View source for Chemistry:Alcoholic drink

{{short description|Drink containing alcohol (ethanol) derived from fermentation of sugars}}
[[File:Interesting alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A selection of alcoholic drinks: [[Red wine|red wine]], malt whisky, lager, sparkling wine, lager, cherry liqueur and red wine]]
[[File:Liquor store in Breckenridge Colorado.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A liquor store in the United States. Global sales of alcoholic drinks exceeded $1&nbsp;trillion in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.theiwsr.com/news-and-comment-worldwide-alcohol-consumption-declines/ |title = Worldwide Alcohol Consumption Declines -1.6% – IWSR}}</ref>]]
An '''alcoholic drink''' (or '''alcoholic beverage''') is a drink that contains [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]], a type of [[Chemistry:Alcohol|alcohol]] produced by [[Chemistry:Ethanol fermentation|fermentation]] of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The consumption of alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures. Most countries have [[Medicine:Alcohol law|laws]] regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages.<ref name="IARD">{{cite web |title=Minimum Legal Age Limits |url=http://www.iard.org/policy-tables/minimum-legal-age-limits/ |website=IARD.org |publisher=International Alliance for Responsible Drinking |access-date=23 June 2016}}</ref> Some countries ban such activities entirely, but alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world. The global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theiwsr.com/news-and-comment-worldwide-alcohol-consumption-declines/ |title=Worldwide Alcohol Consumption Declines -1.6% |publisher=International Wines and Spirits Record (ISWR) |date= 2019-05-30|accessdate=2019-06-04 }}</ref>

Alcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes [[Chemistry:Euphoria|euphoria]], reduces anxiety, and improves sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness, stupor, [[Medicine:Unconsciousness|unconsciousness]], or [[Biology:Death|death]]. Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, [[Chemistry:Alcohol and cancer|cancer]], [[Medicine:Physical dependence|physical dependence]], and [[Medicine:Alcoholism|alcoholism]].  Alcohol is one of the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, with about 33% of people being current drinkers.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/> {{as of|2016}}, women on average drink 0.7 drinks and males 1.7 drinks a day.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/> In 2015, among Americans, 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, 70% had drunk it in the last year, and 56% in the last month.<ref name = niaaa>{{cite web|title=Alcohol Facts and Statistics|url=http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics|accessdate=8 October 2018|date=August 2018|website = National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism|publisher = National Institute of Health}}</ref> Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.

Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the [[History:Neolithic|Neolithic]] period (cir. 10,000 BC).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Charles H |first=Patrick |author2=Durham, NC |year=1952 |title=Alcohol, Culture, and Society |publisher=Duke University Press (reprint edition by AMS Press, New York, 1970) |isbn=978-0-404-04906-5 |pages=26–27}}</ref> Many animals also consume alcohol when given the opportunity and are affected in much the same way as humans, although humans are the only species known to produce alcoholic drinks intentionally.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Alcoholics of the Animal World|url = http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-alcoholics-of-the-animal-world-81007700/|accessdate = |first = Sarah|last = Zielinski|work = Smithsonian|date = 16 September 2011}}</ref>
==Fermented drinks==
[[File:Lady relaxing next to glass of red wine and glass of 1664 beer.jpg|thumb|Wine (left) and beer (right) are served in different glasses.]]

===Beer===
Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash. It is typically made from [[Biology:Barley|barley]] or a [[Physics:Mixture|blend]] of several grains and flavored with [[Biology:Hops|hops]]. Most beer is naturally carbonated as part of the fermentation process. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink becomes a spirit. In the Andean region, the most common beer is [[Chemistry:Chicha|chicha]], made from grain or fruits.<ref>John C. Super, "Alcoholic Beverages" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, p. 45. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world.<ref name="Nelson 2005">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&pg=PA1&dq=most+consumed+beverage|title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-31121-2|page=1|accessdate=21 September 2010|last=Nelson|first=Max}}</ref>

===Cider===
Cider or cyder ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|d|ər}} {{respell|SY|dər}}) is a fermented alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice; apple juice (traditional and most common), [[Biology:Peach|peach]]es, [[Biology:Pear|pear]]s ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% [[Chemistry:Alcohol by volume|ABV]] to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called "apple wine".<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sTsC65kCJbUC&pg=PA169 |title=The Prokaryotes: Proteobacteria: alpha and beta subclasses |page=169|author=Martin Dworkin, Stanley Falkow|publisher=Springer|year= 2006|accessdate=29 July 2011|isbn=978-0-387-25495-1 }}</ref>

===Mead===
[[Chemistry:Mead|Mead]] ({{IPAc-en|m|iː|d}}) is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. The alcoholic content of mead may range from about 8% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived from honey.

