first5=H.W. |last6=Evans |first6=T. |date=11 May 2001 |title=Sudden Productivity Collapse Associated with the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary Mass Extinction |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1058574 |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5519 |pages=1148–1151 |doi=10.1126/science.1058574 |pmid=11349146 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1148W |s2cid=36667702 |access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> profoundly affecting life on land and in the oceans. In the seas, the entire [[Biology:Class|class]] of [[Biology:Conodont|conodont]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hautmann |first1=Michael |date=15 August 2012 |title=Extinction: End-Triassic Mass Extinction |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470015902.a0001655.pub3 |journal=eLS |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0001655.pub3 |isbn=9780470016176 |s2cid=130434497 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/geo/16986180/articulos/JIGE9696120347A.PDF| title = The extinction of conodonts — in terms of discrete elements — at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary}}</ref> and 23–34% of marine [[Biology:Genus|genera]] disappeared.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Graham Ryder |author2=David E. Fastovsky |author3=Stefan Gartner |title=The Cretaceous-Tertiary Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History|date=1996|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=9780813723075|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAup0TOL09gC&pg=PA19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sepkoski|first=J. John|date=1984|title=A kinetic model of Phanerozoic taxonomic diversity. III. Post-Paleozoic families and mass extinctions|journal=Paleobiology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=246–267|doi=10.1017/s0094837300008186|bibcode=1984Pbio...10..246S |s2cid=85595559 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref>  On land, all [[Biology:Archosauromorpha|archosauromorphs]] other than [[Biology:Crocodylomorpha|crocodylomorphs]], [[Biology:Pterosaur|pterosaur]]s, and [[Biology:Dinosaur|dinosaur]]s became extinct; some of the groups which died out were previously abundant, such as [[Biology:Aetosaur|aetosaur]]s, [[Biology:Phytosaur|phytosaur]]s, and [[Biology:Rauisuchidae|rauisuchids]]. Some remaining non-mammalian [[Biology:Therapsid|therapsid]]s and many of the large [[Biology:Temnospondyli|temnospondyl]] [[Biology:Amphibian|amphibian]]s had become extinct prior to the Jurassic as well. However, there is still much uncertainty regarding a connection between the Tr-J boundary and terrestrial vertebrates, due to a lack of terrestrial fossils from the Rhaetian (latest) stage of the Triassic.<ref name="TannerLucas">{{cite journal|vauthors=Tanner LH, Lucas SG, Chapman MG|date=2004|title=Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions|url=http://nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/TJB.pdf|journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]]|volume=65|issue=1–2|pages=103–139|bibcode=2004ESRv...65..103T|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025225841/http://nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/TJB.pdf|archive-date=October 25, 2007|access-date=2007-10-22}}</ref> What was left fairly untouched were plants, crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, pterosaurs and mammals;<ref name="BarbackaEtAlPPP2">{{cite journal |last1=Barbacka |first1=Maria |last2=Pacyna |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Kocsis |first3=Ádam T. |last4=Jarzynka |first4=Agata |last5=Ziaja |first5=Jadwiga |last6=Bodor |first6=Emese |date=15 August 2017 |title=Changes in terrestrial floras at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary in Europe |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018216304977 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=480 |pages=80–93 |bibcode=2017PPP...480...80B |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.05.024 |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref><ref name="ToljagićButler2013" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Buffetaut |first1=Eric |editor-last1=Cockell |editor-first1=Charles |editor-last2=Gilmour |editor-first2=Iain |editor-last3=Koeberl |editor-first3=Charles |year=2006 |title=Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/b135965 |chapter=Continental Vertebrate Extinctions at the Triassic-Jurassic and Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundaries: a Comparison |series=Impact Studies |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-25736-5_11 |location=Berlin |publisher=Springer |pages=245–256 |doi=10.1007/3-540-25736-5_11 |isbn=978-3-540-25736-3}}</ref> this allowed the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodylomorphs to become the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benton |first1=Michael James |year=1991 |title=What really happened in the late Triassic? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10292389109380406 |journal=[[Biology:Historical Biology|Historical Biology]] |volume=5 |issue=2–4 |pages=263–278 |doi=10.1080/10292389109380406 |access-date=15 December 2022}}</ref><ref name="ToljagićButler2013">{{cite journal |last1=Toljagić |first1=Olja |last2=Butler |first2=Richard J. |date=23 June 2013 |title=Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction as trigger for the Mesozoic radiation of crocodylomorphs |journal=[[Biology:Biology Letters|Biology Letters]] |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0095 |pmid=23536443 |pmc=3645043 }}</ref>

Statistical analysis of marine losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in [[Biology:Speciation|speciation]] than by an increase in extinctions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Bambach | first1=R.K. | last2=Knoll | first2=A.H. | last3=Wang | first3=S.C. | title=Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity | journal=Paleobiology | volume=30 | issue=4 | pages=522–542 | date=December 2004 | url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&issn=0094-8373&volume=30&page=522 | doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2 | s2cid=17279135 | issn=0094-8373 }}</ref> Nevertheless, a pronounced turnover in plant spores and a collapse of coral reef communities indicates that an ecological catastrophe did occur at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonis |first1=Nina R. |last2=Ruhl |first2=Micha |last3=Kürschner |first3=Wolfram R. |date=1 September 2010 |title=Milankovitch-scale palynological turnover across the Triassic–Jurassic transition at St. Audrie's Bay, SW UK |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jgs/article/167/5/877/372819/Milankovitch-scale-palynological-turnover-across |journal=Journal of the Geological Society |volume=167 |issue=5 |pages=877–888 |doi=10.1144/0016-76492009-141 |bibcode=2010JGSoc.167..877B |s2cid=128896141 |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pandolfi |first1=John M. |last2=Kiessling |first2=Wolfgang |date=April 2014 |title=Gaining insights from past reefs to inform understanding of coral reef response to global climate change |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877343513001826 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |volume=7 |pages=52–58 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.020 |bibcode=2014COES....7...52P |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref> Older hypotheses on extinction have proposed that gradual climate or [[Earth:Sea level rise|sea level change]] may be the culprit,<ref name=":3" /> or perhaps one or more asteroid strikes.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> However, the most well-supported and widely-held theory for the cause of the Tr-J extinction places the blame on the start of volcanic eruptions in the [[Earth:Central Atlantic magmatic province|Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP),<ref name="WhitesideEtAl2010">{{cite journal |last1=Whiteside |first1=Jessica H. |last2=Olsen |first2=Paul E. |last3=Eglington |first3=Timothy |last4=Brookfield |first4=Michael E. |last5=Sambrotto |first5=Raymond N. |date=22 March 2010 |title=Compound-specific carbon isotopes from Earth's largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=15 |pages=6721–6725 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1001706107 |pmid=20308590 |pmc=2872409 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.6721W |doi-access=free }}</ref> which was responsible for outputting a high amount of [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] into Earth's atmosphere,<ref name="AnthropogenicScaleDegassing" /><ref name="VolumeRateCO2" /> inducing profound [[Earth:Global warming|global warming]],<ref name="McElwainBeerlingWoodward1999" /> along with [[Biology:Ocean acidification|ocean acidification]].<ref name="Hautmann 2004" />

==Effects==
This event vacated terrestrial [[Biology:Ecological niche|ecological niche]]s, allowing the dinosaurs to assume the dominant roles in the Jurassic period. This event happened in less than 10,000 years and occurred just before [[Earth:Pangaea|Pangaea]] started to break apart. In the area of Tübingen ({{wipe|Germany}}), a Triassic–Jurassic bonebed can be found, which is characteristic for this boundary.<ref>Johannes Baier: [http://www.ogv-online.de/Publikationen/Jahresberichte/2011/nf93-1.html ''Der Geologische Lehrpfad am Kirnberg (Keuper; SW-Deutschland)''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002161424/http://www.ogv-online.de/Publikationen/Jahresberichte/2011/nf93-1.html |date=2011-10-02 }}. – Jber. Mitt. oberrhein. geol. Ver, N. F. 93, 9–26, 2011.</ref>

=== Marine invertebrates ===
The Triassic-Jurassic extinction completed the transition from the Palaeozoic [[Biology:Evolutionary fauna|evolutionary fauna]] to the Modern evolutionary fauna,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoepfer |first1=Shane D. |last2=Algeo |first2=Thomas J. |last3=Van de Schootbrugge |first3=Bas |last4=Whiteside |first4=Jessica H. |date=September 2022 |title=The Triassic–Jurassic transition – A review of environmental change at the dawn of modern life |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825222001830 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=232 |page=104099 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104099 |bibcode=2022ESRv..23204099S |s2cid=250256142 |access-date=1 February 2023}}</ref> a change that began in the aftermath of the end-Guadalupian extinction<ref name="DeLaHorraEtAl2012">{{cite journal |last1=De la Horra |first1=R. |last2=Galán-Abellán |first2=A. B. |last3=López-Gómez |first3=José |last4=Sheldon |first4=Nathan D. |last5=Barrenechea |first5=J. F. |last6=Luque |first6=F. J. |last7=Arche |first7=A. |last8=Benito |first8=M. I. |date=August–September 2012 |title=Paleoecological and paleoenvironmental changes during the continental Middle–Late Permian transition at the SE Iberian Ranges, Spain |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818112001221 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=94–95 |pages=46–61 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.06.008 |bibcode=2012GPC....94...46D |access-date=15 December 2022|hdl=10261/59010 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and continued following the [[Earth:Permian–Triassic extinction event|Permian-Triassic extinction event]] (PTME).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brayard | first1 = Arnaud | last2 = Krumenacker | first2 = L. J. | last3 = Botting | first3 = Joseph P. | last4 = Jenks | first4 = James F. | last5 = Bylund | first5 = Kevin G. | last6 = Fara | first6 = Emmanuel | last7 = Vennin | first7 = Emmanuelle | last8 = Olivier | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Goudemand | first9 = Nicolas | last10 = Saucède | first10 = Thomas | last11 = Charbonnier | first11 = Sylvain | last12 = Romano | first12 = Carlo | last13 = Doguzhaeva | first13 = Larisa | last14 = Thuy | first14 = Ben | last15 = Hautmann | first15 = Michael | last16 = Stephen | first16 = Daniel A. | last17 = Thomazo | first17 = Christophe | last18 = Escarguel | first18 = Gilles | title = Unexpected Early Triassic marine ecosystem and the rise of the Modern evolutionary fauna | journal = Science Advances | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = e1602159 | date = 15 February 2017 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1602159 | pmid = 28246643 | pmc = 5310825 | bibcode = 2017SciA....3E2159B }}</ref> [[Earth:Plankton|Plankton]] diversity was relatively mildly impacted at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, although extinction rates among [[Biology:Radiolaria|radiolaria]]ns rose significantly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kocsis |first1=Ádám T. |last2=Kiessling |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Pálfy |first3=József |date=8 April 2016 |title=Radiolarian biodiversity dynamics through the Triassic and Jurassic: implications for proximate causes of the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/radiolarian-biodiversity-dynamics-through-the-triassic-and-jurassic-implications-for-proximate-causes-of-the-endtriassic-mass-extinction/0986175366656DEE63909EF57FCFA87B |journal=Paleobiology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=625–639 |doi=10.1666/14007 |s2cid=129600881 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> [[Biology:Ammonoidea|Ammonites]] were affected substantially by the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. [[Biology:Ceratitida|Ceratitida]]ns, the most prominent group of ammonites in the Triassic, became extinct at the end of the Rhaetian after having their diversity reduced significantly in the Norian. Other ammonite groups such as the [[Biology:Ammonitina|Ammonitina]], [[Biology:Lytoceratina|Lytoceratina]], and [[Biology:Phylloceratina|Phylloceratina]] diversified from the Early Jurassic onward. [[Biology:Bivalvia|Bivalves]] experienced high extinction rates at the early and middle Rhaetian.<ref name="TannerLucas" /> The [[Biology:Lilliput effect|Lilliput effect]] affected [[Biology:Megalodontidae|megalodontid]] bivalves,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Todaro |first1=Simona |last2=Rigo |first2=Manuel |last3=Randazzo |first3=Vincenzo |last4=Di Stefano |first4=Pietro |date=June 2018 |title=The end-Triassic mass extinction: A new correlation between extinction events and δ13C fluctuations from a Triassic-Jurassic peritidal succession in western Sicily |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0037073818300484 |journal=Sedimentary Geology |volume=368 |pages=105–113 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2018.03.008 |bibcode=2018SedG..368..105T |s2cid=134941587 |access-date=27 August 2023}}</ref> whereas [[Biology:Limidae|file shell]] bivalves experienced the Brobdingnag effect, the reverse of the Lilliput effect, as a result of the mass extinction event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=Jed W. |last2=Wignall |first2=Paul B. |last3=Morton |first3=Jacob D. |last4=Aze |first4=Tracy |date=9 January 2019 |title=Body size changes in bivalves of the family Limidae in the aftermath of the end-Triassic mass extinction: the Brobdingnag effect |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.12415 |journal=Palaeontology |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=561–582 |doi=10.1111/pala.12415 |bibcode=2019Palgy..62..561A |s2cid=134070316 |access-date=14 January 2023}}</ref> There is some evidence of a bivalve cosmopolitanism event during the mass extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=Jia |last2=Song |first2=Haijun |last3=Dai |first3=Xu |date=1 February 2023 |title=Increased bivalve cosmopolitanism during the mid-Phanerozoic mass extinctions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018222005338 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=611 |page=111362 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111362 |bibcode=2023PPP...61111362Y |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref> [[Biology:Gastropoda|Gastropod]] diversity was barely affected at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, although gastropods gradually suffered numerous losses over the late Norian and Rhaetian, during the leadup to the TJME.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hallam |first1=Anthony |date=2 January 2007 |title=How catastrophic was the end-Triassic mass extinction? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1502-3931.2002.tb00075.x |journal=Lethaia |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=147–157 |doi=10.1111/j.1502-3931.2002.tb00075.x |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> [[Biology:Brachiopod|Brachiopod]]s declined in diversity at the end of the Triassic before rediversifying in the Sinemurian and Pliensbachian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baeza-Carratalá |first1=José Francisco |last2=Dulai |first2=Alfréd |last3=Sandoval |first3=José |date=October 2018 |title=First evidence of brachiopod diversification after the end-Triassic extinction from the pre-Pliensbachian Internal Subbetic platform (South-Iberian Paleomargin) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699518300445 |journal=Geobios |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=367–384 |doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2018.08.010 |bibcode=2018Geobi..51..367B |hdl=10045/81989 |s2cid=134589701 |access-date=22 May 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Biology:Bryozoa|Bryozoans]], particularly taxa that lived in offshore settings, had already been in decline since the Norian and suffered further losses in the TJME.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Powers |first=Catherine M. |last2=Bottjer |first2=David J. |date=1 November 2007 |title=Bryozoan paleoecology indicates mid-Phanerozoic extinctions were the product of long-term environmental stress |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/35/11/995-998/129752 |journal=Geology |language=en |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=995 |doi=10.1130/G23858A.1 |issn=0091-7613 |access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref> [[Biology:Conulariida|Conulariids]] seemingly completely died out at the end of the Triassic.<ref name="TannerLucas" /> Around 96% of coral genera died out, with integrated corals being especially devastated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanley Jr. |first1=George D. |last2=Shepherd |first2=Hannah M. E. |last3=Robinson |first3=Autumn J. |date=14 August 2018 |title=Paleoecological Response of Corals to the End-Triassic Mass Extinction: An Integrational Analysis |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12583-018-0793-5 |journal=Journal of Earth Science |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=879–885 |doi=10.1007/s12583-018-0793-5 |s2cid=133705370 |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> Corals practically disappeared from the [[Earth:Tethys Ocean|Tethys Ocean]] at the end of the Triassic except for its northernmost reaches,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lathuilière |first1=Bernard |last2=Marchal |first2=Denis |date=12 January 2009 |title=Extinction, survival and recovery of corals from the Triassic to Middle Jurassic time |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00856.x |journal=Terra Nova |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=57–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00856.x |bibcode=2009TeNov..21...57L |s2cid=128758050 |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> resulting in an early Hettangian "coral gap".<ref name="EarlyHettangianCoralGap">{{cite journal |last1=Martindale |first1=Rowan C. |last2=Berelson |first2=William M. |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Bottjer |first4=David J. |last5=West |first5=A. Joshua |date=15 September 2012 |title=Constraining carbonate chemistry at a potential ocean acidification event (the Triassic–Jurassic boundary) using the presence of corals and coral reefs in the fossil record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018212003756 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=350–352 |pages=114–123 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.06.020 |bibcode=2012PPP...350..114M |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> There is good evidence for a collapse in the reef community, which was likely driven by [[Biology:Ocean acidification|ocean acidification]] resulting from {{CO2}} supplied to the atmosphere by the CAMP eruptions.<ref name="GeologicalRecordOceanAcid">{{Cite journal |last1=Hönisch |first1=Bärbel |last2=Ridgwell |first2=Andy |last3=Schmidt |first3=Daniela N. |last4=Thomas |first4=Ellen |author4-link=Ellen Thomas (scientist) |last5=Gibbs |first5=Samantha J. |last6=Sluijs |first6=Appy |last7=Zeebe |first7=Richard |last8=Kump |first8=Lee |last9=Martindale |first9=Rowan C. |last10=Greene |first10=Sarah E. |last11=Kiessling |first11=Wolfgang |date=2012-03-02 |title=The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1208277 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=335 |issue=6072 |pages=1058–1063 |bibcode=2012Sci...335.1058H |doi=10.1126/science.1208277 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=22383840 |hdl=1874/385704 |s2cid=6361097 |access-date=19 March 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="OceanAcidDepTime">{{Cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martindale |first2=Rowan C. |last3=Ritterbush |first3=Kathleen A. |last4=Bottjer |first4=David J. |last5=Corsetti |first5=Frank A. |last6=Berelson |first6=William M. |date=2012-06-01 |title=Recognising ocean acidification in deep time: An evaluation of the evidence for acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825212000463 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |language=en |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=72–93|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.009 |bibcode=2012ESRv..113...72G|issn=0012-8252}}</ref>

