View source for Biology:Whale

{{short description|Informal group of large marine mammals}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date = October 2015}}
{{Paraphyletic group
| subheader = {{longitem|An informal group<br>within the infraorder Cetacea}}
| name = Whale
| fossil_range = [[Earth:Eocene|Eocene]] - [[Earth:Holocene|Present]] {{fossil range|50|0|ref=<ref>{{Cite web |title=When whales walked on four legs |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/when-whales-walked-on-four-legs.html |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=www.nhm.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>}}
| image = Southern right whale.jpg
| image_alt = Southern right whale
| image_caption = [[Biology:Southern right whale|Southern right whale]]
| auto = yes
| parent = Cetacea
| includes = *Parvorder [[Biology:Mysticeti|Mysticeti]] (baleen whales)
*Parvorder Odontoceti (partially)
** Family [[Biology:Monodontidae|Monodontidae]] (Arctic whales)
** Superfamily Physeteroidea (sperm whales)
** Superfamily Ziphioidea (beaked whales)
| excludes = * Family [[Biology:Delphinidae|Delphinidae]] (dolphins and porpoises)
* Superfamily Platanistoidea (Asian river dolphins)
* Superfamily Inioidea (South American river dolphins)
}}

'''Whales''' ''(Balaena)'' are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental [[Biology:Marine mammal|marine mammal]]s. As an informal and [[Social:Colloquialism|colloquial]] grouping, they correspond to large members of the infraorder [[Biology:Cetacea|Cetacea]], i.e. all cetaceans apart from [[Biology:Dolphin|dolphin]]s and [[Biology:Porpoise|porpoise]]s. Dolphins and porpoises may be considered whales from a formal, [[Biology:Cladistics|cladistic]] perspective. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order [[Biology:Cetartiodactyla|Cetartiodactyla]], which consists of [[Biology:Even-toed ungulate|even-toed ungulate]]s. Their closest non-cetacean living relatives are the [[Biology:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]]es, from which they and other cetaceans diverged about 54 million years ago. The two [[Biology:Parvorder|parvorder]]s of whales, [[Biology:Baleen whale|baleen whale]]s (Mysticeti) and [[Biology:Toothed whale|toothed whale]]s (Odontoceti), are thought to have had their [[Biology:Most recent common ancestor|last common ancestor]] around 34 million years ago. Mysticetes include four [[Biology:Neontology|extant]] (living) families: [[Biology:Balaenopteridae|Balaenopteridae]] (the rorquals), [[Biology:Balaenidae|Balaenidae]] (right whales), [[Biology:Cetotheriidae|Cetotheriidae]] (the pygmy right whale), and [[Biology:Eschrichtiidae|Eschrichtiidae]] (the grey whale). Odontocetes include the [[Biology:Monodontidae|Monodontidae]] (belugas and narwhals), [[Biology:Physeteridae|Physeteridae]] (the [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]]), [[Biology:Kogiidae|Kogiidae]] (the dwarf and pygmy sperm whale), and [[Biology:Ziphiidae|Ziphiidae]] (the beaked whales), as well as the six families of dolphins and porpoises which are not considered whales in the informal sense.

Whales are fully aquatic, open-ocean animals: they can feed, mate, give birth, suckle and raise their young at sea. Whales range in size from the {{convert|2.6|m|ft}} and {{convert|135|kg|lbs}} dwarf sperm whale to the {{convert|29.9|m|ft}} and {{convert|190|tonnes|ST}} [[Biology:Blue whale|blue whale]], which is the largest known animal that has ever lived. The [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]] is the largest toothed predator on Earth. Several whale species exhibit [[Biology:Sexual dimorphism|sexual dimorphism]], in that the females are larger than males.

Baleen whales have no teeth; instead, they have plates of baleen, fringe-like structures that enable them to expel the huge mouthfuls of water they take in while retaining the [[Biology:Krill|krill]] and [[Earth:Plankton|plankton]] they feed on. Because their heads are enormous—making up as much as 40% of their total body mass—and they have throat pleats that enable them to expand their mouths, they are able to take huge quantities of water into their mouth at a time. Baleen whales also have a well-developed sense of smell.

Toothed whales, in contrast, have conical teeth adapted to catching fish or [[Biology:Squid|squid]]. They also have such keen hearing—whether above or below the surface of the water—that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species, such as sperm whales, are particularly well adapted for diving to great depths to catch squid and other favoured prey.

Whales evolved from land-living mammals, and must regularly surface to breathe air, although they can remain underwater for long periods of time. Some species, such as the [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]], can stay underwater for up to 90 minutes.{{sfn|Gray|2013}} They have blowholes (modified nostrils) located on top of their heads, through which air is taken in and expelled. They are [[Biology:Endotherm|warm-blooded]], and have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin. With streamlined fusiform bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, whales can travel at speeds of up to 20 [[Physics:Knot (unit)|knots]], though they are not as flexible or agile as [[Biology:Pinniped|seals]]. Whales produce a great variety of vocalizations, notably the extended songs of the [[Biology:Humpback whale|humpback whale]]. Although whales are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and migrate to the equator to give birth. Species such as humpbacks and blue whales are capable of travelling thousands of miles without feeding. Males typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer; females bear all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers in some species fast and nurse their young for one to two years.

Once relentlessly hunted for their products, whales are now protected by international law. The [[Biology:North Atlantic right whale|North Atlantic right whale]]s nearly became extinct in the twentieth century, with a population low of 450, and the [[Biology:Gray whale#North Pacific|North Pacific grey whale population]] is ranked [[Biology:Critically Endangered|Critically Endangered]] by the [[Organization:International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]. Besides the threat from whalers, they also face threats from bycatch and marine pollution. The meat, blubber and baleen of whales have traditionally been used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Whales have been depicted in various cultures worldwide, notably by the Inuit and the coastal peoples of Vietnam and Ghana, who sometimes hold whale funerals. Whales occasionally feature in literature and film. A famous example is the great white whale in [[Biography:Herman Melville|Herman Melville]]'s novel ''Moby-Dick''. Small whales, such as [[Biology:Beluga whale|belugas]], are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks, but breeding success has been poor and the animals often die within a few months of capture. Whale watching has become a form of tourism around the world.

==Etymology and definitions==
The word "whale" comes from the [[Social:Old English|Old English]] ''hwæl'', from Proto-Germanic ''*hwalaz'', from Proto-Indo-European ''*(s)kwal-o-'', meaning "large sea fish".<ref name=etymonline>{{cite web|title=whale (n.) |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/whale |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=asd>{{cite web |title=hwæl |work=Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/020037 |access-date=6 June 2019 }}</ref> The Proto-Germanic ''*hwalaz'' is also the source of [[Social:Old Saxon|Old Saxon]] ''hwal'', [[Social:Old Norse|Old Norse]] ''hvalr'', ''hvalfiskr'', [[Social:Swedish language|Swedish]] ''val'', [[Social:Middle Dutch|Middle Dutch]] ''wal'', ''walvisc'', [[Social:Dutch language|Dutch]] ''walvis'', Old High German ''wal'', and [[Social:German language|German]] ''Wal''.<ref name=etymonline/> Other archaic English forms include ''wal, wale, whal, whalle, whaille, wheal'', etc.{{sfn|Skeat|1898}}

The term "whale" is sometimes used interchangeably with [[Biology:Dolphin|dolphin]]s and [[Biology:Porpoise|porpoise]]s, acting as a synonym for [[Biology:Cetacea|Cetacea]]. Six species of dolphins have the word "whale" in their name, collectively known as blackfish: the [[Biology:Orca|orca]], or killer whale, the [[Biology:Melon-headed whale|melon-headed whale]], the [[Biology:Pygmy killer whale|pygmy killer whale]], the [[Biology:False killer whale|false killer whale]], and the two species of [[Biology:Pilot whale|pilot whale]]s, all of which are classified under the family [[Biology:Delphinidae|Delphinidae]] (oceanic dolphins).{{sfn|McBrearty|1991|pp=33–65}} Each species has a different reason for it, for example, the killer whale was named "Ballena asesina" 'killer whale' by Spanish sailors.{{sfn|Gormley|1990|p=[{{google books|plainurl=yes|id=xwvWILe_c_cC|page=10}} 10]}}

The term "Great Whales" covers those currently regulated by the International Whaling Commission:{{sfn|IWC "Small cetaceans"}} the Odontoceti family Physeteridae (sperm whales); and the Mysticeti families Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales), and some of the Balaenopteridae (Minke, Bryde's, Sei, Blue and Fin; not Eden's and Omura's whales).{{sfn|IWC "The Great Whales"}}

==Taxonomy and evolution==

===Phylogeny===
The whales are part of the largely terrestrial mammalian [[Biology:Clade|clade]] [[Biology:Laurasiatheria|Laurasiatheria]]. Whales do not form a clade or order; the infraorder Cetacea includes [[Biology:Dolphin|dolphin]]s and [[Biology:Porpoise|porpoise]]s, which are not considered whales in the informal sense.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} The [[Biology:Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic tree]] shows the relationships of whales and other mammals, with whale groups{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} marked in green.

{{clade
|style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1=[[Biology:Laurasiatheria|Laurasiatheria]]
|sublabel1={{circa|99&nbsp;Mya}}
|1={{clade
   |label1=[[Biology:Ferae|Ferae]]
   |1=(carnivorans and allies) [[File:Crocuta crocuta sideview.jpg|60 px]]
   |label2=&nbsp;[[Biology:Perissodactyla|Perissodactyla]]&nbsp;
   |2=([[Biology:Horse|horse]]s, [[Social:Rhino|rhino]]s, [[Biology:Tapir|tapir]]s) [[File:Hartmann zebra hobatere S.jpg|60 px]]
   |label3=[[Biology:Artiodactyla|Artiodactyla]]
   |sublabel3={{circa|53&nbsp;Mya}}
   |3={{clade
      |label1=&nbsp;Tylopoda&nbsp;
      |1=(camels, llamas) [[File:07. Camel Profile, near Silverton, NSW, 07.07.2007.jpg|45 px]]
      |label2=&nbsp;[[Biology:Artiofabula|Artiofabula]]&nbsp;
      |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
            |label1=[[Biology:Suina|Suina]]
            |1=([[Biology:List of suines|pigs, hogs, peccaries]]) [[File:Scavenger feast - Yala December 2010 (1) (cropped).jpg|60 px]]
            |label2=&nbsp;[[Biology:Cetruminantia|Cetruminantia]]&nbsp;
            |2={{clade
               |label1=&nbsp;[[Biology:Ruminantia|Ruminants]]&nbsp;
               |1=([[Biology:Cattle|cattle]], [[Biology:Sheep|sheep]], [[Biology:Antelope|antelope]]s) [[File:Walia ibex illustration white background.png|60 px]]
               |label2=&nbsp;Whippomorpha&nbsp;
               |2={{clade
                  |label1=&emsp;[[Biology:Hippopotamidae|Hippopotamidae]]&emsp;
                  |1=&nbsp;([[Biology:Hippopotamidae|hippos]]) [[File:Hippopotamus amphibius in Tanzania 2830 Nevit.jpg|60 px]]
                  |label2=&emsp;[[Biology:Cetacea|Cetacea]]&emsp;
                  |2={{clade
                     |label1=&nbsp;<br/>&nbsp;
                     |sublabel1=&nbsp;<br/>&nbsp;
                     |1={{clade
                        |label1=&nbsp;<br/>&nbsp;{{extinct}}Archaeocetes&nbsp;
                        |sublabel1=&emsp;ancient whales&emsp;<br/>&nbsp;
                        |1=({{extinct}}''[[Biology:Ambulocetus|Ambulocetus]]'', {{extinct}}''[[Biology:Protocetus|Protocetus]]'', {{extinct}}''[[Biology:Basilosaurus|Basilosaurus]]'')
                        }}
                     |2={{clade
                        |label1=&nbsp;<br/>&nbsp;[[Biology:Mysticeti|<span style="color: green">Mysticeti</span>]]&nbsp;
                        |sublabel1=&emsp;<span style="color: green">baleen whales</span>&emsp;<br/>&nbsp;
                        |1=([[Biology:Right whale|<span style="color: green">right&nbsp;whales</span>]], [[Biology:Gray whale|<span style="color: green">grey&nbsp;whales</span>]], [[Biology:Rorqual|<span style="color: green">rorquals</span>]])
                        |label2=&nbsp;Odontoceti&nbsp;
                        |sublabel2=&emsp;toothed whales&emsp;
                        |2={{clade
                           |label1=&nbsp;[[Biology:Delphinoidea|Delphinoidea]]&nbsp;
                           |1=([[Biology:Dolphin|dolphin]]s, [[Biology:Porpoise|porpoise]]s, [[Biology:Beluga whale|<span style="color: green">beluga whales</span>]], [[Biology:Narwhal|<span style="color: green">narwhals</span>]])
                           |label2=&nbsp;Lipotoidea&nbsp;
                           |2=(river dolphins)
                           |label3=&nbsp;<span style="color: green">Physeteroidea</span>&nbsp;
                           |3=([[Biology:Physeteridae|<span style="color: green">sperm whales</span>]])
                           |label4=&nbsp;<span style="color: green">Ziphoidea</span>&nbsp;
                           |4=([[Biology:Beaked whale|<span style="color: green">beaked whales</span>]])
                           }}
                        }}
                     }}
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