===Pulque===
[[Biology:Pulque|Pulque]] is the [[Place:Mesoamerica|Mesoamerica]]n fermented drink made from the "honey water" of maguey, ''[[Biology:Agave americana|Agave americana]]''. The drink distilled from pulque is [[Biology:Tequila|tequila]] or mescal Mezcal.<ref>Super, "Alcoholic Beverages", pp. 45–46.</ref>

===Wine===
Wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes and sometimes other fruits. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% [[Chemistry:Alcohol by volume|ABV]].

"Fruit wines" are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples.

Sake is a popular example of "rice wine".

Sparkling wine like French Champagne, Catalan Cava or Italian Prosecco can be made by means of a secondary fermentation.

==Distilled drinks==
[[File:Flaming cocktails.jpg|thumb|These flaming cocktails illustrate that [[Alcohol proof|high-proof]] alcohol will readily catch fire and burn.]]
A distilled drink or liquor is an alcoholic drink produced by [[Distillation|distilling]] (i.e., [[Chemistry:Concentration|concentrating by distillation]]) [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]] produced by means of [[Chemistry:Ethanol fermentation|fermenting]] grain, fruit, or vegetables.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit|title=Distilled spirit/distilled liquor|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=2013-02-05}}</ref> Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called ''spirits''.<ref>Lichine, Alexis. ''Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits'' (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 707–709.</ref> For the most common distilled drinks, such as whiskey and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The term ''hard liquor'' is used in North America to distinguish distilled drinks from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Vodka, gin, [[Biology:Baijiu|baijiu]], [[Biology:Tequila|tequila]], whiskey, brandy, and soju are examples of distilled drinks. Distilling [[Chemistry:Concentration|concentrates]] the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with [[Chemistry:Methanol|methanol]] and [[Chemistry:Fusel alcohol|fusel alcohol]]s (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack.

Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry, to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added.<ref name=ALE>{{cite book|last=Lichine|first=Alexis|title=Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits|edition=5th|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=1987|page=236|isbn=978-0-394-56262-9}}</ref> Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of [[Distillation|distillation]], while fortified wine is simply wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, commandaria, and the aromatized wine vermouth.<ref name="Oxford pg 279">{{cite book|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=J.|title=The Oxford Companion to Wine|edition=3rd|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/279 279]|isbn=978-0-19-860990-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/279}}</ref>

===Rectified spirit===
Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The term ''neutral'' refers to the spirit's lack of the flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash.

Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% [[Chemistry:Alcohol by volume|ABV]]. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and [[Medicine:Tincture|tincture]]s, and also as a household [[Physics:Solvent|solvent]].

==Health effects==
[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Results of the 2010 ISCD study ranking the levels of damage caused by drugs, in the opinion of drug-harm experts. When harm to self and others is summed, alcohol was the most harmful of all drugs considered, scoring 72%.]]

Alcohol has significant negative health effects, including increased risk of death and [[Medicine:Cancer|cancer]].<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/> Negative effects are related to the amount consumed with no safe lower limit seen.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD>{{cite journal |title=Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 |journal=The Lancet |volume=392 |issue=10152 |pages=1015–35 |date=August 2018 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2|pmid=30146330 |pmc=6148333 |last1=Griswold |first1=Max G. |last2=Fullman |first2=Nancy |last3=Hawley |first3=Caitlin |last4=Arian |first4=Nicholas |last5=Zimsen |first5=Stephanie R M. |last6=Tymeson |first6=Hayley D. |last7=Venkateswaran |first7=Vidhya |last8=Tapp |first8=Austin Douglas |last9=Forouzanfar |first9=Mohammad H. |last10=Salama |first10=Joseph S. |last11=Abate |first11=Kalkidan Hassen |last12=Abate |first12=Degu |last13=Abay |first13=Solomon M. |last14=Abbafati |first14=Cristiana |last15=Abdulkader |first15=Rizwan Suliankatchi |last16=Abebe |first16=Zegeye |last17=Aboyans |first17=Victor |last18=Abrar |first18=Mohammed Mehdi |last19=Acharya |first19=Pawan |last20=Adetokunboh |first20=Olatunji O. |last21=Adhikari |first21=Tara Ballav |last22=Adsuar |first22=Jose C. |last23=Afarideh |first23=Mohsen |last24=Agardh |first24=Emilie Elisabet |last25=Agarwal |first25=Gina |last26=Aghayan |first26=Sargis Aghasi |last27=Agrawal |first27=Sutapa |last28=Ahmed |first28=Muktar Beshir |last29=Akibu |first29=Mohammed |last30=Akinyemiju |first30=Tomi |displayauthors=29 }}</ref>