Most evidence points to a relatively fast recovery from the mass extinction. Benthic ecosystems recovered far more rapidly after the TJME than they did after the PTME.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barras |first1=Colin G. |last2=Twitchett |first2=Richard J. |date=9 February 2007 |title=Response of the marine infauna to Triassic–Jurassic environmental change: Ichnological data from southern England |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018206004500 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |series=Triassic-Jurassic Boundary events: problems, progress, possibilities |volume=244 |issue=1 |pages=223–241 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.040 |bibcode=2007PPP...244..223B |issn=0031-0182 |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref> British Early Jurassic benthic marine environments display a relatively rapid recovery that began almost immediately after the end of the mass extinction despite numerous relapses into anoxic conditions during the earliest Jurassic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=J. W. |last2=Wignall |first2=Paul B. |date=15 August 2019 |title=How quick was marine recovery after the end-Triassic mass extinction and what role did anoxia play? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018219302330 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=528 |pages=99–119 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.05.011 |bibcode=2019PPP...528...99A |s2cid=164911938 |access-date=20 December 2022}}</ref> In the Neuquén Basin, recovery began in the late early Hettangian and lasted until a new biodiversity equilibrium in the late Hettangian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Damborenea |first1=Susana E. |last2=Echevarría |first2=Javier |last3=Ros-Franch |first3=Sonia |date=1 December 2017 |title=Biotic recovery after the end-Triassic extinction event: Evidence from marine bivalves of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217306946 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=487 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.025 |bibcode=2017PPP...487...93D |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> Also despite recurrent anoxic episodes, large bivalves began to reappear shortly after the extinction event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Opazo Mella |first1=Luis-Felipe |last2=Twitchett |first2=Richard J. |date=10 November 2021 |title=Bivalve body size distribution through the Late Triassic mass extinction event |url=https://zenodo.org/record/5523402 |journal=[[Zenodo]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.5523402 |access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref> Siliceous sponges dominated the immediate aftermath interval thanks to the enormous influx of silica into the oceans from the weathering of the CAMP's aerially extensive basalts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ritterbrush |first1=Kathleen A. |last2=Bottjer |first2=David J. |last3=Corseti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Rosas |first4=Silvia |date=1 December 2014 |title=New evidence on the role of siliceous sponges in ecology and sedimentary facies development in Eastern Panthalassa following the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction|url=https://bioone.org/journals/palaios/volume-29/issue-12/palo.2013.121/NEW-EVIDENCE-ON-THE-ROLE-OF-SILICEOUS-SPONGES-IN-ECOLOGY/10.2110/palo.2013.121.short |journal=PALAIOS |volume=29 |issue=12 |pages=652–668 |doi=10.2110/palo.2013.121 |bibcode=2014Palai..29..652R |s2cid=140546770 |access-date=2 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritterbush |first1=Kathleen A. |last2=Rosas |first2=Silvia |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Bottjer |first4=David J. |last5=West |first5=A. Joshua |date=15 February 2015 |title=Andean sponges reveal long-term benthic ecosystem shifts following the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018214005951 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=420 |pages=193–209 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.12.002 |bibcode=2015PPP...420..193R |issn=0031-0182 |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref> Some clades recovered more slowly than others, however, as exemplified by corals and their disappearance in the early Hettangian.<ref name="EarlyHettangianCoralGap" />

=== Marine vertebrates ===
[[File:Euconodonta.gif|left|thumb|Conodonts were a major vertebrate group which died out at the end of the Triassic]]
Fish did not suffer a mass extinction at the end of the Triassic. The late Triassic in general did experience a gradual drop in [[Biology:Actinopterygii|actinopterygii]]an diversity after an evolutionary explosion in the middle Triassic. Though this may have been due to falling sea levels or the Carnian pluvial event, it may instead be a result of [[Sampling bias|sampling bias]] considering that middle Triassic fish have been more extensively studied than late Triassic fish.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Romano|first1=Carlo|last2=Koot|first2=Martha B.|last3=Kogan|first3=Ilja|last4=Brayard|first4=Arnaud|last5=Minikh|first5=Alla V.|last6=Brinkmann|first6=Winand|last7=Bucher|first7=Hugo|last8=Kriwet|first8=Jürgen|date=27 November 2014|title=Permian–Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268810424|journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society|volume=91|issue=1|pages=106–147|doi=10.1111/brv.12161|issn=1469-185X|pmid=25431138|s2cid=5332637}}</ref> Despite the apparent drop in diversity, [[Biology:Neopterygii|neopterygii]]ans (which include most modern bony fish) suffered less than more "primitive" actinopterygiians, indicating a biological turnover where modern groups of fish started to supplant earlier groups.<ref name="TannerLucas" /> [[Biology:Conodont|Conodont]]s, which were prominent index fossils throughout the Paleozoic and Triassic, finally became extinct at the T-J boundary following declining diversity.<ref name="TannerLucas" />

Like fish, marine reptiles experienced a substantial drop in diversity between the Middle Triassic and the Jurassic. However, their extinction rate at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary was not elevated. The highest extinction rates experienced by Mesozoic marine reptiles actually occurred at the end of the Ladinian stage, which corresponds to the end of the Middle Triassic. The only marine reptile families which became extinct at or slightly before the Triassic–Jurassic boundary were the [[Biology:Placochelyidae|placochelyids]] (the last family of [[Biology:Placodontia|placodonts]]), and giant [[Biology:Ichthyosaur|ichthyosaur]]s such as [[Biology:Shastasauridae|shastasaurids]] and [[Biology:Shonisauridae|shonisaurids]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bardet|first=Nathalie|date=1994-07-01|title=Extinction events among Mesozoic marine reptiles|journal=[[Biology:Historical Biology|Historical Biology]]|volume=7|issue=4|pages=313–324|doi=10.1080/10292389409380462|issn=0891-2963|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15138/files/PAL_E2412.pdf }}</ref> Nevertheless, some authors have argued that the end of the Triassic acted as a genetic "[[Biology:Population bottleneck|bottleneck]]" for ichthyosaurs, which never regained the level of anatomical diversity and disparity which they possessed during the Triassic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thorne|first1=Philippa M.|last2=Ruta|first2=Marcello|last3=Benton|first3=Michael J.|date=17 May 2011|title=Resetting the evolution of marine reptiles at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|language=en|volume=108|issue=20|pages=8339–8344|doi=10.1073/pnas.1018959108|issn=0027-8424|pmid=21536898|pmc=3100925|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8339T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Terrestrial vertebrates ===
[[File:Mastodonsaurus giganteus.JPG|thumb|[[Biology:Capitosauria|Capitosaurs]] (such as this ''Mastodonsaurus'') were among the major amphibian groups which became extinct at the T-J boundary, though many may have died out earlier.]]
Terrestrial fauna was affected by the TJME much more severely than marine fauna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cribb |first=Alison T. |last2=Formoso |first2=Kiersten K. |last3=Woolley |first3=C. Henrik |last4=Beech |first4=James |last5=Brophy |first5=Shannon |last6=Byrne |first6=Paul |last7=Cassady |first7=Victoria C. |last8=Godbold |first8=Amanda L. |last9=Larina |first9=Ekaterina |last10=Maxeiner |first10=Philip-peter |last11=Wu |first11=Yun-Hsin |last12=Corsetti |first12=Frank A. |last13=Bottjer |first13=David J. |date=6 December 2023 |title=Contrasting terrestrial and marine ecospace dynamics after the end-Triassic mass extinction event |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2232 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=290 |issue=2012 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2023.2232 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=10697803 |pmid=38052241 |access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref> One of the earliest pieces of evidence for a Late Triassic extinction was a major turnover in terrestrial tetrapods such as amphibians, reptiles, and synapsids. Edwin H. Colbert drew parallels between the system of extinction and adaptation between the Triassic–Jurassic and Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries. He recognized how dinosaurs, [[Biology:Lepidosauria|lepidosaurs]] ([[Biology:Lizard|lizard]]s and their relatives), and [[Biology:Crocodyliformes|crocodyliforms]] ([[Biology:Crocodilia|crocodilia]]ns and their relatives) filled the niches of more ancient groups of amphibians and reptiles which were extinct by the start of the Jurassic.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Colbert|first=Edwin H.|date=1958-09-15|title=Tetrapod Extinctions at the End of the Triassic Period|url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/44/9/973.full.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=44|issue=9|pages=973–977|doi=10.1073/pnas.44.9.973|issn=0027-8424|pmid=16590299|pmc=528676|bibcode=1958PNAS...44..973C|doi-access=free}}</ref> Olsen (1987) estimated that 42% of all terrestrial tetrapods became extinct at the end of the Triassic, based on his studies of faunal changes in the [[Earth:Newark Supergroup|Newark Supergroup]] of eastern North America.<ref name=":2" /> More modern studies have debated whether the turnover in Triassic tetrapods was abrupt at the end of the Triassic, or instead more gradual.<ref name="TannerLucas" />

During the Triassic, [[Biology:Amphibian|amphibian]]s were mainly represented by large, crocodile-like members of the order [[Biology:Temnospondyli|Temnospondyli]]. Although the earliest [[Biology:Lissamphibia|lissamphibia]]ns (modern amphibians like [[Biology:Frog|frog]]s and [[Biology:Salamander|salamander]]s) did appear during the Triassic, they would become more common in the Jurassic while the temnospondyls diminished in diversity past the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.<ref name=":2" /> Although the decline of temnospondyls did send shockwaves through freshwater ecosystems, it was probably not as abrupt as some authors have suggested. [[Biology:Brachyopoidea|Brachyopoids]], for example, survived until the [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]] according to new discoveries in the 1990s. Several temnospondyl groups did become extinct near the end of the Triassic despite earlier abundance, but it is uncertain how close their extinctions were to the end of the Triassic. The last known [[Biology:Metoposauridae|metoposaurids]] ("''Apachesaurus"'') were from the [[Earth:Redonda Formation|Redonda Formation]], which may have been early Rhaetian or late Norian. ''[[Biology:Gerrothorax|Gerrothorax]]'', the last known [[Biology:Plagiosauridae|plagiosaurid]], has been found in rocks which are probably (but not certainly) Rhaetian, while a [[Biology:Capitosauria|capitosaur]] humerus was found in Rhaetian-age deposits in 2018. Therefore, plagiosaurids and capitosaurs were likely victims of an extinction at the very end of the Triassic, while most other temnospondyls were already extinct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Konietzko-Meier|first1=Dorota|last2=Werner|first2=Jennifer D.|last3=Wintrich|first3=Tanja|last4=Martin Sander|first4=P.|date=2018-10-31|title=A large temnospondyl humerus from the Rhaetian (Late Triassic) of Bonenburg (Westphalia, Germany) and its implications for temnospondyl extinction|journal=Journal of Iberian Geology|volume=45|issue=2|pages=287–300|doi=10.1007/s41513-018-0092-0|s2cid=134049099|issn=1886-7995}}</ref>
[[File:Machaeroprosopus IMG 0720.jpg|left|thumb|Reptile extinction at the end of the Triassic is poorly understood, but  phytosaurs (such as this ''Redondasaurus'') went from abundant to extinct by the end of the Rhaetian.]]
Terrestrial reptile faunas were dominated by [[Biology:Archosauromorpha|archosauromorphs]] during the Triassic, particularly [[Biology:Phytosaur|phytosaur]]s and members of [[Biology:Pseudosuchia|Pseudosuchia]] (the reptile lineage which leads to modern [[Biology:Crocodilia|crocodilia]]ns). In the early Jurassic and onwards, dinosaurs and pterosaurs became the most common land reptiles, while small reptiles were mostly represented by [[Biology:Lepidosauromorpha|lepidosauromorphs]] (such as lizards and tuatara relatives). Among pseudosuchians, only small [[Biology:Crocodylomorpha|crocodylomorphs]] did not become extinct by the end of the Triassic, with both dominant herbivorous subgroups (such as [[Biology:Aetosaur|aetosaur]]s) and carnivorous ones ([[Biology:Rauisuchidae|rauisuchids]]) having died out.<ref name=":2" /> Phytosaurs, [[Biology:Drepanosaur|drepanosaur]]s, [[Biology:Trilophosauridae|trilophosaurids]], [[Biology:Tanystropheidae|tanystropheids]], and [[Biology:Procolophonidae|procolophonids]], which were other common reptiles in the late Triassic, had also become extinct by the start of the Jurassic. However, pinpointing the extinction of these different land reptile groups is difficult, as the last stage of the Triassic (the Rhaetian) and the first stage of the Jurassic (the Hettangian) each have few records of large land animals. Some paleontologists have considered only phytosaurs and procolophonids to have become extinct at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, with other groups having become extinct earlier.<ref name="TannerLucas" /> However, it is likely that many other groups survived up until the boundary according to British fissure deposits from the Rhaetian. Aetosaurs, [[Biology:Kuehneosauridae|kuehneosaurids]], drepanosaurs, [[Biology:Thecodontosauridae|thecodontosaurids]], "saltoposuchids" (like ''[[Biology:Terrestrisuchus|Terrestrisuchus]]''), trilophosaurids, and various non-[[Biology:Crocodylomorpha|crocodylomorph]] pseudosuchians are all examples of Rhaetian reptiles which may have become extinct at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Whiteside|first1=D. I.|last2=Marshall|first2=J. E. A.|date=2008-01-01|title=The age, fauna and palaeoenvironment of the Late Triassic fissure deposits of Tytherington, South Gloucestershire, UK|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242099762|journal=Geological Magazine|language=en|volume=145|issue=1|pages=105–147|doi=10.1017/S0016756807003925|bibcode=2008GeoM..145..105W|s2cid=129614690|issn=0016-7568}}</ref><ref name="Edgar">{{Cite journal |last1=Patrick |first1=Erin L. |last2=Whiteside |first2=David I. |last3=Benton |first3=Michael J. |year=2019 |title=A new crurotarsan archosaur from the Late Triassic of South Wales |url=https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/6/525/files/2019/08/2019Edgar.pdf |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=e1645147 |bibcode=2019JVPal..39E5147P |doi=10.1080/02724634.2019.1645147 |s2cid=202848499 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830221411/https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/6/525/files/2019/08/2019Edgar.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tolchard |first1=Frederick |last2=Nesbitt |first2=Sterling J. |last3=Desojo |first3=Julia B. |last4=Viglietti |first4=Pia |last5=Butler |first5=Richard J. |last6=Choiniere |first6=Jonah N. |date=2019-12-01 |title='Rauisuchian' material from the lower Elliot Formation of South Africa and Lesotho: Implications for Late Triassic biogeography and biostratigraphy |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/74379812/Tolchard_et_al._in_press.pdf |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=160 |pages=103610 |bibcode=2019JAfES.16003610T |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103610 |issn=1464-343X |s2cid=202902771}}</ref>