Cetaceans are divided into two parvorders. The larger parvorder, [[Biology:Mysticeti|Mysticeti]] (baleen whales), is characterized by the presence of baleen, a sieve-like structure in the upper jaw made of [[Biology:Keratin|keratin]], which it uses to filter [[Earth:Plankton|plankton]], among others, from the water. Odontocetes (toothed whales) are characterized by bearing sharp teeth for hunting, as opposed to their counterparts' baleen.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=4}}

Cetaceans and [[Biology:Artiodactyl|artiodactyl]]s now are classified under the order [[Biology:Cetartiodactyla|Cetartiodactyla]], often still referred to as Artiodactyla, which includes both whales and [[Biology:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]]es. The hippopotamus and pygmy hippopotamus are the whales' closest terrestrial living relatives.{{sfn|Gatesy|1997}}

===Mysticetes===
Mysticetes are also known as baleen whales. They have a pair of blowholes side by side and lack teeth; instead they have baleen plates which form a sieve-like structure in the upper jaw made of keratin, which they use to filter [[Earth:Plankton|plankton]] from the water. Some whales, such as the humpback, reside in the polar regions where they feed on a reliable source of schooling fish and [[Biology:Krill|krill]].{{sfn|Johnson|Wolman|1984}} These animals rely on their well-developed flippers and tail fin to propel themselves through the water; they swim by moving their fore-flippers and tail fin up and down. Whale ribs loosely articulate with their thoracic vertebrae at the proximal end, but do not form a rigid rib cage. This adaptation allows the chest to compress during deep dives as the pressure increases.{{sfn|Cozzi et al.|2009}} Mysticetes consist of four families: [[Biology:Balaenopteridae|rorquals (balaenopterids)]], [[Biology:Cetotheriidae|cetotheriids]], [[Biology:Balaenidae|right whales (balaenids)]], and [[Biology:Eschrichtiidae|grey whales (eschrichtiids)]].

The main difference between each family of mysticete is in their feeding adaptations and subsequent behaviour.
Balaenopterids are the rorquals. These animals, along with the cetotheriids, rely on their throat pleats to gulp large amounts of water while feeding. The throat pleats extend from the mouth to the navel and allow the mouth to expand to a large volume for more efficient capture of the small animals they feed on. Balaenopterids consist of two genera and eight species.{{sfn|Goldbogen|2010}}
Balaenids are the right whales. These animals have very large heads, which can make up as much as 40% of their body mass, and much of the head is the mouth. This allows them to take in large amounts of water into their mouths, letting them feed more effectively.{{sfn|Froias|2012}}
Eschrichtiids have one living member: the grey whale. They are bottom feeders, mainly eating crustaceans and benthic invertebrates. They feed by turning on their sides and taking in water mixed with sediment, which is then expelled through the baleen, leaving their prey trapped inside. This is an efficient method of hunting, in which the whale has no major competitors.{{sfn|Jefferson et al.}}

===Odontocetes===

Odontocetes are known as toothed whales; they have teeth and only one blowhole. They rely on their well-developed sonar to find their way in the water. Toothed whales send out [[Physics:Ultrasound|ultrasonic]] clicks using the melon. Sound waves travel through the water. Upon striking an object in the water, the sound waves bounce back at the whale. These vibrations are received through fatty tissues in the jaw, which is then rerouted into the ear-bone and into the brain where the vibrations are interpreted.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=203–427}} All toothed whales are opportunistic, meaning they will eat anything they can fit in their throat because they are unable to chew. These animals rely on their well-developed flippers and tail fin to propel themselves through the water; they swim by moving their fore-flippers and tail fin up and down. Whale ribs loosely articulate with their thoracic vertebrae at the proximal end, but they do not form a rigid rib cage. This adaptation allows the chest to compress during deep dives as opposed to resisting the force of water pressure.{{sfn|Cozzi et al.|2009}} Excluding dolphins and porpoises, odontocetes consist of four families: [[Biology:Monodontidae|belugas and narwhals (monodontids)]], [[Biology:Physeteridae|sperm whales (physeterids)]], [[Biology:Kogiidae|dwarf and pygmy sperm whales (kogiids)]], and [[Biology:Ziphiidae|beaked whales (ziphiids)]].{{sfn|McBrearty|1991|pp=33–65}}

The differences between families of odontocetes include size, feeding adaptations and distribution. Monodontids consist of two species: the [[Biology:Beluga whale|beluga]] and the [[Biology:Narwhal|narwhal]]. They both reside in the frigid arctic and both have large amounts of blubber. Belugas, being white, hunt in large pods near the surface and around pack ice, their coloration acting as camouflage. Narwhals, being black, hunt in large pods in the aphotic zone, but their underbelly still remains white to remain camouflaged when something is looking directly up or down at them. They have no dorsal fin to prevent collision with pack ice.{{sfn|Jefferson|2015a}}
Physeterids and Kogiids consist of [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]]s. Sperm whales consist the largest and smallest odontocetes, and spend a large portion of their life hunting squid. ''P. macrocephalus'' spends most of its life in search of squid in the depths; these animals do not require any degree of light at all, in fact, blind sperm whales have been caught in perfect health. The behaviour of Kogiids remains largely unknown, but, due to their small lungs, they are thought to hunt in the [[Earth:Photic zone|photic zone]].{{sfn|Jefferson|2015b}}
Ziphiids consist of 22 species of [[Biology:Beaked whale|beaked whale]]. These vary from size, to coloration, to distribution, but they all share a similar hunting style. They use a suction technique, aided by a pair of grooves on the underside of their head, not unlike the throat pleats on the [[Biology:Rorqual|rorqual]]s, to feed.{{sfn|Jefferson|2015c}}

As a formal clade (a group which does not exclude any descendant [[Biology:Taxon|taxon]]), odontocetes also contains the [[Biology:Porpoise|porpoise]]s (Phocoenidae) and four or five living families of dolphins: oceanic dolphins ([[Biology:Delphinidae|Delphinidae]]), [[Biology:South Asian river dolphin|South Asian river dolphin]]s ([[Biology:Platanistidae|Platanistidae]]), the possibly extinct Yangtze River dolphin ([[Biology:Lipotidae|Lipotidae]]), [[Biology:Inia|South American river dolphins]] ([[Biology:Iniidae|Iniidae]]), and [[Biology:La Plata dolphin|La Plata dolphin]] (Pontoporiidae).

===Evolution===
{{Main|Biology:Evolution of cetaceans}}
[[File:Basilosaurus cetoides (1).jpg|right|thumb|Basilosaurus skeleton]]

Whales are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the [[Biology:Artiodactyl|artiodactyl]] [[Biology:Order|order]] (even-toed ungulates). They are related to the ''[[Biology:Indohyus|Indohyus]]'', an extinct [[Biology:Chevrotain|chevrotain]]-like ungulate, from which they split approximately 48 million years ago.{{sfn|Northeastern Ohio Universities|2007}}{{sfn|Dawkins|2004}} Primitive cetaceans, or archaeocetes, first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic 5–10 million years later. What defines an archaeocete is the presence of anatomical features exclusive to cetaceans, alongside other primitive features not found in modern cetaceans, such as visible legs or asymmetrical teeth.{{sfn|Berkeley}}{{sfn|Thewissen et al.|2007}}{{sfn|Fahlke et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Gatesy|1997}} Their features became adapted for living in the [[Earth:Sea|marine environment]]. Major anatomical changes included their hearing set-up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone (''[[Biology:Ambulocetus|Ambulocetus]]'' 49 [[Physics:Mya (unit)|mya]]), a streamlined body and the growth of flukes on the tail (''[[Biology:Protocetus|Protocetus]]'' 43 mya), the migration of the nostrils toward the top of the cranium (blowholes), and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers (''[[Biology:Basilosaurus|Basilosaurus]]'' 35 mya), and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs (the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 mya).{{sfn|Kenneth|2001}}{{sfn|Bebej et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=508}}

Whale morphology shows several examples of [[Biology:Convergent evolution|convergent evolution]], the most obvious being the streamlined fish-like body shape.{{sfn|Lam|1999}} Other examples include the use of [[Philosophy:Animal echolocation|echolocation]] for hunting in low light conditions&nbsp;— which is the same hearing adaptation used by [[Biology:Bat|bat]]s&nbsp;— and, in the rorqual whales, jaw adaptations, similar to those found in [[Biology:Pelican|pelican]]s, that enable engulfment feeding.{{sfn|Moskowitz|2011}}

Today, the closest living relatives of cetaceans are the [[Biology:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]]es; these share a [[Biology:Semiaquatic|semi-aquatic]] ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls some 60 mya.{{sfn|Gatesy|1997}} Around 40 mya, a common ancestor between the two branched off into cetacea and anthracotheres; nearly all anthracotheres became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene 2.5 mya, eventually leaving only one surviving lineage&nbsp;– the hippopotamus.{{sfn|Boisserie|Lihoreau|Brunet|2005}}

Whales split into two separate parvorders around 34 mya&nbsp;– the baleen whales (Mysticetes) and the toothed whales (Odontocetes).{{sfn|PBS ''Nature''|2012}}{{sfn|Houben et al.|2013|pp=341–344}}{{sfn|Steeman et al.|2009|pp=573–585}}

==Biology==
===Anatomy===
[[File:Baleen parts.png|thumb|right|Features of a blue whale]]
[[File:Sperm whale skeleton labelled.jpg|thumb|Features of a sperm whale skeleton]]
Whales have torpedo-shaped bodies with non-flexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, non-existent external ear flaps, a large tail fin, and flat heads (with the exception of [[Biology:Monodontidae|monodontids]] and [[Biology:Ziphiidae|ziphiids]]). Whale skulls have small eye orbits, long snouts (with the exception of monodontids and ziphiids) and eyes placed on the sides of its head. Whales range in size from the {{convert|2.6|m|ft|adj=on}} and {{convert|135|kg|lbs|adj=on}} dwarf sperm whale to the {{convert|34|m|ft|adj=on}} and {{convert|190|MT|ST|adj=on}} blue whale. Overall, they tend to dwarf other cetartiodactyls; the blue whale is the largest creature on Earth. Several species have female-biased sexual dimorphism, with the females being larger than the males. One exception is with the sperm whale, which has males larger than the females.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=510–511}}{{sfn|Ralls|Mesnick|1984|pp=1005–1011}}

