View source for Biology:Trillium erectum

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}
{{speciesbox
|image = Trillium erectum - Stephen's Gulch CA.jpg
|image_caption = Blooming in Stephen's Gulch Conservation Area (Ontario, Canada).
|status = G5
|status_system = TNC
|status_ref = {{r|NatureServe}}
|genus = Trillium
|species = erectum
|authority = [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms = 
{{Collapsible list |title=''T.&nbsp;erectum'' var.&nbsp;''erectum'' |{{Species list
  |Trillium acuminatum |Raf.
  |Trillium atropurpureum |M.A.Curtis ex L.C.Beck
  |Trillium atropurpureum |Raf.
  |Trillium erectum var. atropurpureum |(Michx.) Pursh
  |Trillium erectum var. blandum |Jennison
  |Trillium erectum f. brevipedicellatum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum var. cahnae |Farw.
  |Trillium erectum f. cahnae |(Farw.) Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum var. declinatum |A.Gray
  |Trillium erectum var. flavum |Torr.
  |Trillium erectum var. giganteum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum var. horizontale |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. luteum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. nigrescens |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. pallidandrum |Vict. & J.Rousseau
  |Trillium erectum f. parviflorum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. parvum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. polymerum |Vict.
  |Trillium erectum f. rubrostriatum |Louis-Marie
  |Trillium erectum f. sessiloides |B.Boivin
  |Trillium erectum var. sulcatum |Barksd.
  |Trillium flavum |Raf.
  |Trillium foetidum |Salisb.
  |Trillium nutans |Raf.
  |Trillium obovatum |Pursh
  |Trillium pendulum |Willd.
  |Trillium purpureum |Elliott
  |Trillium rhomboideum |Michx.
  |Trillium rhomboideum var. atropurpureum |Michx.
  |Trillium spatulatum |Raf.
}}}}
{{Collapsible list |title=''T.&nbsp;erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' |{{Species list
  |Trillium album |(Michx.) Small
  |Trillium erectum f. albiflorum |R.Hoffm.
  |Trillium rhomboideum var. album |Michx.
}}}}
|synonyms_ref = {{r|POWO:77172323-1|POWO:258309-2}}
}}

'''''Trillium erectum''''', the '''red trillium''',<ref>{{PLANTS|id=TRER3|taxon=Trillium erectum|accessdate=15 December 2015}}</ref> also known as '''wake robin''',{{r|FNA:242101991}} '''purple trillium''',<ref>Dickinson, T.; Metsger, D.; Bull, J.; & Dickinson, R. (2004) ROM Field Guide to Wildflowers of Ontario. Toronto:Royal Ontario Museum, p. 79.</ref> '''bethroot''',{{r|USFS}} or '''stinking benjamin''',{{r|Rathbone 2010}} is a [[Biology:Species|species]] of [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]] in the family [[Biology:Melanthiaceae|Melanthiaceae]]. The plant takes its common name "wake robin" by analogy with the [[Biology:European robin|European robin]], which has a red breast heralding spring. Likewise ''Trillium erectum'' is a spring [[Biology:Ephemeral plant|ephemeral plant]] whose life-cycle is synchronized with that of the forests in which it lives. It is [[Earth:Native plant|native]] to the eastern United States and eastern Canada from northern Georgia to Quebec and New Brunswick.

[[File:Red Trillium Close Up.jpg|thumb|alt=Red Trillium|Red trillium close up, showing detail of ovary and stamens]]