===Terrestrial plants===
The extinction event marks a floral turnover as well, with estimates of the percentage of Rhaetian pre-extinction plants being lost ranging from 17% to 73%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |date=1 September 2015 |title=Palynofloral patterns of terrestrial ecosystem change during the end-Triassic event – a review |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geolmag/article-abstract/153/2/223/251206/Palynofloral-patterns-of-terrestrial-ecosystem?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geological Magazine |volume=153 |issue=2 |pages=223–251 |doi=10.1017/S0016756815000552 |s2cid=131410887 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> Though spore turnovers are observed across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, the abruptness of this transition and the relative abundances of given spore types both before and after the boundary are highly variable from one region to another, pointing to a global ecological restructuring rather than a mass extinction of plants.<ref name="BarbackaEtAlPPP2"/> Overall, plants suffered minor diversity losses on a global scale as a result of the extinction, but species turnover rates were high and substantial changes occurred in terms of relative abundance and growth distribution among taxa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=Jennifer C. |last2=Popa |first2=Mihai E. |last3=Hesselbo |first3=Stephen P. |last4=Haworth |first4=Matthew |last5=Surlyk |first5=Finn |date=December 2007 |title=Macroecological responses of terrestrial vegetation to climatic and atmospheric change across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary in East Greenland |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1666/06026.1 |journal=Paleobiology |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=547–573 |doi=10.1666/06026.1 |bibcode=2007Pbio...33..547M |s2cid=129330139 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref> Evidence from Central Europe suggests that rather than a sharp, very rapid decline followed by an adaptive radiation, a more gradual turnover in both fossil plants and spores with several intermediate stages is observed over the course of the extinction event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gravendyck |first1=Julia |last2=Schobben |first2=Martin |last3=Bachelier |first3=Julien B. |last4=Kürschner |first4=Wolfram Michael |date=November 2020 |title=Macroecological patterns of the terrestrial vegetation history during the end-Triassic biotic crisis in the central European Basin: A palynological study of the Bonenburg section (NW-Germany) and its supra-regional implications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818120301776 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=194 |page=103286 |bibcode=2020GPC...19403286G |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103286 |s2cid=225521004 |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref> Extinction of plant species can in part be explained by the suspected increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of CAMP volcanic activity, which would have created [[Biology:Photoinhibition|photoinhibition]] and decreased transpiration levels among species with low photosynthetic plasticity, such as the broad leaved [[Biology:Ginkgoales|Ginkgoales]] which declined to near extinction across the Tr-J boundary.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Yiotis |first1=C. |last2=Evans-Fitz.Gerald |first2=C. |last3=McElwain |first3=J. C. |date=2017-03-11 |title=Differences in the photosynthetic plasticity of ferns and Ginkgo grown in experimentally controlled low [O2]:[CO2] atmospheres may explain their contrasting ecological fate across the Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction boundary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcx018 |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=119 |issue=8 |pages=1385–1395 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcx018 |pmid=28334286 |pmc=5604595 |issn=0305-7364}}</ref>

Ferns and other species with dissected leaves displayed greater adaptability to atmosphere conditions of the extinction event,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bos |first1=Remco |last2=Lindström |first2=Sofie |last3=van Konijnenburg-van Cittert |first3=Han |last4=Hilgen |first4=Frederik |last5=Hollaar |first5=Teuntje P. |last6=Aalpoel |first6=Hendrik |last7=van der Weijst |first7=Carolien |last8=Sanei |first8=Hamed |last9=Rudra |first9=Arka |last10=Sluijs |first10=Appy |last11=van de Schootbrugge |first11=Bas |date=1 September 2023 |title=Triassic-Jurassic vegetation response to carbon cycle perturbations and climate change |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818123001844 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=228 |pages=104211 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104211 |bibcode=2023GPC...22804211B |issn=0921-8181 |access-date=31 October 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> and in some instances were able to proliferate across the boundary and into the Jurassic.<ref name=":02" /> In the Jiyuan Basin of North China, ''Classopolis'' content increased drastically in concordance with warming, drying, wildfire activity, enrichments in isotopically light carbon, and an overall reduction in floral diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Peixin |last2=Lu |first2=Jing |last3=Yang |first3=Minfang |last4=Bond |first4=David P. G. |last5=Greene |first5=Sarah E. |last6=Liu |first6=Le |last7=Zhang |first7=Yuanfu |last8=Wang |first8=Ye |last9=Wang |first9=Ziwei |last10=Li |first10=Shan |last11=Shao |first11=Longyi |last12=Hilton |first12=Jason |date=28 March 2022 |title=Volcanically-Induced Environmental and Floral Changes Across the Triassic-Jurassic (T-J) Transition |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.853404 |issn=2296-701X |doi-access=free }}</ref> In the Sichuan Basin, relatively cool mixed forests in the late Rhaetian were replaced by hot, arid fernlands during the Triassic-Jurassic transition, which in turn later gave way to a cheirolepid-dominated flora in the Hettangian and Sinemurian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Liqin |last2=Wang |first2=Yongdong |last3=Kürschner |first3=Wolfram M. |last4=Ruhl |first4=Micha |last5=Vajda |first5=Vivi |date=15 October 2020 |title=Palaeovegetation and palaeoclimate changes across the Triassic–Jurassic transition in the Sichuan Basin, China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018220303369 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=556 |page=109891 |bibcode=2020PPP...55609891L |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109891 |s2cid=225600810 |access-date=22 May 2023}}</ref> The abundance of ferns in China that were resistant to high levels of aridity increased significantly across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, though ferns better adapted for moist, humid environments declined, indicating that plants experienced major environmental stress, albeit not an outright mass extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Ning |last2=Xu |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Li |first3=Liqin |last4=Lu |first4=Ning |last5=An |first5=Pengcheng |last6=Popa |first6=Mihai Emilian |last7=Kürschner |first7=Wolfram Michael |last8=Zhang |first8=Xingliang |last9=Wang |first9=Yongdong |date=October 2021 |title=Pattern of vegetation turnover during the end-Triassic mass extinction: Trends of fern communities from South China with global context |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=205 |page=103585 |bibcode=2021GPC...20503585Z |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103585 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In some regions, however, major floral extinctions did occur, with some researchers challenging the hypothesis of there being no significant floral mass extinction on this basis. In the [[Earth:Newark Supergroup|Newark Supergroup]] of the United States East Coast, about 60% of the diverse monosaccate and bisaccate pollen assemblages disappear at the Tr–J boundary, indicating a major extinction of plant genera. Early Jurassic [[Biology:Pollen|pollen]] assemblages are dominated by ''Corollina'', a new genus that took advantage of the empty [[Biology:Niche segregation|niches]] left by the extinction.<ref name="Fowell19942">{{Citation |last1=Fowell |first1=S. J. |title=Geologically rapid Late Triassic extinctions: Palynological evidence from the Newark Supergroup |date=1994 |work=Geological Society of America Special Papers |pages=197–206 |publisher=Geological Society of America |doi=10.1130/spe288-p197 |isbn=978-0813722887 |last2=Cornet |first2=B. |last3=Olsen |first3=P. E.}}</ref> Along the margins of the European Epicontinental Sea and the European shores of the Tethys, coastal and near-coastal mires fell victim to an abrupt sea level rise. These mires were replaced by a pioneering opportunistic flora after an abrupt sea level fall, although its heyday was short lived and it died out shortly after its rise.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |date=17 September 2021 |title=Two-phased Mass Rarity and Extinction in Land Plants During the End-Triassic Climate Crisis |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=9 |page=1079 |bibcode=2021FrEaS...9.1079L |doi=10.3389/feart.2021.780343 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the Eiberg Basin of the Northern Calcareous Alps, there was a very rapid palynomorph turnover.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonis |first1=N. R. |last2=Kürschner |first2=W. M. |last3=Krystyn |first3=L. |date=September 2009 |title=A detailed palynological study of the Triassic–Jurassic transition in key sections of the Eiberg Basin (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0034666709000633 |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=156 |issue=3–4 |pages=376–400 |bibcode=2009RPaPa.156..376B |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.04.003 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> [[Biology:Polyploidy|Polyploidy]] may have been an important factor that mitigated a conifer species' risk of going extinct.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kürschner |first1=Wolfram M. |last2=Batenburg |first2=Sietske J. |last3=Mander |first3=Luke |date=7 October 2013 |title=Aberrant Classopollis pollen reveals evidence for unreduced (2n) pollen in the conifer family Cheirolepidiaceae during the Triassic–Jurassic transition |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=280 |issue=1768 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.1708 |pmc=3757988 |pmid=23926159}}</ref>

== Possible causes ==
=== Gradual climate change ===
Gradual [[Earth:Climate variability and change|climate change]], sea-level fluctuations, or a pulse of oceanic acidification during the late [[Earth:Triassic|Triassic]] may have reached a [[Earth:Tipping point (climatology)|tipping point]]. However, the effect of such processes on Triassic animal and plant groups is not well understood.

The extinctions at the end of the Triassic were initially attributed to gradually changing environments. Within his 1958 study recognizing biological turnover between the Triassic and Jurassic, Edwin H. Colbert's proposal was that this extinction was a result of geological processes decreasing the diversity of land biomes. He considered the Triassic period to be an era of the world experiencing a variety of environments, from towering highlands to arid deserts to tropical marshes. In contrast, the Jurassic period was much more uniform both in climate and elevation due to excursions by shallow seas.<ref name=":3" />

Later studies noted a clear trend towards increased aridification towards the end of the Triassic. Although high-latitude areas like Greenland and Australia actually became wetter, most of the world experienced more drastic changes in climate as indicated by geological evidence. This evidence includes an increase in [[Chemistry:Carbonate|carbonate]] and [[Earth:Evaporite|evaporite]] deposits (which are most abundant in dry climates) and a decrease in coal deposits (which primarily form in humid environments such as [[Earth:Coal forest|coal forest]]s).<ref name="TannerLucas" /> In addition, the climate may have become much more seasonal, with long droughts interrupted by severe [[Earth:Monsoon|monsoon]]s.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=T Parrish|first=Judith|date=1993|title=Climate of the Supercontinent Pangea|url=https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/cpcp/parrish_93_sm.pdf|journal=The Journal of Geology|volume=101|issue=2|pages=215–233|bibcode=1993JG....101..215P|doi=10.1086/648217|jstor=30081148|s2cid=128757269}}</ref> The world gradually got warmer over this time as well; from the late Norian to the Rhaetian, mean annual temperatures rose by 7 to 9&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cleveland |first1=David M. |last2=Nordt |first2=Lee C. |last3=Dworkin |first3=Steven I. |last4=Atchley |first4=Stacy C. |date=1 November 2008 |title=Pedogenic carbonate isotopes as evidence for extreme climatic events preceding the Triassic-Jurassic boundary: Implications for the biotic crisis? |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/120/11-12/1408/2241/Pedogenic-carbonate-isotopes-as-evidence-for |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=120 |issue=11–12 |pages=1408–1415 |doi=10.1130/B26332.1 |bibcode=2008GSAB..120.1408C |access-date=22 May 2023}}</ref> The site of Hochalm in Austria preserves evidence of carbon cycle perturbations during the Rhaetian preceding the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, potentially having a role in the ecological crisis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rizzi |first=Małgorzata |last2=Thibault |first2=Nicolas |last3=Ullmann |first3=Clemens V. |last4=Ruhl |first4=Micha |last5=Olsen |first5=Troels K. |last6=Moreau |first6=Julien |last7=Clémence |first7=Marie-Emilie |last8=Mette |first8=Wolfgang |last9=Korte |first9=Christoph |date=1 August 2020 |title=Sedimentology and carbon isotope stratigraphy of the Rhaetian Hochalm section (Late Triassic, Austria) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818120301016 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=191 |pages=103210 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103210 |issn=0921-8181 |access-date=26 November 2023|hdl=10871/121120 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Sea level fall===
Geological formations in Europe seem to indicate a drop in sea levels in the late Triassic, and then a rise in the early Jurassic. Although falling sea levels have sometimes been considered a culprit for marine extinctions, evidence is inconclusive since many sea level drops in geological history are not correlated with increased extinctions. However, there is still some evidence that marine life was affected by secondary processes related to falling sea levels, such as decreased oxygenation (caused by sluggish circulation), or increased acidification. These processes do not seem to have been worldwide, with the sea level fall observed in European sediments believed to be not global but regional,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Calum P. |last2=Cui |first2=Xingqian |last3=Whiteside |first3=Jessica H. |last4=Olsen |first4=Paul E. |last5=Summons |first5=Roger E. |last6=Grice |first6=Kliti |date=16 November 2020 |title=Molecular and isotopic evidence reveals the end-Triassic carbon isotope excursion is not from massive exogenous light carbon |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=48 |pages=30171–30178 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1917661117 |pmid=33199627 |pmc=7720136 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11730171F |doi-access=free }}</ref> but they may explain local extinctions in European marine fauna.<ref name="TannerLucas" /> A pronounced sea level in latest Triassic records from Lake Williston in northeastern British Columbia, which was then the northeastern margin of Panthalassa, resulted in an extinction event of infaunal (sediment-dwelling) bivalves, though not epifaunal ones.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wignall |first1=Paul B. |last2=Zonneveld |first2=John-Paul |last3=Newton |first3=Robert J. |last4=Amor |first4=K. |last5=Sephton |first5=M. A. |last6=Hartley |first6=S. |date=27 September 2007 |title=The end Triassic mass extinction record of Williston Lake, British Columbia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101820700329X |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=253 |issue=3–4 |pages=385–406 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.06.020 |bibcode=2007PPP...253..385W |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref>

=== Extraterrestrial impact ===
[[File:Manicouagan-EO.JPG|thumb|The [[Earth:Manicouagan Reservoir|Manicouagan reservoir]] in Quebec, a massive crater formed by a Late Triassic impact. Radiometric dating has determined that it is about 13 million years older than the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, and thus an unlikely candidate for a mass extinction.]]
Some have hypothesized that an impact from an [[Astronomy:Asteroid|asteroid]] or [[Astronomy:Comet|comet]] caused the Triassic–Jurassic extinction,<ref name="Fowell19942"/> similar to the extraterrestrial object which was the main factor in the [[Earth:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction]] about 66 million years ago, as evidenced by the [[Earth:Chicxulub crater|Chicxulub crater]] in Mexico. However, so far no impact crater of sufficient size has been dated to precisely coincide with the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.