Odontocetes, such as the sperm whale, possess teeth with [[Medicine:Cementum|cementum]] cells overlying dentine cells. Unlike human teeth, which are composed mostly of [[Biology:Tooth enamel|enamel]] on the portion of the tooth outside of the gum, whale teeth have cementum outside the gum. Only in larger whales, where the cementum is worn away on the tip of the tooth, does enamel show. Mysticetes have large whalebone, as opposed to teeth, made of keratin. Mysticetes have two blowholes, whereas Odontocetes contain only one.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=509–510}}

Breathing involves expelling stale air from the blowhole, forming an upward, steamy spout, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs; a humpback whale's lungs can hold about {{convert|5,000|L|usgal}} of air. Spout shapes differ among species, which facilitates identification.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=507–508}}{{sfn|Scholander|1940}}

All whales have a thick layer of blubber. In species that live near the poles, the blubber can be as thick as {{convert|11|in|cm}}. This blubber can help with buoyancy (which is helpful for a 100-ton whale), protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat, and energy for fasting when migrating to the equator; the primary usage for blubber is insulation from the harsh climate. It can constitute as much as 50% of a whale's body weight. Calves are born with only a thin layer of blubber, but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=5}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=510}}

Whales have a two- to three-chambered stomach that is similar in structure to those of terrestrial carnivores. Mysticetes contain a [[Biology:Proventriculus|proventriculus]] as an extension of the oesophagus; this contains stones that grind up food. They also have fundic and pyloric chambers.{{sfn|Stevens|Hume|1995|p=11}}

===Locomotion===<!-- Whale sounding links here -->
[[File:GreenlandWhaleLyd3.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of a bowhead whale; notice the vestigial pelvis. Richard Lydekker, 1894]]
Whales have two flippers on the front, and a tail fin. These flippers contain four digits. Although whales do not possess fully developed hind limbs, some, such as the sperm whale and bowhead whale, possess discrete rudimentary appendages, which may contain feet and digits. Whales are fast swimmers in comparison to seals, which typically cruise at 5–15 kn, or {{convert|9|–|28|kph|mph}}; the fin whale, in comparison, can travel at speeds up to {{convert|47|kph|mph}} and the sperm whale can reach speeds of {{convert|35|kph|mph}}. The fusing of the neck vertebrae, while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds, decreases flexibility; whales are unable to turn their heads. When swimming, whales rely on their tail fin to propel them through the water. Flipper movement is continuous. Whales swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down, propelling themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Some species log out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster. Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers. Most species have a dorsal fin.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=508}}{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=122–262}}

Whales are adapted for diving to great depths. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs; haemoglobin and [[Biology:Myoglobin|myoglobin]] store oxygen in body tissue; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin. Before going on long dives, many whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding; they stay close to the surface for a series of short, shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves, and then make a sounding dive.{{sfn|Cozzi et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Norena et al.|2000|pp=181–191}}

===Senses===
[[File:Delfinekko.gif|thumb|right|Biosonar by cetaceans]]
[[File:Sperm whale drawing with skeleton.jpg|thumb|right|Sperm whale skeleton. Richard Lydekker, 1894.]]

The whale ear has specific adaptations to the [[Earth:Ocean|marine]] environment. In humans, the [[Medicine:Middle ear|middle ear]] works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low [[Physics:Acoustic impedance|impedance]] and the [[Medicine:Cochlea|cochlea]]r fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, whales receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear.{{sfn|Cranford et al.|2008}} The whale ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater.{{sfn|Nummela et al.|2007|pp=716–733}} Odontocetes send out high-frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The melon size varies between species, the bigger the more dependent they are on it. A beaked whale for example has a small bulge sitting on top of its skull, whereas a sperm whale's head is filled up mainly with the melon.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=1–19}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=512}}{{sfn|Thewissen|Perrin|Wirsig|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}{{sfn|Ketten|1992|pp=717–750}}

The whale eye is relatively small for its size, yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight. As well as this, the eyes of a whale are placed on the sides of its head, so their vision consists of two fields, rather than a binocular view like humans have. When belugas surface, their lens and cornea correct the nearsightedness that results from the refraction of light; they contain both [[Biology:Rod cell|rod]] and [[Biology:Cone cell|cone]] cells, meaning they can see in both dim and bright light, but they have far more rod cells than they do cone cells. Whales do, however, lack short wavelength sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells indicating a more limited capacity for colour vision than most mammals.{{sfn|Mass et al.|2007|pp=701–715}} Most whales have slightly flattened eyeballs, enlarged pupils (which shrink as they surface to prevent damage), slightly flattened corneas and a [[Physics:Tapetum lucidum|tapetum lucidum]]; these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye and, therefore, a very clear image of the surrounding area. They also have glands on the eyelids and [[Medicine:Corneal epithelium|outer corneal layer]] that act as protection for the cornea.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=505–519}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=512}}

The olfactory lobes are absent in toothed whales, suggesting that they have no sense of smell. Some whales, such as the [[Biology:Bowhead whale|bowhead whale]], possess a [[Biology:Vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal organ]], which does mean that they can "sniff out" krill.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=481–505}}

Whales are not thought to have a good sense of taste, as their taste buds are atrophied or missing altogether. However, some toothed whales have preferences between different kinds of fish, indicating some sort of attachment to taste. The presence of the Jacobson's organ indicates that whales can smell food once inside their mouth, which might be similar to the sensation of taste.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=447–455}}

===Communication===
{{Listen|filename=Whales and Dolphins whale nature sounds songs nueva esparta.ogg|title=Humpback whale "song"|description=Recording of Humpback Whales singing and Clicking.|format=[[Software:Ogg|Ogg]]}}

Whale vocalization is likely to serve several purposes. Some species, such as the humpback whale, communicate using melodic sounds, known as whale song. These sounds may be extremely loud, depending on the species. Humpback whales only have been heard making clicks, while toothed whales use sonar that may generate up to 20,000 watts of sound (+73&nbsp;[[DBm|dBm]] or +43&nbsp;[[Decibel watt|dBw]]){{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=4}} and be heard for many miles.

Captive whales have occasionally been known to mimic human speech. Scientists have suggested this indicates a strong desire on behalf of the whales to communicate with humans, as whales have a very different vocal mechanism, so imitating human speech likely takes considerable effort.{{sfn|Collins|2012}}

Whales emit two distinct kinds of acoustic signals, which are called whistles and clicks:{{sfn|Mann|2000|p=9}}
Clicks are quick broadband burst pulses, used for sonar, although some lower-frequency broadband vocalizations may serve a non-echolocative purpose such as communication; for example, the pulsed calls of belugas. Pulses in a click train are emitted at intervals of ≈35–50 [[Millisecond|millisecond]]s, and in general these inter-click intervals are slightly greater than the round-trip time of sound to the target.
Whistles are narrow-band [[Physics:Frequency modulation|frequency modulated (FM)]] signals, used for communicative purposes, such as contact calls.

===Intelligence===

Whales are known to teach, learn, cooperate, scheme, and grieve.{{sfn|Siebert|2009}} The neocortex of many species of whale is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2007, were known only in hominids.{{sfn|Watson|2006|pp=1107–1112}} In humans, these cells are involved in social conduct, emotions, judgement, and theory of mind. Whale spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain that are homologous to where they are found in humans, suggesting that they perform a similar function.{{sfn|Hof|2007|pp=1–31}}

[[File:Whales Bubble Net Feeding-edit1.jpg|thumb|Bubble net feeding]]

[[Biology:Brain size|Brain size]] was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain-to-body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the ⅔ or ¾ exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an [[Physics:Encephalization quotient|encephalisation quotient]] that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. [[Biology:Sperm whale|Sperm whale]]s have the largest brain mass of any animal on Earth, averaging {{convert|8000|cm3|in3}} and {{convert|7.8|kg|lbs}} in mature males, in comparison to the average human brain which averages {{convert|1450|cm3|in3}} in mature males.{{sfn|NOAA Fisheries|2013}} The [[Physics:Brain-to-body mass ratio|brain-to-body mass ratio]] in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans.{{sfn|Mind Matters|2008}}

Small whales are known to engage in complex play behaviour, which includes such things as producing stable underwater [[Toroid|toroid]]al air-core [[Vortex|vortex]] rings or "[[Physics:Bubble ring|bubble ring]]s". There are two main methods of bubble ring production: rapid puffing of a burst of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring, or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the [[Helix|helical]] vortex currents thus formed. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex-rings, so that they burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface.{{sfn|Deep Ocean}} Some believe this is a means of communication.{{sfn|Griffin|2015}} Whales are also known to produce bubble-nets for the purpose of foraging.{{sfn|Wiley et al.|2011|pp=575–602}}

Larger whales are also thought, to some degree, to engage in play. The [[Biology:Southern right whale|southern right whale]], for example, elevates their tail fluke above the water, remaining in the same position for a considerable amount of time. This is known as "sailing". It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of {{wipe|Argentina}} and {{wipe|South Africa}}. [[Biology:Humpback whale|Humpback whale]]s, among others, are also known to display this behaviour.{{sfn|Leighton et al.|2007|pp=17–21}}

{{anchor|Reproduction}}

=== Life cycle ===

Whales are fully aquatic creatures, which means that birth and courtship behaviours are very different from terrestrial and semi-aquatic creatures. Since they are unable to go onto land to calve, they deliver the baby with the fetus positioned for tail-first delivery. This prevents the baby from drowning either upon or during delivery.

[[File:Southern right whale4.jpg|thumb|upright|A southern right whale tail-sailing]]
To feed the newborn, whales, being aquatic, must squirt the milk into the mouth of the calf. Nursing can occur while the mother whale is in the vertical or horizontal position. While nursing in the vertical position, a mother whale may sometimes rest with her tail flukes remaining stationary above the water.  This position with the flukes above the water is known as "whale-tail-sailing." Not all whale-tail-sailing includes nursing of the young, as whales have also been observed tail-sailing while no calves were present.{{sfn|Higgs}}

Being mammals, they have mammary glands used for nursing calves; they are weaned off at about 11 months of age. This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber; it contains so much fat that it has the consistency of toothpaste.{{sfn|Modern Marvels|2007}} As with humans, females whales typically deliver a single calf.  The whale pregnancy/ gestation period lasts longer than the typical 9 month gestation period for humans.  The whale gestation period is about 12 months.  Once born, the absolute dependency of the calf upon the mother lasts from one to two years.  Sexual maturity is achieved at around seven to ten years of age.  The length of the developmental phases of a whale's early life varies between different whale species.{{sfn|Johnson|Wolman|1984}}

As with humans, the whale mode of reproduction typically produces but one offspring approximately once each year.  While whales have fewer offspring over time than most species, the survival probability for each calf is also greater than for most other species. Female whales are referred to as "cows."  Female cows assume full responsibility for the care and training of their young.  Male whales, referred to as "bulls," typically play no role in the process of calf rearing.