==Description==
''Trillium erectum'' is a [[Biology:Perennial plant|perennial]], [[Biology:Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], [[Biology:Flowering plant|flowering plant]] that persists by means of an underground [[Biology:Rhizome|rhizome]]. Like all trilliums, it has a [[Biology:Whorl (botany)|whorl]] of three [[Biology:Bract|bract]]s (leaves) and a single trimerous flower with three [[Biology:Sepal|sepal]]s, three [[Biology:Petal|petal]]s, two whorls of three [[Biology:Stamen|stamen]]s each, and three carpels (fused into a single [[Biology:Ovary (botany)|ovary]] with three [[Biology:Stigma (botany)|stigmas]]).{{r|FNA:133668|RHS A-Z}} It grows to about {{convert|40|cm|0|abbr=on}} in height with a spread of {{convert|30|cm|0|abbr=on}}. The petals are dark reddish brown, maroon, purple, pale yellow, or white.{{r|FNA:242101991}} The ovary is dark purple to maroon regardless of petal color. If the flower is successfully [[Biology:Pollination|pollinated]], the petals wither, leaving behind a fruit that ripens to a dark red berry-like capsule, 1 to 1.5&nbsp;centimeters long.<ref>{{cite web |title=Purple Trillium (''Trillium erectum'') |url=http://wildadirondacks.org/adirondack-wildflowers-purple-trillium-trillium-erectum.html |website=Adirondacks Forever Wild |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gros d'Aillon |first1=F. |title=''Trillium erectum'' Linnaeus |url=https://www.labunix.uqam.ca/~fg/MyFlora/Liliaceae/Trillium/Erectum/erectum.e.shtml |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>

===Species Complex===
''Trillium erectum'' shares many anatomical details with other North American Trillium species.{{sfnp|Barksdale|1938}}{{sfnp|Case|Case|1997}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Patrick|first1=Tom|title=Trilliums of Georgia|journal=Tipularia|date=2007|volume=22|pages=3–22}}</ref> These species hybridize in the wild, which has led some researchers to group them into a [[Biology:Species complex|species complex]], specifically, a [[Biology:Syngameon|syngameon]] of semispecies.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Millam|first=KC|date=2006 |title=The Trillium erectum species-complex (Melanthiaceae): Insights from molecular systematics and biogeography|publisher=University of Wisconsin at Madison}}</ref><ref name="Stoehrel 2010">{{cite thesis |type=MSc |last=Stoehrel |first=Christina Pampkin |date=November 2010 |title=A study of the systematic relationships between members of the ''Trillium erectum'' complex |url=https://ncwildflower.org/TrilliumPaper.pdf |publisher=Western Carolina University}}</ref>

The combinations of traits that are supposed to differentiate members of the complex from one another are sometimes inconsistently combined in wild populations. This has led some researchers to declare the individual species invalid, and refer to the species complex collectively as ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' (''sensu lato'').<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Friesner|first1=Ray C.|title=The genus Trillium in Indiana|journal=Butler University Botanical Studies|date=1929|volume=1|pages=29–40|url=http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/botanical/vol1/iss1/4}}</ref> Others acknowledge the existence of [[Biology:Introgression|introgression]] and [[Biology:Hybrid swarm|hybrid swarm]] formation between some or all complex members, but maintain that the named species within the complex represent convenient groups with common features.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Patrick|first1=Thomas S.|title=Trillium sulcatum (Liliaceae), a new species of the southern Appalachians|journal=Brittonia|date=1984|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–36|jstor=2806287|doi=10.2307/2806287|s2cid=85116255}}</ref>

Members of the ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' complex have flowers with the following commonalities: (1)&nbsp;petals that are coarse and stiff in texture (in contrast with the wavy edges of other species), (2)&nbsp;petals that do not change color after pollination, (3)&nbsp;petals with prominent, netted veins, (4)&nbsp;fleshy [[Biology:Stigma (anatomy)|stigmas]] that are attached to the [[Biology:Ovary (botany)|ovary]] separately, without a common [[Biology:Style (botany)|style]], and (5)&nbsp;conspicuous, deeply-ridged ovaries.

North American members of the ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' species complex:
* ''[[Biology:Trillium cernuum|T.&nbsp;cernuum]]''
* ''T.&nbsp;erectum''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium flexipes|T.&nbsp;flexipes]]''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium rugelii|T.&nbsp;rugelii]]''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium simile|T.&nbsp;simile]]''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium sulcatum|T.&nbsp;sulcatum]]''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium vaseyi|T.&nbsp;vaseyi]]''