Nevertheless, the late Triassic did experience several impacts, including the second-largest confirmed impact in the Mesozoic. The [[Earth:Manicouagan Reservoir|Manicouagan Reservoir]] in Quebec is one of the most visible large impact craters on Earth, and at {{cvt|100|km}} in diameter it is tied with the [[Earth:Eocene|Eocene]] [[Earth:Popigai impact structure|Popigai impact structure]] in Siberia as the fourth-largest impact crater on Earth. Olsen ''et al.'' (1987) were the first scientists to link the Manicouagan crater to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction, citing its age which at the time was roughly considered to be late Triassic.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Olsen|first1=P. E.|last2=Shubin|first2=N. H.|last3=Anders|first3=M. H.|date=1987-08-28|title=New early Jurassic tetrapod assemblages constrain Triassic–Jurassic tetrapod extinction event|url=https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/olsen.et.al.87.pdf|journal=Science|language=en|volume=237|issue=4818|pages=1025–1029|doi=10.1126/science.3616622|issn=0036-8075|pmid=3616622|bibcode=1987Sci...237.1025O}}</ref> More precise [[Physics:Radiometric dating|radiometric dating]] by Hodych & Dunning (1992) has shown that the Manicouagan impact occurred about 214 million years ago, about 13 million years before the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. Therefore, it could not have been responsible for an extinction precisely at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Hodych|first1=J. P.|last2=Dunning|first2=G. R.|date=1992-01-01|title=Did the Manicouagan impact trigger end-of-Triassic mass extinction?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230892382|journal=Geology|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=51–54|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0051:dtmite>2.3.co;2|bibcode=1992Geo....20...51H|issn=0091-7613}}</ref> Nevertheless, the Manicouagan impact did have a widespread effect on the planet; a 214-million-year-old ejecta blanket of [[Chemistry:Shocked quartz|shocked quartz]] has been found in rock layers as far away as {{wipe|England}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Racki|first=Grzegorz|date=2010|title=The Alvarez impact theory of mass extinction; limits to its applicability and the "great expectations syndrome"|url=https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app57/app20110058.pdf|journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|volume=57|issue=4|pages=681–702|doi=10.4202/app.2011.0058|s2cid=54021858|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Japan. There is still a possibility that the Manicouagan impact was responsible for a small extinction midway through the late Triassic at the Carnian–Norian boundary,<ref name=":0" /> although the disputed age of this boundary (and whether an extinction actually occurred in the first place) makes it difficult to correlate the impact with extinction.<ref name=":1" /> Onoue ''et al.'' (2016) alternatively proposed that the Manicouagan impact was responsible for a marine extinction in the middle of the Norian which affected radiolarians, sponges, conodonts, and Triassic ammonoids. Thus, the Manicouagan impact may have been partially responsible for the gradual decline in the latter two groups which culminated in their extinction at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Onoue|first1=Tetsuji|last2=Sato|first2=Honami|last3=Yamashita|first3=Daisuke|last4=Ikehara|first4=Minoru|last5=Yasukawa|first5=Kazutaka|last6=Fujinaga|first6=Koichiro|last7=Kato|first7=Yasuhiro|last8=Matsuoka|first8=Atsushi|date=8 July 2016|title=Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=29609|doi=10.1038/srep29609|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4937377|pmid=27387863|bibcode=2016NatSR...629609O}}</ref> The boundary between the Adamanian and Revueltian land vertebrate faunal zones, which involved extinctions and faunal changes in tetrapods and plants, was possibly also caused by the Manicouagan impact, although discrepancies between magnetochronological and isotopic dating lead to some uncertainty.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kent|first1=Dennis V.|last2=Olsen|first2=Paul E.|last3=Lepre|first3=Christopher|last4=Rasmussen|first4=Cornelia|last5=Mundil|first5=Roland|last6=Gehrels|first6=George E.|last7=Giesler|first7=Dominique|last8=Irmis|first8=Randall B.|last9=Geissman|first9=John W.|last10=Parker|first10=William G.|date=16 October 2019|title=Magnetochronology of the entire Chinle Formation (Norian age) in a scientific drill core from Petrified Forest National Park (Arizona, USA) and implications for regional and global correlations in the Late Triassic|journal=[[Chemistry:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems]]|volume=20|issue=11|language=en|pages=4654–4664|doi=10.1029/2019GC008474|bibcode=2019GGG....20.4654K|issn=1525-2027|hdl=10150/636323|s2cid=207980627|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Other Triassic craters are closer to the Triassic–Jurassic boundary but also much smaller than the Manicouagan reservoir. The eroded [[Earth:Rochechouart impact structure|Rochechouart impact structure]] in {{wipe|France}} has most recently been dated to {{val|201|2}} million years ago,<ref name="Schmieder">{{cite journal
|last = Schmieder | first = M.  |author2=Buchner, E. |author3=Schwarz, W. H. |author4=Trieloff, M. |author5=Lambert, P. 
|title = A Rhaetian <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar age for the Rochechouart impact structure (France) and implications for the latest Triassic sedimentary record
|journal = Meteoritics & Planetary Science | volume = 45| issue = 8 | pages = 1225–1242 
| date = 2010-10-05 
|doi = 10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01070.x
|bibcode = 2010M&PS...45.1225S | s2cid = 129154084 |doi-access = free }}</ref> but at {{cvt|25|km}} across (possibly up to {{cvt|50|km|-1}} across originally), it appears to be too small to have affected the ecosystem,<ref name="RSmith">{{cite journal
|last = Smith | first = Roff  |title = Dark days of the Triassic: Lost world
|journal = Nature | volume =  479| issue = 7373 | pages = 287–289
|date = 2011-11-16 
|doi = 10.1038/479287a
|bibcode = 2011Natur.479..287S | pmid=22094671|doi-access = free}}</ref> although it has been speculated to have played a role in an alleged much smaller extinction event at the Norian-Rhaetian boundary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sato |first=Honami |last2=Ishikawa |first2=Akira |last3=Onoue |first3=Tetsuji |last4=Tomimatsu |first4=Yuki |last5=Rigo |first5=Manuel |date=30 December 2021 |title=Sedimentary record of Upper Triassic impact in the Lagonegro Basin, southern Italy: Insights from highly siderophile elements and Re-Os isotope stratigraphy across the Norian/Rhaetian boundary |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254121004496 |journal=[[Chemistry:Chemical Geology|Chemical Geology]] |volume=586 |pages=120506 |doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120506 |issn=0009-2541 |access-date=26 November 2023}}</ref> The {{cvt|40|km}} wide [[Earth:Saint Martin crater|Saint Martin crater]] in Manitoba has been proposed as a candidate for a possible TJME-causing impact, but its has since been dated to be Carnian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmieder |first1=Martin |last2=Jourdan |first2=Fred |last3=Tohver |first3=Eric |last4=Cloutis |first4=Edward A. |date=15 November 2014 |title=40Ar/39Ar age of the Lake Saint Martin impact structure (Canada) – Unchaining the Late Triassic terrestrial impact craters |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X14005445 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=406 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.08.037 |bibcode=2014E&PSL.406...37S |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> Other putative or confirmed Triassic craters include the {{cvt|80|km}} wide [[Earth:Puchezh-Katunki crater|Puchezh-Katunki crater]] in Eastern {{wipe|Russia}} (though it may be [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] in age), the {{cvt|15|km|0}} wide [[Earth:Obolon' crater|Obolon' crater]] in {{wipe|Ukraine}}, and the {{cvt|9|km|0}} wide [[Earth:Red Wing crater|Red Wing Creek structure]] in North Dakota. Spray ''et al.'' (1998) noted an interesting phenomenon, that being how the Manicouagan, Rochechouart, and Saint Martin craters all seem to be at the same latitude, and that the Obolon' and Red Wing craters form parallel arcs with the Rochechouart and Saint Martin craters, respectively. Spray and his colleagues hypothesized that the Triassic experienced a "multiple impact event", a large fragmented asteroid or comet which broke up and impacted the earth in several places at the same time.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Spray|first1=John G.|last2=Kelley|first2=Simon P.|last3=Rowley|first3=David B.|date=12 March 1998|title=Evidence for a late Triassic multiple impact event on Earth|url=https://geosci.uchicago.edu/~rowley/Rowley/Publications_files/Nature%201998%20Spray.pdf|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=392|issue=6672|pages=171–173|doi=10.1038/32397|bibcode=1998Natur.392..171S|s2cid=4413688|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Such an impact has been observed in the present day, when [[Astronomy:Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9|Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] broke up and hit Jupiter in 1992. However, the "multiple impact event" hypothesis for Triassic impact craters has not been well-supported; Kent (1998) noted that the Manicouagan and Rochechouart craters were formed in eras of different magnetic polarity,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Dennis V. |date=10 September 1998 |title=Impacts on Earth in the Late Triassic |journal=Nature |volume=395 |issue=6698 |pages=126 |doi=10.1038/25874 |bibcode=1998Natur.395..126K |s2cid=4303109 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and radiometric dating of the individual craters has shown that the impacts occurred millions of years apart.<ref name="TannerLucas" />

[[Chemistry:Shocked quartz|Shocked quartz]] has been found in Rhaetian deposits from the Northern Apennines of Italy, providing possible evidence of an end-Triassic extraterrestrial impact.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bice |first1=D. M. |last2=Newton |first2=C. R. |last3=McCauley |first3=S. |last4=Reinerts |first4=P. W. |last5=McRoberts |first5=C. A. |date=24 January 1992 |title=Shocked Quartz at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary in Italy |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.255.5043.443 |journal=Science |volume=255 |issue=5043 |pages=443–446 |doi=10.1126/science.255.5043.443 |pmid=17842896 |bibcode=1992Sci...255..443B |s2cid=28314974 |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> Certain trace metals indicative of a bolide impact have been found in the late Rhaetian, though not at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary itself; the discoverers of these trace metal anomalies purport that such a bolide impact could only have been an indirect cause of the TJME.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hori |first1=Rie S. |last2=Fujiki |first2=Toru |last3=Inoue |first3=Eriko |last4=Kimura |first4=Jun-Ichi |date=9 February 2007 |title=Platinum group element anomalies and bioevents in the Triassic–Jurassic deep-sea sediments of Panthalassa |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018206004615 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=244 |issue=1–4 |pages=391–406 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.038 |bibcode=2007PPP...244..391H |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> The discovery of seismites two to four metres thick coeval with the carbon isotope fluctuations associated with the TJME has been interpreted as evidence of a possible bolide impact, although no definitive link between these seismites and any impact event has been found.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simms |first1=Michael J. |date=1 June 2003 |title= Uniquely extensive seismite from the latest Triassic of the United Kingdom: Evidence for bolide impact? |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/31/6/557/192639/Uniquely-extensive-seismite-from-the-latest?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geology |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=557{{ndash}}560 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0557:UESFTL>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2003Geo....31..557S |access-date=31 May 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602214717/https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/31/6/557/192639/uniquely-extensive-seismite-from-the-latest?redirectedFrom=fulltext |archive-date=2018-06-02}}</ref>

On the other hand, the dissimilarity between the isotopic perturbations characterising the TJME and those characterising the end-Cretaceous mass extinction makes an extraterrestrial impact highly unlikely to have been the cause of the TJME, according to many researchers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Garrison |first2=Geoffrey H. |last3=Haggart |first3=James W. |last4=Kring |first4=David A. |last5=Beattie |first5=Michael J. |date=15 August 2004 |title=Isotopic evidence bearing on Late Triassic extinction events, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, and implications for the duration and cause of the Triassic/Jurassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X04002857 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=224 |issue=3–4 |pages=589–600 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.034 |bibcode=2004E&PSL.224..589W |access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> Various trace metal ratios, including palladium/iridium, platinum/iridium, and platinum/rhodium, in rocks deposited during the TJME have numerical values very different from what would be expected in an extraterrestrial impact scenario, providing further evidence against this hypothesis.<ref name="PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP">{{cite journal |last1=Tegner |first1=Christian |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=McDonald |first3=Iain |last4=Youbi |first4=Nasrrddine |last5=Lindström |first5=Sofie |date=26 February 2020 |title=Platinum-group elements link the end-Triassic mass extinction and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=3482 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-60483-8 |pmid=32103087 |pmc=7044291 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.3482T }}</ref>