Most baleen whales reside at the poles. So, to prevent the unborn baleen whale calves from dying of frostbite, the baleen mother must migrate to warmer calving/mating grounds. They will then stay there for a matter of months until the calf has developed enough blubber to survive the bitter temperatures of the poles. Until then, the baleen calves will feed on the mother's fatty milk.{{sfn|Zerbini et al.|2006}}

With the exception of the humpback whale, it is largely unknown when whales migrate. Most will travel from the Arctic or Antarctic into the tropics to mate, calve, and raise during the winter and spring; they will migrate back to the poles in the warmer summer months so the calf can continue growing while the mother can continue eating, as they fast in the breeding grounds. One exception to this is the [[Biology:Southern right whale|southern right whale]], which migrates to [[Place:Patagonia|Patagonia]] and western New Zealand to calve; both are well out of the tropic zone.{{sfn|Kennedy|2008|p=966}}

===Sleep===
{{Further|Biology:Sleep in animals}}
Unlike most animals, whales are conscious breathers. All mammals sleep, but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown. While knowledge of sleep in wild cetaceans is limited, toothed cetaceans in captivity have been recorded to sleep with one side of their brain at a time, so that they may swim, breathe consciously, and avoid both predators and social contact during their period of rest.{{sfn|Miller et al.|2008|pp=21–23}}

A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow 'drift-dives', generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives.{{sfn|Miller et al.|2008|pp=21–23}}

==Ecology==
===Foraging and predation===

[[File:Polar Bear ANWR 10.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Biology:Polar bear|Polar bear]] with the remains of a beluga]]

All whales are carnivorous and predatory. Odontocetes, as a whole, mostly feed on [[Biology:Fish|fish]] and [[Biology:Cephalopod|cephalopod]]s, and then followed by [[Biology:Crustacean|crustacean]]s and bivalves. All species are generalist and opportunistic feeders. Mysticetes, as a whole, mostly feed on [[Biology:Krill|krill]] and [[Earth:Plankton|plankton]], followed by crustaceans and other [[Biology:Invertebrate|invertebrate]]s. A few are specialists. Examples include the [[Biology:Blue whale|blue whale]], which eats almost exclusively krill, the [[Biology:Minke whale|minke whale]], which eats mainly schooling fish, the [[Biology:Sperm whale|sperm whale]], which specialize on [[Biology:Squid|squid]], and the grey whale which feed on bottom-dwelling invertebrates.{{sfn|Goldbogen|2010}}{{sfn|Nemoto et al.|1988|pp=292–296}}{{sfn|Lydersen et al.|1991}} The elaborate baleen "teeth" of filter-feeding species, mysticetes, allow them to remove water before they swallow their planktonic food by using the teeth as a sieve.{{sfn|Modern Marvels|2007}} Usually, whales hunt solitarily, but they do sometimes hunt cooperatively in small groups. The former behaviour is typical when hunting non-schooling fish, slow-moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey. When large amounts of prey are available, whales such as certain mysticetes hunt cooperatively in small groups.{{sfn|Defenders of Wildlife}} Some cetaceans may forage with other kinds of animals, such as other species of whales or certain species of pinnipeds.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=122–162}}{{sfn|Riedman|1991|p=168}}

Large whales, such as mysticetes, are not usually subject to predation, but smaller whales, such as monodontids or ziphiids, are. These species are preyed on by the otv or orca. To subdue and kill whales, orcas continuously ram them with their heads; this can sometimes kill bowhead whales, or severely injure them. Other times they corral the narwhals or belugas before striking. They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer orcas, but they are seldom attacked by an individual. Calves are more commonly taken by orcas, but adults can be targeted as well.{{sfn|Morrel|2012}}

These small whales are also targeted by terrestrial and [[Earth:Pagophily|pagophilic]] predators. The polar bear is well adapted for hunting Arctic whales and calves. Bears are known to use sit-and-wait tactics as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water. Whales lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups. This however means less room around the breathing hole as the ice slowly closes the gap. When out at sea, whales dive out of the reach of surface-hunting orcas. Polar bear attacks on belugas and narwhals are usually successful in winter, but rarely inflict any damage in summer.{{sfn|Smith|Sjare|1990}}

===Whale pump===
[[File:Oceanic whale pump - journal.pone.0013255.g001.tiff|thumb|"Whale pump" – the role played by whales in recycling ocean nutrients.{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}}]]

A 2010 study considered whales to be a positive influence to the productivity of ocean fisheries, in what has been termed a "whale pump." Whales carry nutrients such as nitrogen from the depths back to the surface. This functions as an upward biological pump, reversing an earlier presumption that whales accelerate the loss of nutrients to the bottom. This nitrogen input in the Gulf of Maine is "more than the input of all rivers combined" emptying into the gulf, some {{convert|23000|MT|ST}} each year.{{sfn|University of Vermont|2010}}{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}} Whales defecate at the ocean's surface; their excrement is important for fisheries because it is rich in iron and nitrogen. The whale faeces are liquid and instead of sinking, they stay at the surface where [[Earth:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] feed off it.{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}}{{sfn|Boness|2014}}{{sfn|Roman et al.|2014}}

===Whale fall===
{{Main|Biology:Whale fall}}
Upon death, whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life. Evidence of whale falls in present-day and fossil records shows that deep sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures, with a global diversity of 407 species, comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots, such as [[Earth:Cold seep|cold seep]]s and [[Earth:Hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vent]]s.{{sfn|Smith|Baco|2003}}

Deterioration of whale carcasses happens though a series of three stages. Initially, moving organisms such as [[Biology:Shark|shark]]s and [[Biology:Hagfish|hagfish]], scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months, and as long as two years. This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments (which contain organic matter) by enrichment opportunists, such as crustaceans and polychaetes, throughout a period of years. Finally, sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing [[Chemistry:Hydrogen sulfide|hydrogen sulfide]] enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms, which in turn, support other organisms such as mussels, clams, limpets, and sea snails. This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species, averaging 185 species per site.{{sfn|Smith|Baco|2003}}{{sfn|Fujiwara et al.|2007}}

==Relationship with humans==
===Whaling===

[[File:Whale Fishing Fac simile of a Woodcut in the Cosmographie Universelle of Thevet in folio Paris 1574 crop.png|thumb|Whale Fishing: Woodcut by Thevet, Paris, 1574]]
[[File:Walvisvangst bij de kust van Spitsbergen - Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen (Abraham Storck, 1690).jpg|thumb|Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen, their most successful port. ''Abraham Storck, 1690'']]

Whaling by humans has existed since the Stone Age. Ancient whalers used [[Engineering:Harpoon|harpoon]]s to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea.{{sfn|BBC News|2004}} People from Norway and Japan started hunting whales around 2000 B.C.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} Whales are typically hunted for their meat and blubber by aboriginal groups; they used baleen for baskets or roofing, and made tools and masks out of bones.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The Basques started whaling as early as the 11th century, sailing as far as Newfoundland in the 16th century in search of right whales.{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Proulx|1994|pp=260–286}} 18th- and 19th-century whalers hunted whales mainly for their [[Earth:Whale oil|oil]], which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant, baleen or whalebone, which was used for items such as corsets and skirt hoops,{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} and [[Chemistry:Ambergris|ambergris]], which was used as a fixative for perfumes. The most successful whaling nations at this time were the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States.{{sfn|New Bedford}}

Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Whaling was at that time a sizeable European industry with ships from Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany, sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic, sometimes in competition leading even to war.{{sfn|Stonehouse|2007}} By the early 1790s, whalers, namely the Americans and Australians, focused efforts in the South Pacific where they mainly hunted sperm whales and right whales, with catches of up to 39,000 right whales by Americans alone.{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Tonnessen|1982}} By 1853, US profits reached US$11,000,000 (£6.5m), equivalent to US$348,000,000 (£230m) today, the most profitable year for the American whaling industry.{{sfn|PBS ''American Experience''}} Commonly exploited species included North Atlantic right whales, sperm whales, which were mainly hunted by Americans, bowhead whales, which were mainly hunted by the Dutch, common minke whales, blue whales, and grey whales. The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially after 1982 when the International Whaling Commission (IWC) placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country, excluding aboriginal groups until 2004.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

Current whaling nations are Norway, Iceland, and Japan, despite their joining to the IWC, as well as the aboriginal communities of Siberia, Alaska, and northern Canada.{{sfn|IFAW}} Subsistence hunters typically use whale products for themselves and depend on them for survival. National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of hunting are seen as less destructive and wasteful. This distinction is being questioned as these aboriginal groups are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with, and are selling whale products in the marketplace. Some anthropologists argue that the term "subsistence" should also apply to these cash-based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=13}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|Morseth|1997}} In 1946, the IWC placed a moratorium, limiting the annual whale catch. Since then, yearly profits for these "subsistence" hunters have been close to US$31 million (£20m) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

===Other threats===

Whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as bycatch and accidentally swallow fishing hooks. [[Engineering:Gillnetting|Gillnetting]] and [[Engineering:Seine fishing|Seine netting]] is a significant cause of mortality in whales and other marine mammals.{{sfn|NOAA Fisheries|2014}} Species commonly entangled include beaked whales. Whales are also affected by [[Earth:Marine pollution|marine pollution]]. High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases.{{sfn|Metcalfe|2012}} They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags.{{sfn|Tsai|2015}} Advanced military sonar harms whales. Sonar interferes with the basic biological functions of whales—such as feeding and mating—by impacting their ability to [[Philosophy:Animal echolocation|echolocate]]. Whales swim in response to sonar and sometimes experience [[Medicine:Decompression sickness|decompression sickness]] due to rapid changes in depth. Mass [[Biology:Cetacean stranding|strandings]] have been triggered by sonar activity, resulting in injury or death.{{sfn|Stockton|2016}}{{sfn|Carrington|2013}}{{sfn|Scientific American|2009}}<ref>References prior to 2010, before a more definitive conclusion:
* {{harvnb|Rommel et al.|2006}}
* {{harvnb|Schrope|2003|p=106}}
* {{harvnb|Kirby|2003}}
* {{harvnb|Piantadosi et al.|2004}}
</ref> Whales are sometimes killed or injured during collisions with ships or boats. This is considered to be a significant threat to vulnerable whale populations such as the [[Biology:North Atlantic right whale|North Atlantic right whale]], whose total population numbers less than 500.{{sfn|WWF}}

===Conservation===
[[File:Blue Whale population, Pengo.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|World population graph of blue whales|alt=Diagram showing blue whale population trend through the 1900s]]

Whaling decreased substantially after 1946 when, in response to the steep decline in whale populations, the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country; this excluded aboriginal groups up until 2004.{{sfn|New Bedford}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|IWC "Key Documents"}}{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} As of 2015, aboriginal communities are allowed to take 280 bowhead whales off Alaska and two from the western coast of Greenland, 620 grey whales off Washington state, three [[Biology:Common minke whale|common minke whale]]s off the eastern coast of Greenland and 178 on their western coast, 10 [[Biology:Fin whale|fin whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland, nine [[Biology:Humpback whale|humpback whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland and 20 off St. Vincent and the Grenadines each year.{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers; for example, grey whales may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting, but the [[Biology:Gray whale#North Atlantic|North Atlantic population]] is functionally extinct. Conversely, the North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range, which stretched across the North Atlantic, and only remains in small fragments along the coast of Canada, Greenland, and is considered functionally extinct along the European coastline.{{sfn|NOAA|2014}}

[[File:International Whaling Commission members.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|World map showing International Whaling Commission (IWC) members in blue|alt=Map showing IWC members in blue]]
The IWC has designated two whale sanctuaries: the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, and the [[Earth:Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary|Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary]]. The Southern Ocean whale sanctuary spans {{convert|30560860|km2|sqmi}} and envelopes Antarctica.{{sfn|MacKenzie|1994}} The Indian Ocean whale sanctuary takes up all of the Indian Ocean south of 55°S.{{sfn|IWC "Whale Sanctuaries"}} The IWC is a voluntary organization, with no treaty. Any nation may leave as they wish; the IWC cannot enforce any law it makes.