The Asian species ''T.&nbsp;camschatcense'', resembles the North American ''T.&nbsp;flexipes'' very closely, and itself has close relatives with similar floral features. However, trillium [[Biology:Speciation|speciation]] in this group of Asian species is characterized by differences in chromosome number, with hybrids more definitively distinguishable from parent species by [[Biology:Karyotype|karyotype]].
* ''T.&nbsp;apetalon''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium camschatcense|T.&nbsp;camschatcense]]''
* ''[[Biology:Trillium channellii|T.&nbsp;channellii]]''
* ''T.'' × ''hagae''
* ''T.&nbsp;smallii''
* ''T.&nbsp;tschonoskii''

==Taxonomy==
''Trillium erectum'' was first described by the Swedish botanist [[Biography:Carl Linnaeus|Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753.{{r|IPNI:304585-2}} The specific epithet ''erectum'' means "upright, erect",{{sfnp|Gledhill|2008|p=156}} a reference to the erect [[Biology:Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] of some forms of this species. In many populations, however, the pedicel leans or declines, sometimes declining beneath the leaves, making the name somewhat inappropriate.{{sfnp|Case|Case|1997|p=94}}

In 1803 [[Biography:André Michaux|André Michaux]] introduced the name ''Trillium rhomboideum'' to describe a form of ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' with black fruit in "the high mountains of North Carolina".{{r|Michaux 1803}} The specific epithet ''rhomboideum'' refers to the broadly [[Biology:Glossary of leaf morphology#rhombic|rhombic]] leaves of this (and all) forms of ''T.&nbsp;erectum''. Michaux also described ''Trillium rhomboideum'' var.&nbsp;''atropurpureum'', a variety with large, dark purple petals. A decade later in 1813, [[Biography:Frederick Traugott Pursh|Frederick Traugott Pursh]] referred to Michaux's variety more simply as ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''atropurpureum''.{{r|Pursh 1814}} Perhaps unaware of these taxonomic developments, other botanists subsequently described ''Trillium atropurpureum''.{{r|IPNI:542516-1|IPNI:542517-1}} The epithet ''atropurpureum'' means "dark-purple coloured",{{sfnp|Gledhill|2008|pp=61}} a reference to the petal color of certain forms of ''T.&nbsp;erectum''. Indeed, in some locales ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' is commonly known as the '''purple trillium'''.

===Infraspecies===
[[File:Trillium erectum comparing red and white color varieties.jpg|thumb|Composite image showing both red and white color morphs of the flower of ''Trillium erectum''. Note that both morphs have a dark purple [[Biology:Gynoecium|gynoecium]] with contrasting anthers]]

{{As of|October 2021}}, [[Biology:Plants of the World Online|Plants of the World Online]] (POWO) accepts two [[Biology:Infraspecific name|infraspecific name]]s:{{r|POWO:304585-2}}

* ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' {{small|(Michx.) Pursh}}
* ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''erectum''

POWO lists 30&nbsp;[[Biology:Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]]s for variety ''erectum'' and 3&nbsp;synonyms for variety ''album''.{{r|POWO:77172323-1|POWO:258309-2}} Michaux introduced the term ''album'' in 1803 by describing ''Trillium rhomboideum'' var.&nbsp;''album'',{{r|IPNI:258370-2}} a variety with a smaller flower and white petals.{{r|Michaux 1803}} Pursh gave a similar description for ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' in 1814.{{r|IPNI:258309-2|Pursh 1814}} The word ''album'' means "bright, dead-white",{{sfnp|Gledhill|2008|p=41}} a reference to the variety's white petals, a distinctive feature noted by both Michaux and Pursh. 

[[Biography:John Kunkel Small|John Kunkel Small]] raised ''T.&nbsp;rhomboideum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' {{small|Michx.}} to species rank in 1903.{{r|IPNI:258288-2}} In his description, he added long anthers to the list of characters cited by Michaux while expanding the range of the taxon to include North Carolina, {{wipe|Tennessee}}, and Georgia.{{r|Small 1913}} In 1917, R.R.&nbsp;Gates recognized the existence of two distinct forms of ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' with white petals, one of which was represented by the previously mentioned ''Trillium album'' {{small|(Michx.) Small}}.{{r|Gates 1917}} This prompted Ralph Hoffmann to propose ''Trillium erectum'' f.&nbsp;''albiflorum'',{{r|IPNI:258308-2|Hoffmann 1922}} a white-flowered form of ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' that occurs occasionally and spontaneously throughout the range of the species. Thus the distinct taxa recognized by Gates were fully realized by 1922.