=== Central Atlantic Magmatic Province ===
[[File:CAMP Magmatism in the context of Pangea.jpg|left|thumb|218x218px|Maximum extent of [[Earth:Central Atlantic magmatic province|CAMP]] volcanism at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary]]
The leading and best evidenced explanation for the TJME is massive volcanic eruptions, specifically from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=Richard E. |last2=Youbi |first2=Nasrrddine |date=15 July 2017 |title=How Large Igneous Provinces affect global climate, sometimes cause mass extinctions, and represent natural markers in the geological record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217302857 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=478 |pages=30–52 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.03.014 |bibcode=2017PPP...478...30E |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="DeenenEtAl2010">{{cite journal |last1=Deenen |first1=M. H. L. |last2=Ruhl |first2=M. |last3=Bonis |first3=N. R. |last4=Krijgsman |first4=W. |last5=Kuerschner |first5=W. M. |last6=Reitsma |first6=M. |last7=Van Bergen |first7=M. J. |date=1 March 2010 |title=A new chronology for the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X1000021X |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=291 |issue=1–4 |pages=113–125 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.003 |bibcode=2010E&PSL.291..113D |access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whalen |first1=Lisa |last2=Gazel |first2=Esteban |last3=Vidito |first3=Christopher |last4=Puffer |first4=John |last5=Bizinis |first5=Michael |last6=Henika |first6=William |last7=Caddick |first7=Mark J. |date=3 September 2015 |title=Supercontinental inheritance and its influence on supercontinental breakup: The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province and the breakup of Pangea |journal=[[Earth:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology|Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology]] |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=3532–3554 |doi=10.1002/2015GC005885 |bibcode=2015GGG....16.3532W |s2cid=129223849 |doi-access=free |hdl=10919/71423 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> the largest known [[Earth:Large igneous province|large igneous province]] by area, and one of the most voluminous,<ref>{{cite book |last=McHone |first=J. Gregory |editor-last1=Hames |editor-first1=W. |editor-last2=Mchone |editor-first2=J. G. |editor-last3=Renne |editor-first3=P. |editor-last4=Ruppel |editor-first4=C. |date=1 January 2003 |title=The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea, Volume 136 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/136GM013 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |page=241 |doi=10.1029/136GM013 |isbn=9781118668771}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marzen |first1=R. E. |last2=Shillington |first2=D. J. |last3=Lizarralde |first3=D. |last4=Knapp |first4=J. H. |last5=Heffner |first5=D. M. |last6=Davis |first6=J. K. |last7=Harder |first7=S. H. |date=7 July 2020 |title=Limited and localized magmatism in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue= 1|page=3397 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17193-6 |pmid=32636386 |pmc=7341742 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3397M }}</ref> with its flood basalts extending across parts of southwestern Europe,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Youbi |first1=Nasrrddine |last2=Tavares Martins |first2=Línia |last3=Munhá |first3=José Manuel |last4=Ibouh |first4=Hassan |last5=Madeira |first5=José |last6=Aït Chayeb |first6=El Houssaine |last7=El Boukhari |first7=Abdelmajid |editor-last1=Hames |editor-first1=W. |editor-last2=McHone |editor-first2=J. G. |editor-last3=Renne |editor-first3=Paul R. |editor-last4=Ruppel |editor-first4=C. |date=1 January 2003 |title=The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1029/GM136 |chapter=The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic Volcanism of Morocco and Portugal in the Framework of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: An Overview |chapter-url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/136GM010 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |pages=179–207 |doi=10.1029/136GM010 |isbn=9781118668771}}</ref><ref name="ChrystèleEtAl2007" /> northwestern Africa,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marzoli |first1=Andrea |last2=Bertrand |first2=Hervé |last3=Youbi |first3=Nasrrddine |last4=Callegaro |first4=Sara |last5=Merle |first5=Renaud |last6=Reisberg |first6=Laurie |last7=Chiaradia |first7=Massimo |last8=Brownlee |first8=Sarah I. |last9=Jourdan |first9=Fred |last10=Zanetti |first10=Alberto |last11=Davies |first11=Joshua H. F. L. |last12=Cuppone |first12=Tiberio |last13=Mahmoudi |first13=Abdelkader |last14=Medina |first14=Fida |last15=Renne |first15=Paul R. |last16=Bellieni |first16=Giuliano |last17=Crivellari |first17=Stefano |last18=El Hachimi |first18=Hind |last19=Bensalah |first19=Mohamed Khalil |last20=Meyzen |first20=Christine M. |last21=Tegner |first21=Christian |date=19 April 2019 |title=The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) in Morocco |url=https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article/60/5/945/5475177 |journal=Journal of Petrology |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=945–996 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egz021 |access-date=28 May 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> northeastern South America,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rezende |first=Gabriel L. |last2=Martins |first2=Cristiano Mendel |last3=Nogueira |first3=Afonso C. R. |last4=Domingos |first4=Fabio Garcia |last5=Ribeiro-Filho |first5=Nelson |date=1 June 2021 |title=Evidence for the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP) in Precambrian and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins of the southern Amazonian Craton, Brazil |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895981121000638 |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |volume=108 |pages=103216 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103216 |issn=0895-9811 |access-date=12 January 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rezende |first1=Gabriel L. |last2=Martins |first2=Cristiano Mendel |last3=Nogueira |first3=Afonso C. R. |last4=Domingos |first4=Fabio Garcia |last5=Ribeiro-Filho |first5=Nelson |date=June 2021 |title=Evidence for the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP) in Precambrian and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins of the southern Amazonian Craton, Brazil |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895981121000638#! |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |volume=108 |page=103216 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103216 |bibcode=2021JSAES.10803216R |s2cid=233565961 |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Marzoli |first1=Andrea |last2=Callegaro |first2=Sara |last3=Dal Corso |first3=Jacopo |last4=Davies |first4=Joshua H. F. L. |last5=Chiaradia |first5=Massimo |last6=Youbi |first6=Nasrrddine |last7=Bertrand |first7=Hervé |last8=Reisberg |first8=Laurie |last9=Merle |first9=Renaud |last10=Jourdan |first10=Fred |series=Topics in Geobiology |editor-last1=Tanner |editor-first1=Lawrence H. |date=16 November 2017 |volume=46 |title=The Late Triassic World: Earth in a Time of Transition |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5 |chapter=The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP): A Review |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5_4 |publisher=Springer Cham |pages=91–125 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5_4 |isbn=978-3-319-68009-5}}</ref> and southeastern North America.<ref name="HamesRenneRuppel2000" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marzen |first1=R. E. |last2=Shillington |first2=D. J. |last3=Lizarralde |first3=D. |last4=Knapp |first4=J. H. |last5=Heffner |first5=D. M. |last6=Davis |first6=J. K. |last7=Harder |first7=S. H. |date=7 July 2020 |title=Limited and localized magmatism in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=3397 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17193-6 |pmid=32636386 |pmc=7341742 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3397M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=David S. |last2=Kent |first2=Dennis V. |last3=Olsen |first3=Paul E. |date=4 January 2010 |title=Potential on-shore and off-shore reservoirs for CO2 sequestration in Central Atlantic magmatic province basalts |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=1327–1332 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0913721107 |pmid=20080705 |pmc=2824362 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.1327G |doi-access=free }}</ref> The coincidence and synchrony of CAMP activity and the TJME is indicated by uranium-lead dating,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaltegger |first1=Urs |last2=Guex |first2=Jean |last3=Bartolini |first3=Annachiara |last4=Schoene |first4=Blair |last5=Ovtcharova |first5=Maria |date=1 March 2008 |title=Precise U–Pb age constraints for end-Triassic mass extinction, its correlation to volcanism and Hettangian post-extinction recovery |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X07007777 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=166 |issue=1–2 |pages=266–275 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.031 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.267..266S |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="blackburn2013">{{cite journal|last1=Blackburn|first1=Terrence J.|last2=Olsen|first2=Paul E.|last3=Bowring|first3=Samuel A.|last4=McLean|first4=Noah M.|last5=Kent|first5=Dennis V|last6=Puffer|first6=John|last7=McHone|first7=Greg|last8=Rasbury|first8=Troy|last9=Et-Touhami7|first9=Mohammed|year=2013|title=Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Links the End-Triassic Extinction with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province|url=http://www.personal.kent.edu/~alisonjs/paleo/Blackburn_2013Tr-JExtinctionChronology.pdf|journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6135|pages=941–945|bibcode=2013Sci...340..941B|citeseerx=10.1.1.1019.4042|doi=10.1126/science.1234204|pmid=23519213|s2cid=15895416}}</ref> argon-argon dating,<ref name="HamesRenneRuppel2000">{{cite journal |last1=Hames |first1=W. E. |last2=Renne |first2=Paul R. |last3=Ruppel |first3=C. |date=1 September 2000 |title=New evidence for geologically instantaneous emplacement of earliest Jurassic Central Atlantic magmatic province basalts on the North American margin |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/28/9/859/188925/New-evidence-for-geologically-instantaneous |journal=Geology |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=859–862 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<859:NEFGIE>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2000Geo....28..859H |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="ChrystèleEtAl2007">{{cite journal |last1=Verati |first1=Chrystèle |last2=Rapaille |first2=Cédric |last3=Féraud |first3=Gilbert |last4=Marzoli |first4=Andrea |last5=Bertrand |first5=Hervé |last6=Youbi |first6=Nasrrddine |date=9 February 2007 |title=40Ar/39Ar ages and duration of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province volcanism in Morocco and Portugal and its relation to the Triassic–Jurassic boundary |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018206004561 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=244 |issue=1–4 |pages=308–325 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.033 |bibcode=2007PPP...244..308V |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> and [[Earth:Paleomagnetism|palaeomagnetism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knight |first1=K. B. |last2=Nomade |first2=S. |last3=Renne |first3=Paul R. |last4=Marzoli |first4=Andrea |last5=Bertrand |first5=Hervé |last6=Youbi |first6=Nasrrddine |date=30 November 2004 |title=The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary: paleomagnetic and 40Ar/39Ar evidence from Morocco for brief, episodic volcanism |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X04005667 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=228 |issue=1–2 |pages=143–160 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2004.09.022 |bibcode=2004E&PSL.228..143K |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> The isotopic composition of fossil soils and marine sediments near the boundary between the [[Earth:Late Triassic|Late Triassic]] and Early Jurassic has been tied to a large negative [[Biology:Δ13C|δ<sup>13</sup>C]] excursion.<ref name="HuFuLinSongWangTian2019">{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Fangzhi |last2=Fu |first2=Xiugen |last3=Lin |first3=Li |last4=Song |first4=Chunyan |last5=Wang |first5=Zhongwei |last6=Tian |first6=Kangzhi |date=January 2020 |title=Marine Late Triassic-Jurassic carbon-isotope excursion and biological extinction records: New evidence from the Qiangtang Basin, eastern Tethys |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818119305788 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=185 |page=103093 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.103093 |bibcode=2020GPC...18503093H |s2cid=213355203 |access-date=7 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pálfy |first1=József |last2=Demény |first2=Attila |last3=Haas |first3=János |last4=Hetényi |first4=Magdolna |last5=Orchard |first5=Michael J. |last6=Veto |first6=István |date=1 November 2001 |title=Carbon isotope anomaly and other geochemical changes at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary from a marine section in Hungary |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/29/11/1047/197882/Carbon-isotope-anomaly-and-other-geochemical |journal=Geology |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1047–1050 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<1047:CIAAOG>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2001Geo....29.1047P |access-date=2 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hesselbo |first1=Stephen P. |last2=Korte |first2=Christophe |last3=Ullmann |first3=Clemens V. |last4=Ebbesen |first4=Anders L. |date=April 2020 |title=Carbon and oxygen isotope records from the southern Eurasian Seaway following the Triassic-Jurassic boundary: Parallel long-term enhanced carbon burial and seawater warming |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825219306592 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=203 |page=103131 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103131 |bibcode=2020ESRv..20303131H |hdl=10871/40906 |s2cid=213462318 |access-date=28 May 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Carbon isotopes of hydrocarbons ([[Chemistry:Alkane|''n''-alkanes]]) derived from leaf wax and [[Biology:Lignin|lignin]], and [[Earth:Total organic carbon|total organic carbon]] from two sections of lake sediments interbedded with the CAMP in eastern North America have shown carbon isotope excursions similar to those found in the mostly marine St. Audrie's Bay section, Somerset, England; the correlation suggests that the end-Triassic extinction event began at the same time in marine and terrestrial environments, slightly before the oldest basalts in eastern North America but simultaneous with the eruption of the oldest flows in Morocco (Also suggested by Deenen et al., 2010), with both a critical {{CO2}} greenhouse and a marine biocalcification crisis.<ref name="WhitesideEtAl2010" /> Contemporaneous CAMP eruptions, mass extinction, and the carbon isotopic excursions are shown in the same places, making the case for a volcanic cause of a mass extinction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jeram |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Simms |first2=Michael J. |last3=Hesselbo |first3=Stephen P. |last4=Raine |first4=Robert |date=December 2021 |title=Carbon isotopes, ammonites and earthquakes: Key Triassic-Jurassic boundary events in the coastal sections of south-east County Antrim, Northern Ireland, UK |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787821000948 |journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association |volume=132 |issue=6 |pages=702–725 |doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2021.10.004 |bibcode=2021PrGA..132..702J |s2cid=244698669 |issn=0016-7878 |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hesselbo |first1=Stephen P. |last2=Robinson |first2=Stuart A. |last3=Surlyk |first3=Finn |last4=Piasecki |first4=Stefan |date=1 March 2002 |title=Terrestrial and marine extinction at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary synchronized with major carbon-cycle perturbation: A link to initiation of massive volcanism? |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/30/3/251/192348/Terrestrial-and-marine-extinction-at-the-Triassic |journal=Geology |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=251–254 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0251:TAMEAT>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2002Geo....30..251H |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |last2=Van de Schootbrugge |first2=Bas |last3=Hansen |first3=Katrine H. |last4=Pedersen |first4=Gunver Krarup |last5=Alsen |first5=Peter |last6=Thibault |first6=Nicolas |last7=Dybkjær |first7=Karen |last8=Bjerrum |first8=Christian J. |last9=Nielsen |first9=Lars Henrik |date=15 July 2017 |title=A new correlation of Triassic–Jurassic boundary successions in NW Europe, Nevada and Peru, and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: A time-line for the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018216308926 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=478 |pages=80–102 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.12.025 |bibcode=2017PPP...478...80L |hdl=1874/351998 |s2cid=133353132 |access-date=27 August 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The observed negative carbon isotope excursion is lower in some sites that correspond to what was then eastern Panthalassa because of the extreme aridity of western Pangaea limiting weathering and erosion there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruhl |first1=Micha |last2=Hesselbo |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Al-Suwaidi |first3=A. |last4=Jenkyns |first4=Hugh C. |last5=Damborenea |first5=S. E. |last6=Manceñido |first6=M. O. |last7=Storm |first7=M. |last8=Mather |first8=Tamsin A. |last9=Riccardi |first9=A. C. |date=September 2020 |title=On the onset of Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) volcanism and environmental and carbon-cycle change at the Triassic–Jurassic transition (Neuquén Basin, Argentina) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825220302750 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=208 |page=103229 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103229 |bibcode=2020ESRv..20803229R |hdl=10871/121712 |s2cid=219913748 |access-date=17 April 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The negative CIE associated with CAMP volcanism lasted for approximately 20,000 to 40,000 years, or about one or two of Earth's axial precession cycles,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruhl |first1=Micha |last2=Deenen |first2=M. H. L. |last3=Abels |first3=H. A. |last4=Bonis |first4=N. R. |last5=Krijgsman |first5=W. |last6=Kürschner |first6=W. M. |date=15 June 2010 |title=Astronomical constraints on the duration of the early Jurassic Hettangian stage and recovery rates following the end-Triassic mass extinction (St Audrie's Bay/East Quantoxhead, UK) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X10002426 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=295 |issue=1–2 |pages=262–276 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.04.008 |bibcode=2010E&PSL.295..262R |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> although the carbon cycle was so disrupted that it did not stabilise until the Sinemurian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Payne |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Tomasovych |first3=A. |last4=Pross |first4=J. |last5=Fiebig |first5=J. |last6=Benbrahim |first6=M. |last7=Föllmi |first7=Karl B. |last8=Quan |first8=T. M. |date=17 April 2008 |title=Carbon cycle perturbation and stabilization in the wake of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary mass-extinction event |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2007GC001914 |journal=[[Chemistry:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems]] |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1029/2007GC001914 |bibcode=2008GGG.....9.4028V |s2cid=56000418 |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> Mercury anomalies from deposits in various parts of the world have further bolstered the volcanic cause hypothesis,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Percival |first1=Lawrence M. E. |last2=Ruhl |first2=Micha |last3=Jenkyns |first3=Hugh C. |last4=Mather |first4=Tamsin A. |last5=Whiteside |first5=Jessica H. |date=19 June 2017 |title=Mercury evidence for pulsed volcanism during the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=30 |pages=7929–7934 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1705378114 |pmid=28630294 |pmc=5544315 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.7929P |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Jun |last2=Yin |first2=Runsheng |last3=Zhang |first3=Shuang |last4=Algeo |first4=Thomas J. |last5=Bottjer |first5=David J. |last6=Yu |first6=Jianxin |last7=Xu |first7=Guozhen |last8=Penman |first8=Donald |last9=Wang |first9=Yongdong |last10=Li |first10=Liqin |last11=Shi |first11=Xiao |last12=Planavsky |first12=Noah J. |last13=Feng |first13=Qinglai |last14=Xie |first14=Shucheng |date=13 January 2022 |title=Intensified continental chemical weathering and carbon-cycle perturbations linked to volcanism during the Triassic–Jurassic transition |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=299 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-27965-x |pmid=35027546 |pmc=8758789 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13..299S |s2cid=256689306 }}</ref> as have anomalies from various platinum-group elements.<ref name="PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP" /> Nickel enrichments are also observed at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary coevally with light carbon enrichments, providing yet more evidence of massive volcanism.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Viðarsdóttir |first=Halla Margrét |date=2020 |title=Assessing the biodiversity crisis within the Triassic - Jurassic boundary interval using redox sensitive trace metals and stable carbon isotope geochemistry |url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=9026651&fileOId=9026652 |type=MSc |chapter=6 |publisher=[[Organization:Lund University|Lund University]] |access-date=27 August 2023}}</ref>