There are at least 86 cetacean species that are recognized by the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee.{{sfn|Australian Report|2009|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} {{As of|2020}}, six are considered at risk, as they are ranked "Critically Endangered" (North Atlantic right whale{{sfn|Cooke|2020}}), "[[Biology:Endangered species|Endangered]]" (blue whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2019}} North Pacific right whale,{{sfn|Cooke|Clapham|2018}} and sei whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2018a}}) and "[[Biology:Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]" (fin whale{{sfn|Cooke|2018c}} and sperm whale{{sfn|Taylor et al.|2019}}). Twenty-one species have a "Data Deficient" ranking.{{sfn|Mead|2005|pp=723–743}} Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]], particularly the time when pack ice forms and melts.{{sfn|Laidre|Stirling|Lowry|Wiig|2008|pp=97–125}}

===Whale watching===
[[File:Whale Watching.jpg|thumb|Whale watching off Bar Harbour, Maine]]

An estimated 13 million people went whale watching globally in 2008, in all oceans except the Arctic.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} Rules and codes of conduct have been created to minimize harassment of the whales.{{sfn|Watchable Wildlife|2004}} Iceland, Japan and Norway have both whaling and whale watching industries. Whale watching lobbyists are concerned that the most inquisitive whales, which approach boats closely and provide much of the entertainment on whale-watching trips, will be the first to be taken if whaling is resumed in the same areas.{{sfn|Björgvinsson|2002}} Whale watching generated US$2.1 billion (£1.4 billion) per annum in tourism revenue worldwide, employing around 13,000 workers.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} In contrast, the whaling industry, with the moratorium in place, generates US$31 million (£20 million) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}} The size and rapid growth of the industry has led to complex and continuing debates with the whaling industry about the best use of whales as a [[Social:Natural resource|natural resource]].

===In myth, literature and art===
[[File:Im Februar 1598 an der holländischen Küste gestrandeter Walfisch.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving by Gilliam van der Gouwen depicting a stranded sperm whale being butchered on the Dutch coast, 1598]]

As marine creatures that reside in either the depths or the poles, humans knew very little about whales over the course of [[History:Human history|human history]]; many feared or revered them. The [[History:Vikings|Vikings]] and various arctic tribes revered the whale as they were important pieces of their lives. In Inuit [[Astronomy:Creation myth|creation myth]]s, when 'Big Raven', a deity in human form, found a stranded whale, he was told by the [[Religion:Great Spirit|Great Spirit]] where to find special mushrooms that would give him the strength to drag the whale back to the sea and thus, return order to the world. In an Icelandic legend, a man threw a stone at a [[Biology:Fin whale|fin whale]] and hit the blowhole, causing the whale to burst. The man was told not to go to sea for twenty years, but during the nineteenth year he went fishing and a whale came and killed him.

Whales played a major part in shaping the art forms of many coastal civilizations, such as the Norse, with some dating to the Stone Age. Petroglyphs off a cliff face in Bangudae, South Korea show 300 depictions of various animals, a third of which are whales. Some show particular detail in which there are throat pleats, typical of [[Biology:Rorqual|rorqual]]s. These petroglyphs show these people, of around 7,000 to 3,500 B.C.E. in South Korea, had a very high dependency on whales.{{sfn|World Archaeology|2014}}

The Pacific Islanders and Australian Aborigines viewed whales as bringers of good and joy. One exception is French Polynesia, where, in many parts, cetaceans are met with great brutality.{{sfn|Cressey|1998}}

In coastal regions of China, Korea and Vietnam, the worship of whale gods, who were associated with [[Religion:Dragon King|Dragon King]]s after the arrival of [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]], was present along with related legends.{{sfn|Lee Soon Ae|1999}}The god of the seas, according to Chinese folklore, was a large whale with human limbs.

In Vietnam, whales hold a sense of divinity. They are so respected in their cultures that they occasionally hold funerals for beached whales, a custom deriving  from Vietnam's ancient sea-based [[Place:Champa|Champa Kingdom]].{{sfn|The Independent|2010}}{{sfn|Sydney Morning Herald|2003}}{{sfn|Viegas|2010}}{{sfn|GNA|2005}} 

[[File:Gustave Doré - Baron von Münchhausen - 067.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Illustration by Gustave Doré of Baron Munchausen's tale of being swallowed by a whale. While the Biblical Book of Jonah refers to the Prophet Jonah being swallowed by "a big fish", in later derivations that "fish" was identified as a whale.]]
Whales have also played a role in sacred texts. The story of Jonah being swallowed by a great fish is told both in the Qur'an<ref>{{qref|37|139-148|b=y}}</ref> and in the biblical Book of Jonah (and is mentioned by Jesus in the New Testament: Matthew 12:40.{{sfn|Matthew}}). This episode was frequently depicted in medieval art (for example, on a 12th-century column [[Engineering:Capital (architecture)|capital]] at the abbey church of Mozac, France). The [[Religion:Bible|Bible]] also mentions whales in [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:21, Job 7:12, and Ezekiel 32:2. The "[[Unsolved:Leviathan|leviathan]]" described at length in Job 41:1-34 is generally understood to refer to a whale. The "sea monsters" in Lamentations 4:3 have been taken by some to refer to marine mammals, in particular whales, although most modern versions use the word "jackals" instead.{{sfn|Lamentations}}<!-- "sea monsters" (marine mammals) in the Douay-Rheims, KJV, Webster, AKJV, and English Jubilee 2000 version - KJV margin "sea calves" (seals) -->

[[File:Oswald Brierly - Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales, 1867.jpg|thumb|left|''Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales''. Watercolour by Oswald Brierly, 1867]]
In 1585, Alessandro Farnese, 1585, and Francois, Duke of Anjou, 1582, were greeted on his ceremonial entry into the port city of Antwerp by floats including "Neptune and the Whale", indicating at least<!--in John Mack's view--> the city's dependence on the sea for its wealth.{{sfn|Mack|2013}}

In 1896, an article in ''The Pall Mall Gazette'' popularised a practice of [[Medicine:Alternative medicine|alternative medicine]] that probably began in the whaling town of Eden, {{wipe|Australia}} two or three years earlier.{{sfn|The Pall Mall Gazette|1896}} It was believed that climbing inside a whale carcass and remaining there for a few hours would relieve symptoms of [[Medicine:Rheumatism|rheumatism]].{{sfn|Barlass|2014}}

Whales continue to be prevalent in modern literature. For example, [[Biography:Herman Melville|Herman Melville]]'s ''Moby Dick'' features a "great white whale" as the main antagonist for Ahab. The whale is an albino sperm whale, considered by Melville to be the largest type of whale, and is partly based on the historically attested bull whale Mocha Dick. Rudyard Kipling's ''Just So Stories'' includes the story of "How the Whale got in his Throat". A whale features in the award-winning children's book ''The Snail and the Whale'' (2003) by Julia Donaldson and Axel Scheffler.

Niki Caro's film the ''Whale Rider'' has a Māori girl ride a whale in her journey to be a suitable heir to the chieftain-ship.{{sfn|Jøn|2014}} Walt Disney's film ''Pinocchio'' features a showdown with a giant whale named Monstro at the end of the film.

A recording of ''Song with a Humpback Whale'' by a team of marine scientists became popular in 1970. Alan Hovhaness's orchestral composition ''And God Created Great Whales'' (1970) includes the recorded sounds of humpback and bowhead whales.{{sfn|Hovhannes|1970}} Recorded whale songs also appear in a number of other musical works, including Léo Ferré's song "Il n'y a plus rien" and Judy Collins's "Farewell to Tarwathie" (on the 1970 album ''Whales and Nightingales'').

===In captivity===
[[File:WIKI SEA WORLD FL 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Biology:Beluga whale|Beluga whale]]s and trainers in an aquarium]]

Belugas were the first whales to be kept in captivity. Other species were too rare, too shy, or too big. The first beluga was shown at Barnum's Museum in {{wipe|New York City}} in 1861.{{sfn|''New York Times''|1861}} For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source of wild belugas.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} They were taken from the St. Lawrence River estuary until the late 1960s, after which they were predominantly taken from the Churchill River estuary until capture was banned in 1992.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Russia has become the largest provider since it had been banned in Canada.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Belugas are caught in the Amur River delta and their eastern coast, and then are either transported domestically to aquariums or dolphinariums in [[Place:Moscow|Moscow]], St. Petersburg, and Sochi, or exported to other countries, such as Canada.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Most captive belugas are caught in the wild, since captive-breeding programs are not very successful.{{sfn|WAZA}}

As of 2006, 30 belugas were in Canada and 28 in the United States, and 42 deaths in captivity had been reported up to that time.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} A single specimen can reportedly fetch up to US$100,000 (£64,160) on the market. The beluga's popularity is due to its unique colour and its [[Philosophy:Facial expression|facial expression]]s. The latter is possible because while most cetacean "smiles" are fixed, the extra movement afforded by the beluga's unfused cervical vertebrae allows a greater range of apparent expression.{{sfn|Bonner|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}

Between 1960 and 1992, the Navy carried out a program that included the study of marine mammals' abilities with [[Philosophy:Animal echolocation|sonar]], with the objective of improving the detection of underwater objects. A large number of belugas were used from 1975 on, the first being dolphins.{{sfn|Bonner|1980|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}{{sfn|PBS ''Frontline''}} The program also included training them to carry equipment and material to divers working underwater by holding cameras in their mouths to locate lost objects, survey ships and [[Engineering:Submarine|submarine]]s, and underwater monitoring.{{sfn|PBS ''Frontline''}} A similar program was used by the Russian Navy during the Cold War, in which belugas were also trained for antimining operations in the Arctic.{{sfn|Beland|1996}}

Aquariums have tried housing other species of whales in captivity. The success of belugas turned attention to maintaining their relative, the narwhal, in captivity. However, in repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s, all narwhals kept in captivity died within months. A pair of pygmy right whales were retained in an enclosed area (with nets); they were eventually released in South Africa. There was one attempt to keep a stranded Sowerby's beaked whale calf in captivity; the calf rammed into the tank wall, breaking its rostrum, which resulted in death. It was thought that Sowerby's beaked whale evolved to swim fast in a straight line, and a {{convert|30|m|ft|adj=on}} tank was not big enough.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=279}} There have been attempts to keep baleen whales in captivity. There were three attempts to keep grey whales in captivity. Gigi was a grey whale calf that died in transport. Gigi II was another grey whale calf that was captured in the Ojo de Liebre Lagoon, and was transported to SeaWorld.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=372–373}} The {{convert|680|kg|lbs|adj=on}} calf was a popular attraction, and behaved normally, despite being separated from his mother. A year later, the {{convert|8000|kg|lbs|adj=on}} whale grew too big to keep in captivity and was released; it was the first of two grey whales, the other being another grey whale calf named JJ, to successfully be kept in captivity.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=372–373}} There were three attempts to keep minke whales in captivity in Japan. They were kept in a tidal pool with a [[Earth:Waterway|sea-gate]] at the Izu Mito Sea Paradise. Another, unsuccessful, attempt was made by the U.S. {{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=383}} One stranded humpback whale calf was kept in captivity for rehabilitation, but died days later.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=421}}