POWO cites the Flora of North America (FNA) as an authority for ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' {{small|(Michx.) Pursh}}.{{r|POWO:258309-2}} The treatment of the variety in FNA expands the original concept described by Michaux to include the occasional white-flowered red trillium found throughout the range of the species.{{r|FNA:242102310}} Under this scheme, all non-white petal colors (including yellow) comprise the typical variety (var.&nbsp;''erectum'').{{r|FNA:242102311}} Thus FNA lumps the two forms recognized by Gates into a single taxon. In contrast, POWO restricts the range of ''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Noting that its distribution is poorly understood, Flora of the Southeastern United States (FSUS) describes a white-flowered variety of ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' common to the foothills of the Great Smoky Mountains, in North Carolina and Tennessee, but rare elsewhere.{{r|FSUS 2022}} FSUS suggests that variety ''album'' may be genetically distinct from variety ''erectum'',{{sfnp|Weakley|Southeastern Flora Team|2022|p=215}} while other evidence suggests there is little genetic difference between the two varieties.{{r|Brenek 2021}}

==Distribution==
[[File:Trillium erectum album.jpg|thumb|''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' in the [[Earth:Great Smoky Mountains National Park|Great Smoky Mountains National Park]] (April)]]

''Trillium erectum'' is [[Earth:Native plant|native]] to eastern North America. Its range extends from northern Georgia in the southeastern United States to Quebec and New Brunswick in eastern Canada, and as far west as Michigan and southern Ontario. The species is known to occur in the following provinces and states:{{r|POWO:304585-2|FNA:242101991|BONAP-state}}

* '''Canada''': New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec
* '''United States''':{{r|BONAP}} Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia

''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' (as described in the Flora of the Southeastern United States) occurs in western North Carolina, eastern {{wipe|Tennessee}}, and other areas surrounding the Great Smoky Mountains, primarily at elevations less than {{convert|450|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{r|FNA:242102310|FNA:242102311}}{{sfnp|Weakley|2020|p=205}}

{{As of|October 2019}}, ''Trillium erectum'' is globally secure.{{r|NatureServe}} It is critically imperiled in Delaware, Illinois, and Rhode Island.

==Ecology==
''Trillium erectum'' is a [[Biology:Carrion flower|carrion-scented flower]]. It produces fetid or putrid odors purported to attract carrion fly and beetle pollinators.{{sfnp|Case|Case|1997|p=27}} The fetid odor is described as that of a wet dog.{{r|FNA:242101991}} The common name '''stinking benjamin''' refers to this characteristic of the plant. "Benjamin" is a corruption of the word [[Chemistry:Benzoin (organic compound)|benzoin]], which itself is a corruption of the word "benjoin", a plant-based organic compound used in the manufacture of perfume.{{r|Rathbone 2010}} Despite the origins of the common name, the chemical basis of carrion-scented flowers is not well understood.{{r|Wilson 2003}}

''Trillium erectum'' can tolerate extreme cold in winter, surviving temperatures down to {{convert|-35|C|F|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

==Uses==
The root of the red trillium was used by various indigenous peoples of North America as an aid in childbirth, hence the common name '''birthwort''' or '''birthroot''' (which is sometimes corrupted to '''bethroot'''). Root tea was used for menstrual disorders, to induce childbirth, and to aid in labor. The Cherokee peoples used a poultice of the whole plant to treat tumors, inflammation, and ulcers.{{r|FNA:242101991|USFS|Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975}}

The leaves contain [[Chemistry:Calcium oxalate|calcium oxalate]] crystals and crystal [[Biology:Ergastic substance#Crystals|raphide]], and should not be consumed by humans.{{r|PSU}}