Some scientists initially rejected the volcanic eruption theory, because the [[Earth:Newark Supergroup|Newark Supergroup]], a section of rock in eastern North America that records the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, contains no ash-fall horizons and its oldest [[Earth:Basalt|basalt]] flows were estimated to lie around 10&nbsp;m above the transition zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fowell |first1=S. J. |last2=Olsen |first2=P. E. |date=May 1995 |title=Time calibration of Triassic/Jurassic microfloral turnover, eastern North America—Reply |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=245 |issue=1–2 |pages=96–99 |doi=10.1016/0040-1951(94)00256-9 |bibcode=1995Tectp.245...96F |issn=0040-1951|citeseerx=10.1.1.383.7663}}</ref> However, updated dating protocol and wider sampling has confirmed that the CAMP eruptions started in Morocco only a few thousand years before the extinction,<ref name="blackburn2013" /> preceding their onset in Nova Scotia and New Jersey,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panfili |first1=Giulia |last2=Cirilli |first2=Simonetta |last3=Dal Corso |first3=Jacopo |last4=Bertrand |first4=Hervé |last5=Medina |first5=Fida |last6=Youbi |first6=Nasrrdine |last7=Marzoli |first7=Andrea |date=January 2019 |title=New biostratigraphic constraints show rapid emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) during the end-Triassic mass extinction interval |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818118303199 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=172 |pages=60–68 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.09.009 |bibcode=2019GPC...172...60P |s2cid=135154965 |access-date=29 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yager |first1=Joyce A. |last2=West |first2=A. Joshua |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Berelson |first4=William M. |last5=Rollins |first5=Nick E. |last6=Rosas |first6=Silvia |last7=Bottjer |first7=David M. |date=1 September 2017 |title=Duration of and decoupling between carbon isotope excursions during the end-Triassic mass extinction and Central Atlantic Magmatic Province emplacement |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X17302972 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=473 |pages=227–236 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2017.05.031 |bibcode=2017E&PSL.473..227Y |access-date=29 July 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cirilli |first1=Simonetta |last2=Marzoli |first2=A. |last3=Tanner |first3=L. |last4=Bertrand |first4=Hervé |last5=Buratti |first5=N. |last6=Jourdan |first6=F. |last7=Bellieni |first7=G. |last8=Kontak |first8=D. |last9=Renne |first9=P. R. |date=15 September 2009 |title=Latest Triassic onset of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) volcanism in the Fundy Basin (Nova Scotia): New stratigraphic constraints |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X09004324 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=286 |issue=3–4 |pages=514–525 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.021 |bibcode=2009E&PSL.286..514C |hdl=20.500.11937/17126 |access-date=29 July 2023|hdl-access=free }}</ref> and that they continued in several more pulses for the next 600,000 years.<ref name="blackburn2013" /> Volcanic global warming has also been criticised as an explanation because some estimates have found that the amount of carbon dioxide emitted was only around 250 ppm, not enough to generate a mass extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |first=L. H. |last=Tanner |title=Stability of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary |journal=Nature |volume=411 |date=7 June 2001 |pages=675–677 |doi=10.1038/35079548 |pmid=11395765 |issue=6838 |author2=J. F. Hubert |author3=B. P. Coffey |display-authors=2 |last4=McInerney |first4=Dennis P. |s2cid=4418003}}</ref> In addition, at some sites, changes in carbon isotope ratios have been attributed to [[Earth:Diagenesis|diagenesis]] and not any primary environmental changes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morante |first1=R. |last2=Hallam |first2=Anthony |date=1 May 1996 |title=Organic carbon isotopic record across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in Austria and its bearing on the cause of the mass extinction |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/24/5/391/198779/Organic-carbon-isotopic-record-across-the-Triassic |journal=Geology |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=391–394 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0391:OCIRAT>2.3.CO;2 |bibcode=1996Geo....24..391M |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref>

==== Global warming ====
The flood basalts of the CAMP released gigantic quantities of [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Theodore |last2=Renne |first2=Paul R. |last3=Keller |first3=C. Brenhin |date=12 September 2022 |title=Continental flood basalts drive Phanerozoic extinctions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=119 |issue=38 |pages=e2120441119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120441119 |pmid=36095185 |pmc=9499591 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920441G }}</ref> a potent greenhouse gas causing intense global warming.<ref name="AnthropogenicScaleDegassing">{{cite journal |last1=Capriolo |first1=Manfredo |last2=Mills |first2=Benjamin J. W. |last3=Newton |first3=Robert J. |last4=Corso |first4=Jacobo Dal |last5=Dunhill |first5=Alexander M. |last6=Wignall |first6=Paul B. |last7=Marzoli |first7=Andrea |date=February 2022 |title=Anthropogenic-scale CO2 degassing from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a driver of the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=209 |page=103731 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103731 |bibcode=2022GPC...20903731C |s2cid=245530815 |doi-access=free |hdl=10852/91551 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Before the end-Triassic extinction, carbon dioxide levels were around 1,000 ppm as measured by the stomatal index of ''Lepidopteris ottonis'', but this quantity jumped to 1,300 ppm at the onset of the extinction event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slodownik |first1=Miriam |last2=Vajda |first2=Vivi |last3=Steinthorsdottir |first3=Margret |date=15 February 2021 |title=Fossil seed fern Lepidopteris ottonis from Sweden records increasing CO2 concentration during the end-Triassic extinction event |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018220306052 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=564 |page=110157 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110157 |bibcode=2021PPP...56410157S |s2cid=230527791 |access-date=11 March 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> During the TJME, carbon dioxide concentrations increased fourfold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huynh |first1=Tran T. |last2=Poulsen |first2=Christopher J. |date=25 February 2005 |title=Rising atmospheric CO2 as a possible trigger for the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018204006285 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=217 |issue=3–4 |pages=223–242 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.12.004 |bibcode=2005PPP...217..223H |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> The record of CAMP degassing shows several distinct pulses of carbon dioxide immediately following each major pulse of magmatism, at least two of which amount to a doubling of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Morgan F. |last2=Wright |first2=James D. |last3=Kent |first3=Dennis V. |date=18 March 2011 |title=Atmospheric Pco2 Perturbations Associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6023 |pages=1404–1409 |doi=10.1126/science.1199011 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=21330490 |bibcode=2011Sci...331.1404S |s2cid=206530492}}</ref> Carbon dioxide was emitted quickly and in enormous quantities compared to other periods of Earth's history,  rate of carbon dioxide emissions was one of the most meteoric rises in carbon dioxide levels in Earth's entire history.<ref name="VolumeRateCO2">{{cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Qiang |last2=Jourdan |first2=Fred |last3=Olierook |first3=Hugo K. H. |last4=Merle |first4=Renaud E. |last5=Bourdet |first5=Julien |last6=Fougerouse |first6=Denis |last7=Godel |first7=Belinda |last8=Walker |first8=Alex T. |date=25 July 2022 |title=Volume and rate of volcanic CO2 emissions governed the severity of past environmental crises |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=119 |issue=31 |pages=e2202039119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2202039119 |pmid=35878029 |pmc=9351498 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11902039J |s2cid=251067948 }}</ref> It is estimated that a single volcanic pulse from the large igneous province would have emitted an amount of carbon dioxide roughly equivalent to projected anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions for the 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capriolo |first1=Manfredo |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Aradi |first3=László E. |last4=Callegaro |first4=Sara |last5=Corso |first5=Jacopo Dal |last6=Newton |first6=Robert J. |last7=Mills |first7=Benjamin J. W. |last8=Wignall |first8=Paul B. |last9=Bartoli |first9=Omar |last10=Baker |first10=Don R. |last11=Youbi |first11=Nasrrddine |last12=Remusat |first12=Laurent |last13=Spiess |first13=Richard |last14=Szabó |first14=Csaba |date=7 April 2020 |title=Deep CO2 in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=1670 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15325-6 |pmid=32265448 |pmc=7138847 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.1670C |s2cid=215404768 }}</ref> In addition, the flood basalts intruded through sediments that were rich in organic matter and combusted it,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lindström |first=Sofie |last2=Callegaro |first2=Sara |last3=Davies |first3=Joshua |last4=Tegner |first4=Christian |last5=van de Schootbrugge |first5=Bas |last6=Pedersen |first6=Gunver K. |last7=Youbi |first7=Nasrrddine |last8=Sanei |first8=Hamed |last9=Marzoli |first9=Andrea |date=1 January 2021 |title=Tracing volcanic emissions from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province in the sedimentary record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825220304906 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=212 |pages=103444 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103444 |issn=0012-8252 |access-date=12 January 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Jun |last2=Yin |first2=Runsheng |last3=Algeo |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Svensen |first4=Henrik Hovland |last5=Schoepfer |first5=Shane D. |date=9 March 2022 |title=Mercury evidence for combustion of organic-rich sediments during the end-Triassic crisis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359108712 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=1307 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28891-8 |pmid=35264554 |pmc=8907283 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1307S |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Quan |first2=T. M. |last3=Lindström |first3=S. |last4=Püttmann |first4=W. |last5=Heunisch |first5=C. |last6=Pross |first6=J. |last7=Fiebig |first7=J. |last8=Petschik |first8=R. |last9=Röhling |first9=H.-G. |last10=Richoz |first10=S. |last11=Rosenthal |first11=Y. |last12=Falkowski |first12=P. G. |date=13 July 2009 |title=Floral changes across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary linked to flood basalt volcanism |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo577 |journal=[[Earth:Nature Geoscience|Nature Geoscience]] |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=589–594 |doi=10.1038/ngeo577 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2..589V |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref> which led to the degassing of [[Earth:Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] that further enhanced volcanic warming of the climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=J. H. F. L. |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Bertrand |first3=H. |last4=Youbi |first4=Nasrrddine |last5=Ernesto |first5=M. |last6=Schaltegger |first6=U. |date=31 May 2017 |title=End-Triassic mass extinction started by intrusive CAMP activity |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |page=15596 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15596 |pmid=28561025 |pmc=5460029 |bibcode=2017NatCo...815596D |s2cid=13323882 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Capriolo |first=Manfredo |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Aradi |first3=László E. |last4=Ackerson |first4=Michael R. |last5=Bartoli |first5=Omar |last6=Callegaro |first6=Sara |last7=Dal Corso |first7=Jacopo |last8=Ernesto |first8=Marcia |last9=Gouvêa Vasconcellos |first9=Eleonora M. |last10=De Min |first10=Angelo |last11=Newton |first11=Robert J. |last12=Szabó |first12=Csaba |date=20 September 2021 |title=Massive methane fluxing from magma–sediment interaction in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25510-w |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=5534 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25510-w |issn=2041-1723 |access-date=12 January 2024|hdl=11368/2996003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Thermogenic carbon release through such contact metamorphism of carbon-rich deposits has been found to be a sensible hypothesis providing a coherent explanation for the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursions at the terminus of the Triassic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heimdal |first1=Thea H. |last2=Jones |first2=Morgan T. |last3=Svensen |first3=Henrik H. |date=18 May 2022 |title=Thermogenic carbon release from the Central Atlantic magmatic province caused major end-Triassic carbon cycle perturbations |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=22 |pages=11968–11974 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2000095117 |pmid=32424084 |pmc=7275695 }}</ref> Global temperatures rose sharply by 3 to 4&nbsp;°C.<ref name="McElwainBeerlingWoodward1999">{{cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=J. C. |last2=Beerling |first2=D. J. |last3=Woodward |first3=F. I. |date=27 August 1999 |title=Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.285.5432.1386 |journal=Science |volume=285 |issue=5432 |pages=1386–1390 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5432.1386 |pmid=10464094 |access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref> In some regions, the temperature rise was as great as 10 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Korte |first1=Christoph |last2=Hesselbo |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Jenkyns |first3=Hugh C. |last4=Rickaby |first4=Rosalind E. M. |last5=Spötl |first5=Christoph |date=May 2009 |title=Palaeoenvironmental significance of carbon- and oxygen-isotope stratigraphy of marine Triassic–Jurassic boundary sections in SW Britain |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249547523 |journal=Journal of the Geological Society |language=en |volume=166 |issue=3 |pages=431–445 |doi=10.1144/0016-76492007-177 |bibcode=2009JGSoc.166..431K |s2cid=128814622 |issn=0016-7649 |access-date=31 October 2023}}</ref>