==See also==
* List of individual cetaceans
* Whaling in Japan

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
===Books===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite book|last1=Björgvinsson|first1=Ásbjörn|last2=Lugmayr |first2=Helmut|last3=Camm|first3=Martin |last4=Skaptason |first4=Jón |year=2002|title=Whale watching in Iceland |isbn=978-9979-761-55-6|ref={{harvid|Björgvinsson|2002}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Beland |first=Pierre |year=1996 |title=Beluga: A Farewell to Whales |publisher=The Lyons Press |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-55821-398-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/belugafarewellto0000bela/page/224 224] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/belugafarewellto0000bela}}
*{{cite book |last=Bonner |first=Nigel |year=1980 |title=Whales |publisher=Blandford Press |isbn=978-0-7137-0887-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4S47N3YMgwC}}
*{{cite book|last=Dawkins |first=Richard |year=2004 |title=The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life |title-link=The Ancestor's Tale |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-00583-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Gormley|first=Gerard|year=1990 |title=Orcas of the Gulf: A Natural History |publisher=toExcel |location=Lincoln, NE |isbn=978-0-595-01118-6 |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=xwvWILe_c_cC}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kennedy |first1=Robert |last2=Perrin |first2=W.F. |last3=Wursig |first3=B. |last4=Thewissen |first4=J. G. M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |title=Right whales (''E. glacialis'', ''E. japonica'', and ''E. australis'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rkHQpToi9sC&pg=PA966 |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 |ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2008}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ketten |first1=Darlene R.|year=1992 |chapter=The Marine Mammal Ear: Specializations for Aquatic Audition and Echolocation |title=The Evolutionary Biology of Hearing |editor1-last=Webster |editor1-first=Douglas B. |editor2-last=Fay |editor2-first=Richard R. |editor3-last=Popper |editor3-first=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer–Verlag |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_44 |isbn=978-1-4612-7668-5 |pages=717–750}}
*{{cite book|last1=Klinowska |first1=Margaret |year=1991 |title=Dolphins, Porpoises, and Whales of the World: the IUCN Red Data Book |publisher=IUCN Publications |location=Columbia University Press, NY |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RD-1991-001.pdf|isbn=978-2-88032-936-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mack |first1=John |title=The Sea: a cultural history |date=2013 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-78023-184-6 |pages=205–206}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Mann |editor-first1=Janet |editor-last2=Connor |editor-first2=Richard C. |editor-last3=Tyack |editor-first3=Peter L. |editor-last4=Whitehead |editor-first4=Hal |year=2000 |title=Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales |publisher=University of Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-50341-7 |page=9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=W-UQNoxMONwC}} |ref={{harvid|Mann|2000}}}}
*{{cite book|last=McBrearty|first=D.|year=1991 |chapter=Records of 'blackfish' (killer, false killer, pilot, pygmy killer, and melon-headed whales) in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary, 1772-1986 |editor-last1=Leatherwood |editor-first1=S. |editor-last2=Donovan |editor-first2=G.P. |title=Cetaceans and cetacean research in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary |pages=33–65 |location=Nairobi |publisher=UNEP |series=Marine Mammal Technical Report |volume=3 |oclc=28388647 |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/27925}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mead |first1=J.G. |last2=Brownell | first2=R.L. Jr. |year=2005 |chapter=Order Cetacea |title=Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |pages=723–743 |isbn=978-0-8018-8221-0 |ref={{harvid|Mead|2005}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Nemoto |first1=T. |last2=Okiyama |first2=M. |last3=Iwasaki |first3=N. |last4=Kikuchi |first4=T. |year=1988 |editor1=Dietrich Sahrhage |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|title=Antarctic Ocean and Resources Variability |chapter=Squid as Predators on Krill (Euphausia superba) and Prey for Sperm Whales in the Southern Ocean |pages=292–296 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-73724-4_25 |isbn=978-3-642-73726-8|ref={{harvid|Nemoto et al.|1988}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Proulx|first=Jean-Pierre|year=1994 |title=Basque whaling in Labrador in the 16th century |pages=260–286 |publisher=National Historic Sites, Parks Service, Environment Canada |isbn=978-0-660-14819-9}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ralls |first1=Katherine |last2=Mesnick |first2=Sarah |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |title=Sexual Dimorphism |pages=1005–1011 |edition=2nd |year=1984 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-08-091993-5 |url=http://www.cetus.ucsd.edu/SIO133/PDF/Sexual%20Dimorphism.pdf |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725004132/http://www.cetus.ucsd.edu/SIO133/PDF/Sexual%20Dimorphism.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book |last=Riedman |first=M. |year=1991 |title=The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried/page/168 168] |isbn=978-0-520-06498-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried/page/168 }}
*{{cite book|last=Skeat|first=Walter W.|year=1898|title=An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |edition=3rd |publisher=Clarendon Press|page=704 |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=vDZAAAAAYAAJ|page=704}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Stevens |first1=C. Edward |last2=Hume |first2=Ian D. |year=1995 |title=Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Digestive System |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44418-7 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DZuAsci2apAC |page=11}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Thewissen |first1=J. G. M. |last2=Perrin |first2=William R. |last3=Wirsig |first3=Bernd |chapter=Hearing |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma2002unse/page/570 570–572] |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |year=2002 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-12-551340-1 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma2002unse/page/570}}
*{{cite book|last1=Thomas |first1=Jeanette A. |last2=Kastelein |first2=Ronald A. |title=Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: Laboratory and Field Evidence |isbn=978-1-4899-0860-5 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-0858-2 |date=1990 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VWz1BwAAQBAJ |page=1}} |volume=196 |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media |location=New York|s2cid=32801659 |ref={{harvid|Jeanette et al.|1990}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tonnessen |first1=J.N. |last2=Johnsen |first2=A.O |year=1982 |title=The History of Modern Whaling |publisher=C. Hurst |isbn=978-0-905838-23-6|ref={{harvid|Tonnessen|1982}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Whitehead|first=H.|year=2003|title=Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/4 4] |isbn=978-0-226-89518-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/4}}
{{refend}}