''Trillium erectum'' is cultivated as a flowering ornamental plant. Although not as showy as [[Biology:Trillium grandiflorum|''T.&nbsp;grandiflorum'']], the flowers of some forms of ''T.&nbsp;erectum'' can be quite striking, especially since it tends to form large clumps.{{sfnp|Case|Case|1997|pp=92-93}} It has received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |title=AGM Plants - Ornamental |date=November 2018 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last1=Barksdale |first1=Lane |title=The pedicellate species of ''Trillium'' found in the southern Appalachians |url=https://dc.lib.unc.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/jncas&CISOPTR=1732 |journal=Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society |date=1938 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=271–296 |jstor=24332541 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Case |first1=Frederick W. |last2=Case |first2=Roberta B. |year=1997 |title=Trilliums |location=Portland, Oregon |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-374-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/trilliums00case}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gledhill |first1=David |title=The Names of Plants |year=2008 |edition=4th |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC |isbn=978-0-521-86645-3}}
* {{cite web |last1=Weakley |first1=Alan S. |title=Flora of the Southeastern United States |publisher=University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden |date=2020 |url-access=registration |url=https://ncbg.unc.edu/research/unc-herbarium/flora-request/}}
* {{cite web |last1=Weakley |first1=Alan S. |author2=Southeastern Flora Team |title=Flora of the southeastern United States |publisher=University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden |date=2022 |url-access=registration |url=https://ncbg.unc.edu/research/unc-herbarium/flora-request/}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|40em|refs=
<ref name="BONAP">{{BONAP |genus=Trillium |species=erectum |date=2014 |access-date=3 October 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="BONAP-state">{{BONAP |genus=Trillium |species=erectum |state=1 |date=2014 |access-date=3 October 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Brenek 2021">{{cite thesis |last=Brenek |first=Austin William |date=April 2021 |title=An examination of introgression in the ''Trillium erectum'' species complex using microsatellite analysis |degree=MS |publisher=Western Carolina University |url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/wcu/f/Brenek2021.pdf |access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="FNA:242101991">{{eFloras |1 |242101991 |Trillium erectum |volume=26 |last=Case Jr. |first=Frederick W. |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="FNA:242102310">{{eFloras |1 |242102310 |Trillium erectum var. album |volume=26 |last=Case Jr. |first=Frederick W. |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="FNA:242102311">{{eFloras |1 |242102311 |Trillium erectum var. erectum |volume=26 |last=Case Jr. |first=Frederick W. |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="FNA:133668">{{eFloras |1 |133668 |Trillium |volume=26 |last=Case Jr. |first=Frederick W. |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="FSUS 2022">{{cite web |title=''Trillium erectum'' var.&nbsp;''album'' {{small|(Michx.) Pursh}} |url=https://fsus.ncbg.unc.edu/show-taxon-detail.php?taxonid=56585 |website=Flora of the Southeastern United States (2022 Edition) |access-date=28 March 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Gates 1917">{{cite journal |last1=Gates |first1=R.R. |title=A systematic study of the North American genus ''Trillium'', its variability, and its relation to ''Paris'' and ''Medeola'' |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |date=February 1917 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=43–92 |doi=10.2307/2990062 |jstor=2990062 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54259#page/51/mode/1up |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975">{{cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Paul B. |last2=Chiltoskey |first2=Mary U. |title=Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History |date=1975 |publisher=Herald Publishing Co. |location=Sylva, N.C. |page=59 |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/40699/ |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Hoffmann 1922">{{cite journal |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Ralph |title=Flora of Berkshire County, Massachusetts |journal=Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History |date=1922 |volume=36 |issue=5 |page=244 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/58069956#page/262/mode/1up |access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:258288-2">{{IPNI |id=258288-2 |taxon=Trillium album |authority={{small|(Michx.) Small}} |access-date=26 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:258308-2">{{IPNI |id=258308-2 |taxon=''Trillium erectum'' f.