The catastrophic dissociation of [[Physics:Clathrate hydrate|gas hydrate]]s as a positive feedback resulting from warming, which has been suggested as one possible cause of the PTME, the largest mass extinction of all time,<ref name="BentonTwitchett2003">{{cite journal |last1 = Benton |first1= Michael James | last2=Twitchett |first2=Richard J. | year = 2003 |title=How to kill (almost) all life: The end-Permian extinction event | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume = 18 | issue = 7 | pages = 358–365 |doi = 10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00093-4 |s2cid= 42114053 }}</ref> may have exacerbated greenhouse conditions,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruhl |first1=Micha |last2=Bonis |first2=Nina R. |last3=Reichart |first3=Gert-Jan |last4=Sinninghe Damsté |first4=Jaap S. |last5=Kürschner |first5=Wolfram M. |date=22 July 2011 |title=Atmospheric Carbon Injection Linked to End-Triassic Mass Extinction |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1204255 |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6041 |pages=430–434 |doi=10.1126/science.1204255 |pmid=21778394 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..430R |s2cid=13537776 |access-date=9 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galli |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Jadoul |first2=Flavio |last3=Bernasconi |first3=Stefano M. |last4=Weissert |first4=Helmut |date=1 February 2005 |title=Anomalies in global carbon cycling and extinction at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary: evidence from a marine C-isotope record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018204005644 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=216 |issue=3–4 |pages=203–214 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.009 |bibcode=2005PPP...216..203G |access-date=9 December 2022}}</ref> although others suggest that methane hydrate release was temporally mismatched with the TJME and thus not a cause of it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Bachan |first2=Aviv |last3=Suan |first3=Guillaume |last4=Richoz |first4=Sylvain |last5=Payne |first5=Jonathan L. |date=19 March 2013 |title=Microbes, mud and methane: cause and consequence of recurrent Early Jurassic anoxia following the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pala.12034 |journal=Palaeontology |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=685–709 |doi=10.1111/pala.12034 |bibcode=2013Palgy..56..685V |s2cid=76651746 |access-date=30 May 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |last2=Van de Schootbrugge |first2=Bas |last3=Dybkjær |first3=Karen |last4=Pedersen |first4=Gunver Krarup |last5=Fiebig |first5=Jens |last6=Nielsen |first6=Lars Henrik |last7=Richoz |first7=Sylvain |date=1 June 2012 |title=No causal link between terrestrial ecosystem change and methane release during the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/40/6/531/130915/No-causal-link-between-terrestrial-ecosystem?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geology |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=531–534 |doi=10.1130/G32928.1 |bibcode=2012Geo....40..531L |access-date=27 August 2023}}</ref>

==== Global cooling ====
Besides the carbon dioxide-driven long-term global warming, CAMP volcanism had shorter term cooling effects resulting from the emission of sulphur dioxide aerosols.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Landwehrs |first1=Jan Philip |last2=Feulner |first2=Georg |last3=Hofmann |first3=Matthias |last4=Petri |first4=Stefan |date=1 May 2020 |title=Climatic fluctuations modeled for carbon and sulfur emissions from end-Triassic volcanism |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X20301175 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=537 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116174 |bibcode=2020E&PSL.53716174L |s2cid=212982254 |access-date=29 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaiho |first1=Kunio |last2=Tanaka |first2=Daisuke |last3=Richoz |first3=Sylvain |last4=Jones |first4=David S. |last5=Saito |first5=Ryosuke |last6=Kameyama |first6=Daichi |last7=Ikeda |first7=Masayuki |last8=Takahashi |first8=Satoshi |last9=Aftabuzzaman |first9=Md. |last10=Fujibayashi |first10=Megumu |date=1 February 2022 |title=Volcanic temperature changes modulated volatile release and climate fluctuations at the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X21006208 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=579 |page=117364 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117364 |bibcode=2022E&PSL.57917364K |s2cid=245922701 |access-date=16 December 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="blackburn2013" /> A 2022 study shows that high latitudes had colder climates with evidence of mild glaciation. The authors propose that cold periods ("ice ages") induced by volcanic ejecta clouding the atmosphere might have favoured endothermic animals, with dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and mammals being more capable at enduring these conditions than large pseudosuchians due to insulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olsen |first1=Paul |last2=Sha |first2=Jingeng |last3=Fang |first3=Yanan |last4=Chang |first4=Clara |last5=Whiteside |first5=Jessica H. |last6=Kinney |first6=Sean |last7=Sues |first7=Hans-Dieter |last8=Kent |first8=Dennis |last9=Schaller |first9=Morgan |last10=Vajda |first10=Vivi |title=Arctic ice and the ecological rise of the dinosaurs |journal=Science Advances |date=July 2022 |volume=8 |issue=26 |pages=eabo6342 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abo6342|pmid=35776799 |bibcode=2022SciA....8O6342O |s2cid=250218588 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Metal poisoning ====
CAMP volcanism released enormous amounts of toxic [[Chemistry:Mercury (element)|mercury]]. The appearance of high rates of mutaganesis of varying severity in fossil spores during the TJME coincides with mercury anomalies and is thus believed by researchers to have been caused by [[Medicine:Mercury poisoning|mercury poisoning]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |last2=Sanei |first2=Haver |last3=Van de Schootbrugge |first3=Bas |last4=Pedersen |first4=Gunver Krarup |last5=Lesher |first5=Charles E. |last6=Tegner |first6=Christian |last7=Heunisch |first7=Carmen |last8=Dybkjaer |first8=Karen |last9=Outridge |first9=Peter M. |date=23 October 2019 |title=Volcanic mercury and mutagenesis in land plants during the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Science Advances |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=eaaw4018 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw4018 |pmid=31681836 |pmc=6810405 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.4018L }}</ref>

==== Wildfires ====
The intense, rapid warming is believed to have resulted in increased storminess and lightning activity as a consequence of the more humid climate. The uptick in lightning activity is in turn implicated as a cause of an increase in wildfire activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petersen |first1=Henrik I. |last2=Lindström |first2=Sofie |date=15 October 2012 |title=Synchronous Wildfire Activity Rise and Mire Deforestation at the Triassic–Jurassic Boundary |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=e47236 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047236 |pmid=23077574 |pmc=3471965 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...747236P |doi-access=free }}</ref> The combined presence of charcoal fragments and heightened levels of pyrolytic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Polish sedimentary facies straddling the Triassic-Jurassic boundary indicates wildfires were extremely commonplace during the earliest Jurassic, immediately after the Triassic-Jurassic transition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marynowski |first1=Leszek |last2=Simoneit |first2=Bernd R. T. |title=Widespread Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic Wildfire Records from Poland: Evidence from Charcoal and Pyrolytic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons |date=1 December 2009 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/palaios/volume-24/issue-12/palo.2009.p09-044r/WIDESPREAD-UPPER-TRIASSIC-TO-LOWER-JURASSIC-WILDFIRE-RECORDS-FROM-POLAND/10.2110/palo.2009.p09-044r.short |journal=PALAIOS |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=785–798 |doi=10.2110/palo.2009.p09-044r |bibcode=2009Palai..24..785M |s2cid=131470890 |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref> Elevated wildfire activity is also known from the Junggar Basin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fang |first=Yanan |last2=Fang |first2=Linhao |last3=Deng |first3=Shenghui |last4=Lu |first4=Yuanzheng |last5=Wang |first5=Bo |last6=Zhao |first6=Xiangdong |last7=Wang |first7=Yizhe |last8=Zhang |first8=Haichun |last9=Zhang |first9=Xinzhi |last10=Sha |first10=Jingeng |date=1 September 2021 |title=Carbon isotope stratigraphy across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in the high-latitude terrestrial Junggar Basin, NW China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018221003448 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=577 |pages=110559 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110559 |issn=0031-0182 |access-date=12 January 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Frequent wildfires, combined with increased seismic activity from CAMP emplacement, led to apocalyptic soil degradation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Van der Weijst |first2=C. M. H. |last3=Hollaar |first3=T. P. |last4=Vecoli |first4=M. |last5=Strother |first5=P. K. |last6=Kuhlmann |first6=N. |last7=Thein |first7=J. |last8=Visscher |first8=Henk |last9=Van Konijnenburg-van Cittert |first9=H. |last10=Schobben |first10=M. A. N. |last11=Sluijs |first11=Appy |last12=Lindström |first12=Sofie |date=November 2020 |title=Catastrophic soil loss associated with end-Triassic deforestation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825220303780 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=210 |page=103332 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103332 |bibcode=2020ESRv..21003332V |s2cid=225203547 |access-date=28 May 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Ocean acidification ====
In addition to these climatic effects, oceanic uptake of [[Earth:Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|volcanogenic]] carbon and sulphur dioxide would have led to a significant decrease of seawater pH known as [[Biology:Ocean acidification|ocean acidification]], which is discussed as a relevant driver of marine extinction.<ref name="Hautmann 2004" /><ref name="Green 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Martindale |first2=Rowan C. |last3=Ritterbush |first3=Kathleen A. |last4=Bottjer |first4=David J. |last5=Corsetti |first5=Frank A. |last6=Berelson |first6=William M. |title=Recognising ocean acidification in deep time: An evaluation of the evidence for acidification across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |date=June 2012 |volume=113 |issue=1–2 |pages=72–93 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.009 |bibcode=2012ESRv..113...72G }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ikeda |first=Masayuki |last2=Hori |first2=Rie S. |last3=Okada |first3=Yuki |last4=Nakada |first4=Ryoichi |date=15 December 2015 |title=Volcanism and deep-ocean acidification across the end-Triassic extinction event |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018215005568 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=440 |pages=725–733 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.046 |issn=0031-0182 |access-date=12 January 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Evidence for ocean acidification as an extinction mechanism comes from the preferential extinction of marine organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons and little biotic control of biocalcification (e.g., corals, hypercalcifying sponges),<ref name="Hautmann et al. 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Hautmann |first1=Michael |last2=Benton |first2=Michael J. |last3=Tomašových |first3=Adam |date=1 July 2008 |title=Catastrophic ocean acidification at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie – Abhandlungen |volume=249 |issue=1 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1127/0077-7749/2008/0249-0119}}</ref> which resulted in a coral reef collapse<ref name="GeologicalRecordOceanAcid" /><ref name="OceanAcidDepTime"/> and an early Hettangian "coral gap".<ref name="EarlyHettangianCoralGap" /> Extensive fossil remains of malformed calcareous nannoplankton, a common sign of significant drops in pH, have also been extensively reported from the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.<ref name="OrganicWalledDisasterSpecies">{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Tremolada |first2=F. |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Y. |last4=Bailey |first4=T. R. |last5=Feist-Burkhardt |first5=S. |last6=Brinkhuis |first6=Henk |last7=Pross |first7=J. |last8=Kent |first8=D. V. |last9=Falkowski |first9=P. G. |date=9 February 2007 |title=End-Triassic calcification crisis and blooms of organic-walled 'disaster species' |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018206004457 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=244 |issue=1–4 |pages=126–141 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.026 |bibcode=2007PPP...244..126V |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> Global interruption of carbonate deposition at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary has been cited as additional evidence for catastrophic ocean acidification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Črne |first1=Alenka E. |last2=Weissert |first2=Helmut |last3=Goričan |first3=Špela |last4=Bernasconi |first4=Stefano M. |date=1 January 2011 |title=A biocalcification crisis at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary recorded in the Budva Basin (Dinarides, Montenegro) |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/123/1-2/40/125647/A-biocalcification-crisis-at-the-Triassic-Jurassic?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=123 |issue=1–2 |pages=40–50 |doi=10.1130/B30157.1 |bibcode=2011GSAB..123...40C |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="Hautmann 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Hautmann |first1=Michael |title=Effect of end-Triassic CO2 maximum on carbonate sedimentation and marine mass extinction |journal=Facies |date=28 July 2004 |volume=50 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s10347-004-0020-y|s2cid=130658467 }}</ref> Upwardly developing aragonite fans in the shallow subseafloor may also reflect decreased pH, these structures being speculated to have precipitated concomitantly with acidification.<ref name="SubseafloorCarbonateFactory">{{Cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Bottjer |first2=David J. |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Berelson |first4=William M. |last5=Zonneveld |first5=John-Paul |date=2012-11-01 |title=A subseafloor carbonate factory across the Triassic-Jurassic transition |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article-abstract/40/11/1043/130752/A-subseafloor-carbonate-factory-across-the |journal=Geology |language=en |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1043–1046 |doi=10.1130/G33205.1 |bibcode=2012Geo....40.1043G |issn=0091-7613 |access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref> In some studied sections, the TJME biocalcification crisis is masked by emersion of carbonate platforms induced by marine regression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Felber |first=Roland |last2=Weissert |first2=Helmut J. |last3=Furrer |first3=Heinz |last4=Bontognali |first4=Tomaso R. R. |date=30 July 2015 |title=The Triassic–Jurassic boundary in the shallow-water marine carbonates from the western Northern Calcareous Alps (Austria) |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00015-015-0192-1 |journal=Swiss Journal of Geosciences |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2-3 |pages=213–224 |doi=10.1007/s00015-015-0192-1 |issn=1661-8726 |access-date=22 November 2023|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/109482 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Anoxia ====
Anoxia was another mechanism of extinction; the end-Triassic extinction was coeval with an uptick in black shale deposition and a pronounced negative δ<sup>238</sup>U excursion, indicating a major decrease in marine oxygen availability.<ref name="JostEtAl2017" /> Isorenieratane concentration increase reveals that populations of [[Biology:Green sulfur bacteria|green sulphur bacteria]], which photosynthesise using hydrogen sulphide instead of water, grew significantly across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary; these findings indicate that [[Earth:Euxinia|euxinia]], a form of anoxia defined by not just the absence of dissolved oxygen but high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide, also developed in the oceans.<ref name="RichozEtAl2012">{{cite journal |last1=Richoz |first1=Sylvain |last2=Van de Schootbrugge |first2=Bas |last3=Pross |first3=Jörg |last4=Püttmann |first4=Wilhelm |last5=Quan |first5=Tracy M. |last6=Lindström |first6=Sofie |last7=Heunisch |first7=Carmen |last8=Fiebig |first8=Jens |last9=Maquil |first9=Robert |last10=Schouten |first10=Stefan |last11=Hauzenberger |first11=Christoph A. |last12=Wignall |first12=Paul B. |date=12 August 2012 |title=Hydrogen sulphide poisoning of shallow seas following the end-Triassic extinction |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1539 |journal=[[Earth:Nature Geoscience|Nature Geoscience]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=662–667 |doi=10.1038/ngeo1539 |bibcode=2012NatGe...5..662R |s2cid=128759882 |access-date=22 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaraula |first1=Caroline M. B. |last2=Grice |first2=Kliti |last3=Twitchett |first3=Richard J. |last4=Böttcher |first4=Michael E. |last5=LeMetayer |first5=Pierre |last6=Dastidar |first6=Apratim G. |last7=Opazo |first7=L. Felipe |date=1 September 2013 |title=Elevated pCO2 leading to Late Triassic extinction, persistent photic zone euxinia, and rising sea levels |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/41/9/955/131334/Elevated-pCO2-leading-to-Late-Triassic-extinction |journal=Geology |volume=41 |issue=9 |pages=955–958 |doi=10.1130/G34183.1 |bibcode=2013Geo....41..955J |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> A meteoric shift towards positive sulphur isotope ratios in reduced sulphur species indicates a complete utilisation of sulphate by sulphate reducing bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williford |first1=Kenneth H. |last2=Foriel |first2=Juliet |last3=Ward |first3=Peter D. |last4=Steig |first4=Eric J. |date=1 September 2009 |title=Major perturbation in sulfur cycling at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/37/9/835/30031/Major-perturbation-in-sulfur-cycling-at-the |journal=Geology |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=835–838 |doi=10.1130/G30054A.1 |bibcode=2009Geo....37..835W |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> Evidence of anoxia has been discovered at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary across the world's oceans; the western Tethys, eastern Tethys, and Panthalassa were all affected by a precipitous drop in seawater oxygen,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Wei |last2=Wang |first2=Jian |last3=Wei |first3=Hengye |last4=Fu |first4=Xiugen |last5=Ke |first5=Puyang |date=1 August 2023 |title=Sulfur isotopic evidence for global marine anoxia and low seawater sulfate concentration during the Late Triassic |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367912023001207 |journal=[[Earth:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences|Journal of Asian Earth Sciences]] |volume=251 |page=105659 |doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105659 |bibcode=2023JAESc.25105659T |s2cid=258091074 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref> although at a few sites, the TJME was associated with fully oxygenated waters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wignall |first1=Paul B. |last2=Bond |first2=David P. G. |last3=Kuwahara |first3=Kiyoko |last4=Kakuwa |first4=Yoshitaka |last5=Newton |first5=Robert J. |last6=Poulton |first6=Simon W. |date=March 2010 |title=An 80 million year oceanic redox history from Permian to Jurassic pelagic sediments of the Mino-Tamba terrane, SW Japan, and the origin of four mass extinctions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818110000287 |journal=[[Earth:Global and Planetary Change|Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=71 |issue=1–2 |pages=109–123 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.01.022 |bibcode=2010GPC....71..109W |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> Positive [[Biology:Δ15N|δ<sup>15</sup>N]] excursions have also been interpreted as evidence of anoxia concomitant with increased denitrification in marine sediments in the TJME's aftermath.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quan |first1=Tracy M. |last2=Van de Schootbrugge |first2=Bas |last3=Field |first3=M. Paul |last4=Rosenthal |first4=Yair |last5=Falkowski |first5=Paul G. |date=10 May 2008 |title=Nitrogen isotope and trace metal analyses from the Mingolsheim core (Germany): Evidence for redox variations across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2007GB002981 |journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=1–14 |bibcode=2008GBioC..22.2014Q |doi=10.1029/2007GB002981 |s2cid=56002825 |access-date=29 July 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In northeastern Panthalassa, episodes of anoxia and euxinia were already occurring before the TJME, making its marine ecosystems unstable even before the main crisis began.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larina |first1=Ekaterina |last2=Bottjer |first2=David P. |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Zonneveld |first4=John-Paul |last5=Celestian |first5=Aaron J. |last6=Bailey |first6=Jake V. |date=11 December 2019 |title=Uppermost Triassic phosphorites from Williston Lake, Canada: link to fluctuating euxinic-anoxic conditions in northeastern Panthalassa before the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=18790 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-55162-2 |pmid=31827166 |pmc=6906467 |bibcode=2019NatSR...918790L }}</ref> This early phase of environmental degradation in eastern Panthalassa may have been caused by an early phase of CAMP activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larina |first1=Ekaterina |last2=Bottjer |first2=David P. |last3=Corsetti |first3=Frank A. |last4=Thibodeau |first4=Alyson M. |last5=Berelson |first5=William M. |last6=West |first6=A. Joshua |last7=Yager |first7=Joyce A. |date=15 December 2021 |title=Ecosystem change and carbon cycle perturbation preceded the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X21004350 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=576 |page=117180 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117180 |bibcode=2021E&PSL.57617180L |s2cid=244179806 |access-date=28 May 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> Anoxic, reducing conditions were likewise present in western Panthalassa off the coast of what is now Japan for about a million years prior to the TJME.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schoepfer |first=Shane D. |last2=Shen |first2=Jun |last3=Sano |first3=Hiroyoshi |last4=Algeo |first4=Thomas J. |date=January 2022 |title=Onset of environmental disturbances in the Panthalassic Ocean over one million years prior to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary mass extinction |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825221003718 |journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]] |language=en |volume=224 |pages=103870 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103870 |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref> During the TJME, the rapid warming and increase in continental weathering led to the stagnation of ocean circulation and deoxygenation of seawater in many ocean regions, causing catastrophic marine environmental effects in conjunction with ocean acidification,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Calum P. |last2=Whiteside |first2=Jessica H. |last3=Olsen |first3=Paul E. |last4=Cui |first4=Xingqian |last5=Summons |first5=Roger E. |last6=Idiz |first6=Erdem |last7=Grice |first7=Kliti |date=5 January 2022 |title=Two-pronged kill mechanism at the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/50/4/448/610680/Two-pronged-kill-mechanism-at-the-end-Triassic |journal=Geology |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=448–453 |doi=10.1130/G49560.1 |bibcode=2022Geo....50..448F |s2cid=245782726 |access-date=28 May 2023|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11937/90125 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> which was enhanced and exacerbated by widespread photic zone euxinia through organic matter respiration and carbon dioxide release.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kasprak |first1=Alex H. |last2=Sepúlveda |first2=Julio |last3=Price-Waldman |first3=Rosalyn |last4=Williford |first4=Kenneth H. |last5=Schoepfer |first5=Shane D. |last6=Haggart |first6=James W. |last7=Ward |first7=Peter D. |last8=Summons |first8=Roger E. |last9=Whiteside |first9=Jessica H. |date=1 April 2015 |title=Episodic photic zone euxinia in the northeastern Panthalassic Ocean during the end-Triassic extinction |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/43/4/307/131839/Episodic-photic-zone-euxinia-in-the-northeastern?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geology |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=307–310 |bibcode=2015Geo....43..307K |doi=10.1130/G36371.1 |s2cid=132681136 |access-date=10 November 2023 |hdl=1721.1/107847|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Off the shores of the Wrangellia Terrane, the onset of photic zone euxinia was preceded by an interval of limited nitrogen availability and increased nitrogen fixation in surface waters while euxinia developed in bottom waters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schoepfer |first1=Shane D. |last2=Algeo |first2=Thomas J. |last3=Ward |first3=Peter Douglas |last4=Williford |first4=Kenneth H. |last5=Haggart |first5=James W. |date=1 October 2016 |title=Testing the limits in a greenhouse ocean: Did low nitrogen availability limit marine productivity during the end-Triassic mass extinction? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X16303375 |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=451 |pages=138–148 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2016.06.050 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.451..138S |issn=0012-821X |access-date=10 November 2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> In what is now northwestern Europe, shallow seas became salinity stratified, enabling easy development of anoxia.<ref name="OrganicWalledDisasterSpecies" /> Reduced salinity, in conjunction with increased influx of terrestrial organic matter, enkindled anoxia in the Eiberg Basin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bonis |first=N.R. |last2=Ruhl |first2=M. |last3=Kürschner |first3=W.M. |date=15 April 2010 |title=Climate change driven black shale deposition during the end-Triassic in the western Tethys |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031018209002326 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |language=en |volume=290 |issue=1-4 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.06.016 |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref> The persistence of anoxia into the Hettangian age may have helped delay the recovery of marine life in the extinction's aftermath,<ref name="JostEtAl2017">{{cite journal |last1=Jost |first1=Adam B. |last2=Bacham |first2=Aviv |last3=Van de Schootbrugge |first3=Bas |last4=Lau |first4=Kimberly V. |last5=Weaver |first5=Karrie L. |last6=Maher |first6=Kate |last7=Payne |first7=Jonathan L. |date=26 July 2017 |title=Uranium isotope evidence for an expansion of marine anoxia during the end-Triassic extinction |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2017GC006941 |journal=[[Chemistry:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems]] |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=3093–3108 |doi=10.1002/2017GC006941 |bibcode=2017GGG....18.3093J |s2cid=133679444 |access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luo |first=Genming |last2=Richoz |first2=Sylvain |last3=van de Schootbrugge |first3=Bas |last4=Algeo |first4=Thomas J. |last5=Xie |first5=Shucheng |last6=Ono |first6=Shuhei |last7=Summons |first7=Roger E. |date=15 June 2018 |title=Multiple sulfur-isotopic evidence for a shallowly stratified ocean following the Triassic-Jurassic boundary mass extinction |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016703718302126 |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |language=en |volume=231 |pages=73–87 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2018.04.015 |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref> and recurrent hydrogen sulphide poisoning likely had the same retarding effect on biotic rediversification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beith |first1=Sarah J. |last2=Fox |first2=Calum P. |last3=Marshall |first3=John E. A. |last4=Whiteside |first4=Jessica H. |date=15 December 2021 |title=Recurring photic zone euxinia in the northwest Tethys impinged end-Triassic extinction recovery |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101822100465X |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=584 |page=110680 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110680 |bibcode=2021PPP...58410680B |s2cid=244263152 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="RichozEtAl2012" />