===Articles===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Bebej |first1=R. M. |last2=ul-Haq |first2=M. |last3=Zalmout |first3=I. S. |last4=Gingerich |first4=P. D. |title=Morphology and Function of the Vertebral Column in ''Remingtonocetus domandaensis'' (Mammalia, cetacea) from the Middle Eocene Domanda Formation of Pakistan |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |date=June 2012 |volume=19 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/S10914-011-9184-8 |pages=77–104|s2cid=17810850 |ref={{harvid|Bebej et al.|2012}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Boisserie |first1=Jean-Renaud |last2=Lihoreau |first2=Fabrice |last3=Brunet |first3=Michel |year=2005 |title=The position of Hippopotamidae within Cetartiodactyla |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=1537–1541 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0409518102 |pmid=15677331 |pmc=547867 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.1537B|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Cranford |first1=T.W. |last2=Krysl |first2=P. |last3=Hildebrand |first3=J.A. |date=2008 |title=Acoustic pathways revealed: simulated sound transmission and reception in Cuvier's beaked whale (''Ziphius cavirostris'') |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=3 |issue=1 |at=016001 |doi=10.1088/1748-3182/3/1/016001 |pmid=18364560 |bibcode=2008BiBi....3a6001C |s2cid=26098966 |ref={{harvid|Cranford et al.|2008}}}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |year=2018a |title=''Balaenoptera borealis'' |at=e.T2475A130482064 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2475A130482064.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |title=''Balaenoptera musculus'' |errata=2019 |year=2018 |at=e.T2477A156923585 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2477A156923585.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |year=2018c |title=''Balaenoptera physalus'' |at=e.T2478A50349982 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2478A50349982.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |title=''Eubalaena glacialis'' |errata=2020 |year=2020 |at=e.T41712A178589687 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T41712A178589687.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG, Clapham PJ |title=''Eubalaena japonica'' |year=2018 |at=e.T41711A50380694 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T41711A50380694.en }}
*{{cite journal |last=Cressey |first=Jason |year=1998 |title=Making a Splash in the Pacific Ocean: Dolphin and Whale Myths and Legends of Oceania |journal=Rapa Nui Journal |volume=12 |pages=75–84 |url=http://islandheritage.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/RNJ_12_3_Cressey.pdf |access-date=5 August 2015 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120050556/http://islandheritage.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/RNJ_12_3_Cressey.pdf |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Fahlke |first1=Julia M. |last2=Gingerich |first2=Philip D. |last3=Welsh |first3=Robert C. |last4=Wood |first4=Aaron R. |year=2011 |title=Cranial asymmetry in Eocene archaeocete whales and the evolution of directional hearing in water |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=35 |pages=14545–14548 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1108927108 |pmid=21873217|ref={{harvid|Fahlke et al.|2011}} |pmc=3167538 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10814545F |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Fujiwara |first1=Yoshihiro |display-authors=0 |date=16 February 2007 |title=Three-year investigations into sperm whale-fall ecosystems in Japan |journal=Marine Ecology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=219–230 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0485.2007.00150.x |bibcode=2007MarEc..28..219F |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Fujiwara et al.|2007}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gatesy |first1=J. |date=1997 |title=More DNA support for a Cetacea/Hippopotamidae clade: the blood-clotting protein gene gamma-fibrinogen |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume=14 |pages=537–543 |pmid=9159931|issue=5 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025790 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Goldbogen|first1=Jeremy A.|date=2010|title=The Ultimate Mouthful: Lunge Feeding in Rorqual Whales |journal=American Scientist|volume=98 |issue=2|pages=124–131|doi=10.1511/2010.83.124 |url=http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-ultimate-mouthful-lunge-feeding-in-rorqual-whales|access-date=19 July 2015 |archive-date=28 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028092321/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-ultimate-mouthful-lunge-feeding-in-rorqual-whales|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Hof |first1=Patrick R. |last2=Van Der Gucht |first2=Estel |year=2007 |title=Structure of the cerebral cortex of the humpback whale, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' (Cetacea, Mysticeti, Balaenopteridae) |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1002/ar.20407 |pmid=17441195|s2cid=15460266 |ref={{harvid|Hof|2007}}|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Houben|first1=A. J. P. |last2=Bijl|first2=P. K. |last3=Pross|first3=J. |last4=Bohaty|first4=S. M. |last5=Passchier|first5=S. |last6=Stickley|first6=C. E. |last7=Rohl|first7=U. |last8=Sugisaki|first8=S. |last9=Tauxe|first9=L. |last10=van de Flierdt|first10=T. |last11=Olney|first11=M. |last12=Sangiorgi|first12=F. |last13=Sluijs|first13=A. |last14=Escutia |first14=C. |last15=Brinkhuis|first15=H. |date=2013 |title=Reorganization of Southern Ocean Plankton Ecosystem at the Onset of Antarctic Glaciation |journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6130|pages=341–344 |doi=10.1126/science.1223646 |pmid=23599491 |s2cid=30549019 |bibcode=2013Sci...340..341H |hdl=1874/385683 |ref={{harvid|Houben et al.|2013}}|hdl-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=James H. |last2=Wolman |first2=Allen A. |date=1984 |title=The Humpback Whale ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' |journal=Marine Fisheries Review |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=30–37 |url=http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/mfr464/mfr4647.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102700/http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/mfr464/mfr4647.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Jøn|first=A. Asbjørn|date=2014 |title=The whale road: Transitioning from spiritual links, to whaling, to whale watching in Aotearoa New Zealand |journal=Australian Folklore: A Yearly Journal of Folklore Studies |issue=29 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288579743 |access-date=11 February 2016}}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Laidre KL, Stirling I, Lowry LF, Wiig Ø, Heide-Jørgensen MP, Ferguson SH |title=Quantifying the sensitivity of Arctic marine mammals to climate-induced habitat change |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=18 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=S97–S125 |year=2008 |pmid=18494365 |doi=10.1890/06-0546.1 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008EcoAp..18S..97L }}
*{{cite report |author=Lee Soon Ae |year=1999 |title=護る神から守られる神へ : 韓国とベトナムの鯨神信仰を中心に|trans-title=From Gods Who Protect To The Gods Who Are Protected: Focusing on Korean and Vietnamese worship of whale gods (?) |series=国立民族学博物館調査報告 [National Museum of Ethnology Research Report] |language=ja |volume=149 |pages=195–212}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Leighton|first1=Tim|last2=Finfer |first2=Dan|last3=Grover|first3=Ed|last4=White|first4=Paul |date=2007 |title=An acoustical hypothesis for the spiral bubble nets of humpback whales, and the implications for whale feeding |journal=Acoustics Bulletin |volume=32|number=1|pages=17–21 |url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/45654/1/Spiral_net__Leighton__web_1.pdf |ref={{harvid|Leighton et al.|2007}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Lydersen |first1=Christian |last2=Weslawski |first2=Jan Marcin |last3=Øritsland |first3=Nils Are |year=1991 |title=Stomach content analysis of minke whales ''Balaenoptera acutorostrata'' from the Lofoten and Vesterålen areas, Norway |journal=Ecography |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=219–222 |ref={{harvid|Lydersen et al.|1991}} |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.1991.tb00655.x|bibcode=1991Ecogr..14..219L }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Mass|first1=Alla|last2=Supin |first2=Alexander|date=21 May 2007 |title=Adaptive features of aquatic mammals' eyes |journal=Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=6 |pages=701–715 |doi=10.1002/ar.20529 |ref={{harvid|Mass et al.|2007}} |pmid=17516421|s2cid=39925190|doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=P. J. O. |last2=Aoki |first2=K. |last3=Rendell |first3=L. E. |last4=Amano |first4=M. |year=2008 |title=Stereotypical resting behavior of the sperm whale |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.003 |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R21–R23 |pmid=18177706 |s2cid=10587736 |ref={{harvid|Miller et al.|2008}}|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last=Morrel |first=Virginia |date=30 January 2012 |title=Killer Whale Menu Finally Revealed |journal=Science |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/killer-whale-menu-finally-revealed |access-date=29 August 2015 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Morseth |first=C. Michele |title=Twentieth-Century Changes in Beluga Whale Hunting and Butchering by the Kaηiġmiut of Buckland, Alaska |journal=Arctic |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=241–255 |year=1997 |doi=10.14430/arctic1106 |jstor=40511703}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Norena |first1=S. R. |last2=Williams |first2=T. M. |year=2000 |title=Body size and skeletal muscle myoglobin of cetaceans: adaptations for maximizing dive duration |journal= Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=181–191 |doi=10.1016/S1095-6433(00)00182-3 |pmid=10936758|ref={{harvid|Norena et al.|2000}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Nummela |first1=Sirpa |last2=Thewissen |first2=J.G.M |last3=Bajpai |first3=Sunil |last4=Hussain |first4=Taseer |last5=Kumar |first5=Kishor |title=Sound transmission in archaic and modern whales: Anatomical adaptations for underwater hearing |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=6 |pages=716–733 |year=2007 |doi=10.1002/ar.20528 |pmid=17516434 |s2cid=12140889 |ref={{harvid|Nummela et al.|2007}} |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/4651/1/321.pdf |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Piantadosi|first1=C. A.|last2=Thalmann|first2=E. D.|journal=Nature |title=Pathology: whales, sonar and decompression sickness |date=2004 |volume=428 |issue=6894 |doi=10.1038/nature02527a |pmid=15085881 |pages=716–718 |s2cid=4391838 |ref={{harvid|Piantadosi et al.|2004}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Reidenberg |first1=Joy S. |title=Anatomical adaptations of aquatic mammals |journal=The Anatomical Record |date=2007 |volume= 290 |issue=6 |pages=507–513 |doi=10.1002/ar.20541|ref={{harvid|Reidenberg|2012}} |pmid=17516440|s2cid=42133705 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Roman |first1=J. |last2=McCarthy |first2=J. J. |date=October 2010 |title=The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5 |issue=10 |page=e13255 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013255 |doi-access=free |pmid=20949007 |pmc=2952594 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...513255R}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Roman J, Estes JA, Morissette L, Smith C, Costa D, McCarthy J, Nation JB, Nicol S, Pershing A, Smetacek V |date=2014 |title=Whales as marine ecosystem engineers |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=377–385 |doi=10.1890/130220 |bibcode=2014FrEE...12..377R |ref={{harvid|Roman et al.|2014}} |url=http://ecite.utas.edu.au/93252 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Rommel |first=S. A. |display-authors=0 |year=2023 |title=Elements of beaked whale anatomy and diving physiology and some hypothetical causes of sonar-related stranding |journal=Journal of Cetacean Research and Management |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=189–209 |doi=10.47536/jcrm.v7i3.730 |s2cid=32951311 |url=http://foodweb.uhh.hawaii.edu/MARE390_files/Rommel%20et%20al.%202006.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610142207/http://foodweb.uhh.hawaii.edu/MARE390_files/Rommel%20et%20al.%202006.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-10 |ref={{harvid|Rommel et al.|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal|last=Rose|first=Kenneth D.|year=2001|title=The Ancestry of Whales|journal=Science|volume=293|issue=5538|pages=2216–2217|doi=10.1126/science.1065305|ref={{harvid|Kenneth|2001}}|pmid=11567127|s2cid=82651628|url=http://courses.washington.edu/biol354/Rose_Science_WHIPPO.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Scholander |first1=Per Fredrik |title=Experimental investigations on the respiratory function in diving mammals and birds |year=1940 |journal=Hvalraadets Skrifter |volume=22 |pages=1–131}}
*{{cite journal |last=Schrope |first=Mark |year=2003 |title=Whale deaths caused by US Navy's sonar |journal=Nature |volume=415 |issue=6868 |page=106 |doi=10.1038/415106a |bibcode=2002Natur.415..106S |pmid=11805797 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Craig R.|last2=Baco |first2=Amy R.|date=2003|title=Ecology of Whale Falls at the Deep-Sea Floor |journal=Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review|volume=41|pages=311–354 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/oceanography/faculty/csmith/Files/Smith%20and%20Baco%202003.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Thomas G. |last2=Sjare |first2=Becky |year=1990 |title=Predation of Belugas and Narwhals by Polar Bears in Nearshore Areas of the Canadian High Arctic |journal=Arctic |volume=43 |number=2 |pages=99–102 |url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic43-2-99.pdf |doi=10.14430/arctic1597}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Steeman ME, Hebsgaard MB, Fordyce RE, ((Ho SYW)), Rabosky DL, Nielsen R, Rahbek C, Glenner H, Sorensen MV, Willerslev E |date=2009 |title=Radiation of Extant Cetaceans Driven by Restructuring of the Oceans |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=573–585 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp060 |pmid=20525610 |pmc=2777972 |ref={{harvid|Steeman et al.|2009}}}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Taylor BL, Baird R, Barlow J, Dawson SM, Ford J, Mead JG, Notarbartolo di Sciara G, Wade P, Pitman RL |title=''Physeter macrocephalus'' |amends=2008 |year=2019 |at=e.T41755A160983555 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T41755A160983555.en |ref={{harvid|Taylor et al.|2019}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Thewissen |first1=J. G. M. |last2=Cooper |first2=L. N. |last3=Clementz |first3=M. T. |last4=Bajpai |first4=S. |last5=Tiwari |first5=B. N. |title=Whales originated from aquatic artiodactyls in the Eocene epoch of India |year=2007 |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1190–1194 |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/4642/1/316.pdf |doi=10.1038/nature06343 |pmid=18097400 |bibcode=2007Natur.450.1190T |s2cid=4416444 |ref={{harvid|Thewissen et al.|2007}} }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=K. K. |last2=Jones |first2=T. K. |last3=Allman |first3=J. M. |year=2006 |title=Dendritic architecture of the Von Economo neurons |journal=Neuroscience |volume=141 |issue=3 |pages=1107–1112 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.084 |pmid=16797136 |s2cid=7745280 |ref={{harvid|Watson|2006}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Wiley |first1=David |display-authors=0 |year=2011 |title=Underwater components of humpback whale bubble-net feeding behaviour |journal=Behaviour |volume=148 |issue=5 |pages=575–602 |doi=10.1163/000579511X570893 |ref={{harvid|Wiley et al.|2011}}}}
*{{cite journal |last=Zerbini |first=Alexandre N. |display-authors=0 |date=11 May 2006 |title=Satellite-monitored movements of humpback whales ''Megaptera novaeanglia'' in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=313 |pages=295–304 |doi=10.3354/meps313295 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2006MEPS..313..295Z|ref={{harvid|Zerbini et al.|2006}}}}
{{refend}}