&nbsp;''albiflorum'' |authority={{small|Ralph Hoffm.}} |access-date=26 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:258309-2">{{IPNI |id=258309-2 |taxon=Trillium erectum var. album |authority={{small|Pursh}} |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:258370-2">{{IPNI |id=258370-2 |taxon=Trillium rhomboideum var. album |authority={{small|Michx.}} |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:304585-2">{{IPNI |id=304585-2 |taxon=Trillium erectum |authority={{small|L.}} |access-date=21 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:542516-1">{{IPNI |id=542516-1 |taxon=Trillium atropurpureum |authority={{small|M.A.Curtis ex L.C.Beck}} |access-date=31 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="IPNI:542517-1">{{IPNI |id=542517-1 |taxon=Trillium atropurpureum |authority={{small|Raf.}} |access-date=31 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Michaux 1803">{{cite journal |last1=Michaux |first1=André |title=''Trillium rhomboideum'' |journal=Flora Boreali-Americana |date=1803 |volume=1 |pages=215–216 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/404989#page/249/mode/1up |access-date=31 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="NatureServe">{{cite web |title=''Trillium erectum'' |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.131400/Trillium_erectum |website=NatureServe Explorer |publisher=NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia |access-date=21 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="POWO:258309-2">{{cite POWO |id=258309-2 |title=''Trillium erectum'' var. ''album'' |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="POWO:304585-2">{{cite POWO |id=304585-2 |title=''Trillium erectum'' {{small|L.}} |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="POWO:77172323-1">{{cite POWO |id=77172323-1 |title=''Trillium erectum'' var. ''erectum'' |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="PSU">{{cite web |title=Red Trillium |url=https://www.dept.psu.edu/nkbiology/naturetrail/speciespages/red_trillium.html |publisher=The Pennsylvania State University |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Pursh 1814">{{cite book |last1=Pursh |first1=Frederick |title=Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America, Volume 1 |date=1814 |page=245 |location=London |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/396378#page/291/mode/1up |access-date=31 October 2021 |lccn=05024608}}</ref>
<ref name="Rathbone 2010">{{cite web |last1=Rathbone |first1=Ellen |title=Stinking Benjamin:A Trillium That By Any Other Name Would Still Smell as Sweet |url=https://www.adirondackalmanack.com/2010/04/stinking-benjamina-trillium-that-by-any-other-name-would-still-smell-as-sweet.html |website=Adirondack Almanack |date=17 April 2010 |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="RHS A-Z">{{cite book |title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants |year=2008 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=United Kingdom |isbn=978-1405332965 |page=1136}}</ref>
<ref name="Small 1913">{{cite book |last1=Small |first1=John Kunkel |title=Flora of the southeastern United States |date=1913 |location=New York |page=278 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2141004#page/294/mode/1up |access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="USFS">{{cite web |last1=Pistrang |first1=Mark |title=Red trillium (''Trillium erectum'' {{small|L.}}) |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/trillium_erectum.shtml |publisher=United States Forest Service |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Wilson 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Elizabeth K. |title=A Fantastic Stink |journal=Chemical & Engineering News |volume=81 |issue=26 |page=27 |date=2003-06-30 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/science/8126/8126giantplant.html |access-date=22 October 2021 |issn=0009-2347 |doi=10.1021/cen-v081n005.p027}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
* [http://bison.usgs.ornl.gov/api/scientificName/Trillium%20erectum/arguments/itis Biodiversity Information Serving Our Nation (BISON) occurrence data and maps for ''Trillium erectum'']
* {{inaturalist taxon |50855 |Red Trillium}}
* {{cite web |last1=Mathews |first1=Kathy |title=The ''Trillium erectum'' species complex of the southern Appalachians |url=https://wcbotanicalclub.files.wordpress.com/2019/11/western-carolina-botanical-club-2.pdf |access-date=26 October 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Andrew Lane |title=My Date with the Red Trillium |url=http://floraofohio.blogspot.com/2011/05/my-date-with-red-trillium.html |access-date=26 October 2021 |date=1 May 2011}}
* {{cite web |title=Flower-Visiting Insects of Red Trillium |url=http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/flower_insects/plants/red_trillium.html |website=Illinois Wildflowers |access-date=15 December 2021}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q3539177}}

[[Category:Trillium|erectum]]
[[Category:Ephemeral plants]]

{{Sourceattribution|Trillium erectum}}