==== Ozone depletion ====
Research on the role of ozone shield deterioration during the Permian-Triassic mass extinction has suggested that it may have been a factor in the TJME as well.<ref name="EnvironmentalMutagenesis">{{Cite journal |last1=Visscher |first1=Henk |last2=Looy |first2=Cindy V. |last3=Collinson |first3=Margaret E. |last4=Brinkhuis |first4=Henk |last5=Cittert |first5=Johanna H. A. van Konijnenburg-van |last6=Kürschner |first6=Wolfram M. |last7=Sephton |first7=Mark A. |date=31 August 2004 |title=Environmental mutagenesis during the end-Permian ecological crisis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=101 |issue=35 |pages=12952–12956 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10112952V |doi=10.1073/pnas.0404472101 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=516500 |pmid=15282373 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DyingInTheSun">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Feng |last2=Peng |first2=Huiping |last3=Marshall |first3=John E. A. |last4=Lomax |first4=Barry H. |last5=Bomfleur |first5=Benjamin |last6=Kent |first6=Matthew S. |last7=Fraser |first7=Wesley T. |last8=Jardine |first8=Phillip E. |date=6 January 2023 |title=Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction |journal=Science Advances |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=eabo6102 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abo6102 |pmid=36608140 |pmc=9821938 |bibcode=2023SciA....9O6102L }}</ref> A spike in the abundance of unseparated tetrads of ''Kraeuselisporites reissingerii'' has been interpreted as evidence of increased ultraviolet radiation flux resulting from ozone layer damage caused by volcanic aerosols.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Wignall |first2=Paul B. |date=26 October 2015 |title=A tale of two extinctions: converging end-Permian and end-Triassic scenarios |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geolmag/article-abstract/153/2/332/251216/A-tale-of-two-extinctions-converging-end-Permian?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Geological Magazine |volume=153 |issue=2 |pages=332–354 |doi=10.1017/S0016756815000643 |s2cid=131750128 |access-date=26 May 2023}}</ref>

==Comparisons to present climate change==
The extremely rapid, centuries-long timescale of carbon emissions and global warming caused by pulses of CAMP volcanism has drawn comparisons between the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction and anthropogenic global warming, currently causing the [[Earth:Holocene extinction|Holocene extinction]].<ref name="AnthropogenicScaleDegassing" /> The current rate of carbon dioxide emissions is around 50 gigatonnes per year, hundreds of times faster than during the latest Triassic, although the lack of extremely detailed stratigraphic resolution and pulsed nature of CAMP volcanism means that individual pulses of greenhouse gas emissions likely occurred on comparable timescales to human release of warming gases since the [[History:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="VolumeRateCO2" /> The degassing rate of the first pulse of CAMP volcanism is estimated to have been around half of the rate of modern anthropogenic emissions.<ref name="AnthropogenicScaleDegassing" /> Palaeontologists studying the TJME and its impacts warn that a major reduction in humanity's carbon dioxide emissions to slow down climate change is of critical importance for preventing a catastrophe similar to the TJME from befalling the modern biosphere.<ref name="VolumeRateCO2" /> If human-induced climate change persists as is, predictions can be made as to how various aspects of the biosphere will respond based on records of the TJME. For example, current conditions such the increased carbon dioxide levels, [[Biology:Ocean acidification|ocean acidification]], and [[Earth:Ocean deoxygenation|ocean deoxygenation]] create a similar climate to that of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary for marine life, so it is the common assumption that should the trends continue, modern reef-building taxa and skeletal benthic organisms will be preferentially impacted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Pulkit |last2=Lu |first2=Wanyi |last3=Lu |first3=Zunli |last4=Jost |first4=Adam B. |last5=Lau |first5=Kimberly |last6=Bachan |first6=Aviv |last7=van de Schootbrugge |first7=Bas |last8=Payne |first8=Jonathan L. |date=March 2023 |title=Reduction in animal abundance and oxygen availability during and after the end‐Triassic mass extinction |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gbi.12533 |journal=Geobiology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=175–192 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12533 |pmid=36329603 |s2cid=253303479 |issn=1472-4677}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

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* McHone, J.G. (2003), Volatile emissions of Central Atlantic Magmatic Province basalts: Mass assumptions and environmental consequences, in Hames, W.E. et al., eds., ''The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea''. American Geophysical Union Monograph 136, p.&nbsp;241–254.
*{{cite journal|first=L.H.|last= Tanner |author2=S.G. Lucas |author3=M.G. Chapman|title=Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions|journal=[[Earth:Earth-Science Reviews|Earth-Science Reviews]]|issue=1–2|year=2004|pages=103–139|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5|volume=65|bibcode=2004ESRv...65..103T}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20060306225005/http://museums.state.nm.us/nmmnh/pdf_files/TJB.pdf]
*{{cite journal |last = Whiteside |first= Jessica H.  |author2=Paul E. Olsen |author3=Timothy Eglinton |author4=Michael E. Brookfield |author5=Raymond N. Sambrotto  |date = March 22, 2010 |title= Compound-specific carbon isotopes from Earth's largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107  |issue=15  |pages=6721–5  |doi =10.1073/pnas.1001706107 |pmid = 20308590 |pmc = 2872409 |bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.6721W |doi-access= free }}
*{{cite journal|first=M.H.L.|last=Deenen |author2=M. Ruhl |author3=N.R. Bonis |author4=W. Krijgsman |author5=W. Kuerscher |author6=M. Reitsma |author7=M.J. van Bergen |title=A new chronology for the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=[[Earth:Earth and Planetary Science Letters|Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=291 |issue=1–4 |pages=113–125 |year=2010|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.003 |bibcode=2010E&PSL.291..113D }}
*{{cite book |last1=Hautmann |first1=M. |title=eLS |chapter=Extinction: End-Triassic Mass Extinction |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester. |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0001655.pub3 |isbn=978-0470016176 |s2cid=130434497 }}
*{{Cite journal |author=Tetsuji Onoue |author2=Honami Sato |author3=Daisuke Yamashita |author4=Minoru Ikehara |author5=Kazutaka Yasukawa |author6=Koichiro Fujinaga |author7=Yasuhiro Kato |author8=Atsushi Matsuoka |date =2016-07-08 |title=Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume= 6|pages= 29609|doi=10.1038/srep29609 |pmid=27387863 |pmc=4937377 |bibcode=2016NatSR...629609O}}

==External links==
*[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Triassic/triextict.htm Theories on the Triassic–Jurassic Extinction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801065542/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/palaeofiles/triassic/triextict.htm |date=2017-08-01 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090720234639/http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/impact/news_detail.cfm?ID=23&keyword=250 The Triassic–Jurassic Mass Extinction]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15272230 200 million year old mystery] BBC News story, 12-Oct-2011

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Triassic-Jurassic extinction event}}
[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:Rhaetian extinctions|.]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Triassic–Jurassic extinction event}}