===Websites===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{Cite report |title=Global cetacean summary report |publisher=Australian Government Department for the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=June 2009 |url=https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/global-cetacean-summary.pdf |ref={{harvid|Australian Report|2009}}}}
*{{cite web |last=Boness |first=Laura |date=26 May 2014 |title=Whale poo important for ocean ecosystems |work=Australian Geographic |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/05/whale-poo-important-for-ocean-ecosystems |access-date=18 November 2014 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=Ford |first=Catherine |date=July 2015 |magazine=The Monthly |title=John Newton's 'A Savage History: Whaling in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans' |url=https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2013/july/1372600800/catherine-ford/john-newton-s-savage-history-whaling-pacific-and-southern |url-access=registration|access-date=30 March 2022}}
*{{cite web |last1=Froias |first1=Gustin |title=Balaenidae |url=http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/about-cetaceans/Balaenidae |publisher=New Bedford Whaling Museum |date=2012 |access-date=29 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420173732/http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/about-cetaceans/Balaenidae}}
*{{cite web|last=Griffin|first=Catherine|date=7 December 2015|title=Beluga Bubbles Reveal How These Whales Are Feeling |url=http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/34203/20151207/beluga-bubbles-reveal-whales-feeling.htm|access-date=19 December 2015|work=Science World Report}}
*{{cite web |last=Higgs |first=Eleanor |title=Watch A Humpback Whale "Tail Sailing" In Incredible Video |website=Lifescience.com |date=14 August 2023 |url=https://www.iflscience.com/watch-a-humpback-whale-tail-sailing-in-incredible-video-70237 |access-date=Aug 14, 2023}}
*{{cite web |last=Hovhannes |first=Alan |year=1970 |title=And God Created Great Whales (1970) for Orchestra and Whale Songs |url=http://www.artistdirect.com/nad/store/artist/album/0,,197507,00.html |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050524070440/http://www.artistdirect.com/nad/store/artist/album/0,,197507,00.html |archive-date=2005-05-24 |url-status=dead }}
*{{Cite web |author=IWC |title=Small cetaceans |publisher=International Whaling Commission |url=https://iwc.int/smallcetacean |access-date=2018-04-08 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Small cetaceans"}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321074145/https://iwc.int/smallcetacean |archive-date=2017-03-21 |url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite web |author=IWC |title=The Great Whales |publisher=International Whaling Commission |url=https://iwc.int/lives |access-date=2018-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321080108/https://iwc.int/lives |archive-date=2017-03-21 |ref={{harvid|IWC "The Great Whales"}} |url-status=deviated}}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/aboriginal |title=Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Aboriginal"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/convention |title=Key Documents |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Key Documents"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/catches |title=Catch Limits |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=6 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208153737/https://iwc.int/catches |archive-date=8 December 2016 |url-status=dead |ref={{harvid|IWC "Catch Limits"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/sanctuaries |title=Whale Sanctuaries |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=4 September 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Whale Sanctuaries"}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=15&menuentry=groepen |title=Gray whale (Family Eschrichtiidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T.A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M.A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|Jefferson et al.}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=21&menuentry=groepen |title=Narwhal and White Whale (Family Monodontidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T.A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M.A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|Jefferson|2015a}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=23&menuentry=groepen |title=Sperm Whale (Family Physeteridae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T.A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M.A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|Jefferson|2015b}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=26&menuentry=groepen |title=Beaked Whales (Family Ziphiidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T.A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M.A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|Jefferson|2015c}} }}
*{{Cite web |last=Lam |first=Andy |date=Fall 1999 |title=The Convergent Evolution of Marine Fish and Whales |publisher=The University of Arizona |url=http://marinediscovery.arizona.edu/lessonsF99/andylam/ |access-date=17 January 2017 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=MacKenzie |first=Debora |title=Whales win southern sanctuary |magazine=New Scientist |date=4 June 1994 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219280-900-whales-win-southern-sanctuary/ |access-date=12 September 2015 }}
*{{cite magazine |last1=Marrero |first1=Meghan E. |last2=Thornton |first2=Stuart |title=Big Fish: A Brief History of Whaling |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/big-fish-history-whaling/ |magazine=National Geographic |date=1 November 2011 |access-date=2 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011123701/http://education.nationalgeographic.com/news/big-fish-history-whaling/ |archive-date=11 October 2015 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |last=Metcalfe |first=C. |date=23 February 2012 |title=Persistent organic pollutants in the marine food chain |publisher=United Nations University |url=http://unu.edu/publications/articles/persistent-organic-pollutants-in-the-marine-food-chain.html |access-date=16 August 2013 }}
*{{cite web |author=Mind Matters |date=15 January 2008 |title=Are whales smarter than we are? |publisher=Scientific American |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/news-blog/are-whales-smarter-than-we-are/ |access-date=9 August 2015 }}
*{{Cite web |last=Moskowitz |first=Clara|date=2 June 2011 |title=Jaw-Dropping Similarity Found in Whales and Pelicans |work=Live Science |url=http://www.livescience.com/14404-rorqual-whales-pelicans-jaw-convergent-evolution.html |access-date=17 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703234733/https://www.livescience.com/14404-rorqual-whales-pelicans-jaw-convergent-evolution.html |archive-date=2012-07-03 }}
*{{cite report |author1=O'Connor, S. |author2=Campbell, R. |author3=Cortez, H. |author4=Knowles, T. |year=2009 |access-date=29 August 2015 |title=Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits |url=http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/whale_watching_worldwide.pdf |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |ref={{harvid|O'Connor et al.|2009}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508041447/http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/whale_watching_worldwide.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-08 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite magazine |last=Siebert |first=Charles |title=Watching Whales Watching Us |magazine={{wipe|The New York Times}} Magazine |date=8 July 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/12/magazine/12whales-t.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=29 August 2015 }}
*{{Cite magazine |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=19 July 2016 |title=The Sea Will Get a Lot Quieter Without the Navy's Whale-Killing Sonar |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/07/sea-will-get-lot-quieter-without-navys-whale-killing-sonar/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828123356/https://www.wired.com/2016/07/sea-will-get-lot-quieter-without-navys-whale-killing-sonar/ |archive-date=28 August 2016 |access-date=23 January 2018}}
*{{cite web|last1=Stonehouse|first1=Bernard|date=5 October 2007|title=British Arctic whaling: an overview |url=http://www.hull.ac.uk/baw/overview/overview.htm|publisher=University of Hull|access-date=4 September 2015|archive-date=5 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044227/https://www.hull.ac.uk/baw/overview/overview.htm|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web |last=Viegas |first=Jennifer |date=23 February 2010 |title=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam |work=Seeker |url=https://www.seeker.com/thousands-mourn-dead-whale-in-vietnam-1765029259.html|access-date=30 March 2022}}
*{{cite web |title=Introduction to Cetacea: Archaeocetes: The Oldest Whales |publisher=University of Berkeley |url= http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/cetacea/cetacean.html |access-date=25 July 2015 |ref={{harvid|Berkeley}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.defenders.org/whales/basic-facts |title=Mysticetes hunt in groups |date=2012-04-10 |publisher=Defenders of Wildlife |access-date=24 July 2015 |ref={{harvid|Defenders of Wildlife}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/research-topics/overview-of-north-american-whaling/whales-hunting |title=Whale products |publisher=New Bedford Whaling Museum |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|New Bedford}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ifaw.org/united-states/our-work/whales/which-countries-are-still-whaling |title=Which countries are still whaling |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IFAW}} }}
*{{cite web |title=The physics of bubble rings and other diver's exhausts |website=Deep Ocean's Diving Science |url=http://www.deepocean.net/deepocean/index.php?science09.php |access-date=19 December 2015 |ref={{harvid|Deep Ocean}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006163548/http://www.deepocean.net/deepocean/index.php?science09.php |archive-date=6 October 2006 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/education/viewing_wildlife.pdf |access-date=6 August 2010 |title=Marine Wildlife Viewing Guidelines |date=January 2004 |publisher=Watchable Wildlife Marine Viewing Working Group |ref={{harvid|Watchable Wildlife|2004}} |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004180945/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/education/viewing_wildlife.pdf }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm |title=Sperm Whales (''Physeter macrocephalus'') |date=13 November 2013 |publisher=NOAA Fisheries – Office of Protected Resources |access-date=9 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710154413/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm |archive-date=2014-07-10 |ref={{harvid|NOAA Fisheries|2013}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx?Division=PRD&ParentMenuId=228&id=1408 |title=The Tuna-Dolphin Issue |date=2014-12-24 |publisher=NOAA Fisheries – Southwest Fisheries Science Center |access-date=29 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925084644/https://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx?Division=PRD&ParentMenuId=228&id=1408 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |ref={{harvid|NOAA Fisheries|2014}} }}
*{{cite web |title=North Atlantic Right Whale (''Eubalaena glacialis'') Source Document for the Critical Habitat Designation: A review of information pertaining to the definition of "critical habitat" |url=http://www.greateratlantic.fisheries.noaa.gov/regs/2015/February/narwsourcedocumentfinal072114.pdf |publisher=National Marine Fisheries Service |date=July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924023539/http://www.greateratlantic.fisheries.noaa.gov/regs/2015/February/narwsourcedocumentfinal072114.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |ref={{harvid|NOAA|2014}} }}
*{{cite report | title=Beluga Whales in Captivity: Hunted, Poisoned, Unprotected | year=2006 | work=Special Report on Captivity 2006 | publisher=Canadian Marine Environment Protection Society|ref={{harvid|CMEPS|2006}}}}
*{{cite web | url=http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | title=Beluga (''Delphinapterus leucas'') Facts – Distribution – In the Zoo | access-date=5 December 2011 | publisher=World Association of Zoos and Aquariums | ref={{harvid|WAZA}} | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210101419/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | archive-date=10 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web |title=Going Aquatic: Cetacean Evolution |work=Nature |publisher=PBS |date=21 March 2012 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/ocean-giants-going-aquatic-cetacean-evolution/7577/ |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|PBS ''Nature''|2012}} }}
*{{cite web |title=Timeline: The History of Whaling in America |work=American Experience |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/timeline-whaling/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501033301/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/timeline-whaling/ |archive-date=2010-05-01 |url-status=dead |ref={{harvid|PBS ''American Experience''}} }}
*{{cite web |title=The Story of Navy Dolphins |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/whales/etc/navycron.html |access-date=12 October 2008 |ref={{harvid|PBS ''Frontline''}} }}
*{{Cite web |title=Does Military Sonar Kill Marine Wildlife? |website=Scientific American |date=10 June 2009 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-military-sonar-kill/ |access-date=23 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126083015/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-military-sonar-kill/ |archive-date=26 November 2017 |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Scientific American|2009}} }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.world-archaeology.com/travel/cwa-travels-to-the-petroglyphs-of-bangudae.htm|title=CWA travels to The Petroglyphs of Bangudae|website=World Archaeology|date=24 January 2014|access-date=31 August 2015|ref={{harvid|World Archaeology|2014}}}}
*{{Cite web|title=Watching out for whales: Reducing risks when ships and whales share the seas |website=wwf.panda.org |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/cetaceans/threats/shipping.cfm|access-date=2021-09-06 |publisher=WWF |ref={{harvid|WWF}}}}
{{refend}}

===News===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite news|last=Barlass|first=Tim |title=Bizarre whale treatment for rheumatism revealed|date=2014-03-30 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/animals/bizarre-whale-treatment-for-rheumatism-revealed-20140329-35q0w.html |access-date=2017-06-18}}
*{{Cite news|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=3 July 2013|title=Whales flee from military sonar leading to mass strandings, research shows |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/03/whales-flee-military-sonar-strandings |access-date=23 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001191231/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/03/whales-flee-military-sonar-strandings |archive-date=1 October 2017}}
*{{cite news|title=Commercial Whaling: Good Whale Hunting|newspaper=The Economist|date=4 March 2012 |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2012/03/commercial-whaling|access-date=1 September 2015|url-access=subscription|ref={{harvid|Economist|2012}}}}
*{{cite news |last=Kirby |first=Alex |date=8 October 2003 |title=Sonar may cause Whale deaths |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3173942.stm |access-date=14 September 2006}}
*{{cite news |author=Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy |date=21 December 2007 |title=Whales Descended From Tiny Deer-like Ancestors |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071220220241.htm |access-date=21 December 2007 |ref={{harvid|Northeastern Ohio Universities|2007}}}}
*{{cite news|author=The Pall Mall Gazette|date=1896-03-07|title=A New Cure for Rheumatism |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1896/03/07/106848504.pdf |access-date=2017-06-18}}
*{{cite news |last=Tsai |first=Wen-Chu |date=3 July 2015 |title=Whales and trash-bags |newspaper=Taipei Times |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2015/07/03/2003622174 |access-date=5 August 2015}}
*{{cite news |author=University of Vermont |date=12 October 2010 |title=Whale poop pumps up ocean health |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101012101255.htm |access-date=18 November 2011}}
*{{cite news |title=Rock art hints at whaling origins |date=20 April 2004 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3638853.stm |access-date=2 September 2015 |quote=Stone Age people may have started hunting whales as early as 6,000 BC, new evidence from South Korea suggests.|ref={{harvid|BBC News|2004}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam |work=The Independent |date=23 February 2010 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand-gather-whale-s-funeral-vietnam-1907716.html |agency=Associated Press | access-date=15 April 2011 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|The Independent|2010}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=14 April 2003 |url=https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288.html | agency=AFP |access-date=15 April 2011 |ref={{harvid|Sydney Morning Herald|2003}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Live Whales from the St. Lawrence |work=The New York Times |date=9 August 1861 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1861/08/09/archives/live-whales-from-the-st-lawrence.html |access-date=2021-04-11 |ref={{harvid|''New York Times''|1861}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam |agency=Ghana News Agency |work=GhanaWeb |date=10 August 2005 |url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=87737 |access-date=15 April 2011|ref={{harvid|GNA|2005}}}}
{{refend}}

=== Other ===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite book|chapter=Lamentations 4:3|title=Bible|chapter-url=http://biblehub.com/lamentations/4-3.htm |access-date=29 August 2015|ref={{harvid|Lamentations}}}}
*{{cite book|chapter=Matthew|title=Bible|chapter-url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=jonah+1-4 |access-date=30 December 2013|ref={{harvid|Matthew}}}}
*{{cite episode |series=Modern Marvels |title=Milk |season=14 |network=The History Channel |air-date=2008-01-07 |ref={{harvid|Modern Marvels|2007}}}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Wikivoyage|Whale watching}}
* {{cite episode |series=Walking with Prehistoric Beasts |title=New Dawn |network=Discovery Channel |air-date=2002}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = O'Connell | first1 = M. | last2 = Berrow | first2 = S. | year = 2015 | title = Records from the Irish Whales and Dolphin Group for 2013 | journal = Irish Naturalists' Journal | volume = 34 | issue = 2| pages = 154–161 }}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Whale|short=x}}

{{Cetacea|M.}}


[[Category:Paraphyletic groups]]

{{Sourceattribution|Whale}}