===Short-term effects===
Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2006.12.010 |title=Alcohol concentration and carbonation of drinks: The effect on blood alcohol levels |year=2007 |last1=Roberts |first1=C. |last2=Robinson |first2=S.P. |journal=Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=398–405 |pmid=17720590}}</ref>

Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible [[Chemistry:Euphoria|euphoria]], increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a [[Place:Alcohol flush reaction|flushed, red appearance in the face]] and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, [[Medicine:Sedation|sedation]], balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit ([[Medicine:Pulmonary aspiration|pulmonary aspiration]]) while unconscious) and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a [[Medicine:Coma|coma]] (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. Alcohol is eliminated by enzymes in the liver at a rate of ca. 15&nbsp;mg per dL of blood per hour (mg/dL/h).<ref name="Levine2003">{{cite book | first = Barry | last = Levine | name-list-format = vanc |title=Principles of Forensic Toxicology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k7BInEQ-iqgC&pg=PA161|year=2003|publisher=Amer. Assoc. for Clinical Chemistry|isbn=978-1-890883-87-4|pages=161–}}</ref> For a 100&nbsp;kg man, this corresponds to ca. 15 mL per hour, which is the pure alcohol content of a typical 300 mL small beer bottle.<ref>Alcohol dissolves freely in the water of the human body. Thus, blood alcohol content and body water alcohol content are the same. A man contains 77% water, which is 770 dL, giving 12 g/h, or 15 ml/h.</ref> The rate of elimination depends linearly on body weight and follows zero order kinetics, but can be doubled by repeated exposure (habitual drinking).

Drinking while driving, operating aircraft, watercraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment.

===Long-term effects===

[[File:Tempranillowine.jpg|thumb|left|Both alcoholic and non-alcoholic red wine may boost heart health.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/news/20120906/nonalcoholic-red-wine-may-boost-heart-health|title=Non-Alcoholic Red Wine May Boost Heart Health|publisher=|accessdate=6 May 2015}}</ref>]]
Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, [[Medicine:Stroke|stroke]], [[Medicine:Diabetes mellitus|diabetes mellitus]], and early death.<ref name=Kee2014>{{cite journal|last1=O'Keefe|first1=JH|last2=Bhatti|first2=SK|last3=Bajwa|first3=A|last4=DiNicolantonio|first4=JJ|last5=Lavie|first5=CJ|title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy.|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|date=March 2014|volume=89|issue=3|pages=382–93|pmid=24582196|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005}}</ref> Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, [[Medicine:Atrial fibrillation|atrial fibrillation]], and [[Medicine:Stroke|stroke]].<ref name=Kee2014 /> The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or accidents.<ref name=Kee2014 /> About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all global deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.<ref name=niaaa/> [[Medicine:Alcoholism|Alcoholism]] reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years<ref name=Schu2014>{{cite journal|last1=Schuckit|first1=MA|title=Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens).|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=27 November 2014|volume=371|issue=22|pages=2109–13|pmid=25427113|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1407298|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th}}</ref> and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.<ref name=Kee2014 /> Even moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/alcohol-consumption-increases-risk-of-breast-and-other-cancers-doctors-say/|title=Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast and Other Cancers, Doctors Say|author= Cheryl Platzman Weinstock|publisher=Scientific American|date=8 November 2017|accessdate=13 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/moderate-alcohol-consumption-increase-risk-cancers-experts-warn/story?id=50996234|title=Even moderate alcohol consumption may increase risk of certain cancers, experts warn |author=Catherine Thorbecke|publisher=ABC|date= 7 November 2017|accessdate=13 November 2018}}</ref> No professional medical association recommends that people who are non-drinkers should start drinking wine.<ref name=Kee2014 /><ref>[http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyEating/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp ''Alcohol and Heart Health''] American Heart Association</ref> Another long-term effect of alcohol usage, when also used with tobacco products, is alcohol acting as a solvent, which allows harmful chemicals in tobacco to get inside the cells that line the digestive tract. Alcohol slows these cells' healing ability to repair the damage to their DNA caused by the harmful chemicals in tobacco. [[Chemistry:Alcohol and cancer|Alcohol contributes to cancer]] through this process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/dietandphysicalactivity/alcohol-use-and-cancer |title=Alcohol Use and Cancer |publisher=Cancer.org |date= |accessdate=2016-08-25}}</ref>

While lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and [[Medicine:Alcoholism|alcoholism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/quickstats/general_info.htm |title=General Information on Alcohol Use and Health |accessdate=26 June 2008 |author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The [[Organization:American Heart Association|American Heart Association]] "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422 |title=Alcohol, Wine and Cardiovascular Disease |accessdate=26 June 2008 |author=American Heart Association}}</ref>

Alcoholic drinks are classified by the [[Organization:International Agency for Research on Cancer|International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) as a [[Chemistry:List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]] (carcinogenic to humans). [[Organization:International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] classifies alcoholic drink consumption as a cause of female breast, [[Medicine:Colorectal cancer#cause|colorectum]], larynx, [[Medicine:Liver cancer#causes|liver]], [[Medicine:Esophageal cancer#causes|esophagus]], oral cavity, and [[Medicine:Head and neck cancer#causes|pharynx]] cancers; and as a probable cause of [[Medicine:Pancreatic cancer#risk factors|pancreatic cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cogliano|first1=VJ|last2=Baan|first2=R|last3=Straif|first3=K|last4=Grosse|first4=Y|last5=Lauby-Secretan|first5=B|last6=El Ghissassi|first6=F|last7=Bouvard|first7=V|last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa|first8=L|last9=Guha|first9=N|last10=Freeman|first10=C|last11=Galichet|first11=L|last12=Wild|first12=CP|title=Preventable exposures associated with human cancers.|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|date=December 21, 2011|volume=103|issue=24|pages=1827–39|pmid=22158127|doi=10.1093/jnci/djr483|pmc=3243677}}</ref>

===Congeners===
In the alcoholic drinks industry, congeners are substances produced during [[Chemistry:Ethanol fermentation|fermentation]]. These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired other alcohols, like [[Chemistry:Propanol|propanol]] and 3-methyl-1-butanol, but also compounds that are never desired such as [[Chemistry:Acetone|acetone]], [[Chemistry:Acetaldehyde|acetaldehyde]] and glycols. Congeners are responsible for most of the taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic drinks, and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks.<ref>[http://www.winesandvines.com/template.cfm?section=features&content=74439&ftitle=Understanding%20Congeners%20in%20Wine Understanding Congeners in Wine], Wines & Vines. Accessed 2011-4-20</ref> It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm Whisky hangover 'worse than vodka, a study suggests'], BBC News. Accessed 2009-12-19</ref> Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins adds balance, complexity, structure and makes a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://winefolly.com/review/wine-characteristics/|title=The 5 Basic Wine Characteristics |work=Wine Folly|accessdate=6 May 2015|date=2012-07-23}}</ref>

==Food energy==
Alcoholic drinks are a source of food energy. The [[Organization:USDA|USDA]] uses a figure of {{convert|6.93|kcal|lk=in|}} per gram of alcohol ({{convert|5.47|kcal|disp=or|abbr=on}} per ml) for calculating food energy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Composition of Foods Raw, Processed, Prepared USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26 Documentation and User Guide|url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/SR26/sr26_doc.pdf|publisher=[[Organization:USDA|USDA]]|page=14|date=August 2013}}</ref> In addition to alcohol, many alcoholic drinks contain carbohydrates. For example, in {{convert|12|USoz|0|lk=in|abbr=on}} of 5% ABV beer, along with approximately 18 ml of alcohol ({{convert|96|kcal|lk=in|disp=or}}), there are usually 10–15&nbsp;g of carbohydrates (about {{convert|40|-|60|kcal|lk=in|abbr=on|disp=or}}).{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} Excessive daily calorie intake may contribute to an increase in body weight and "beer belly". In addition to the direct effect of its caloric content, alcohol is also known to potentiate the [[Biology:Insulin|insulin response]] of the human body to [[Chemistry:Glucose|glucose]], which, in essence, "instructs" the body to convert consumed carbohydrates into fat and to suppress carbohydrate and fat oxidation.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Potentiation of the Plasma Insulin Response to Glucose by Prior Administration of Alcohol|author=Robert Metz|journal=Diabetes|year=1969|url=http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/18/8/517.full.pdf|display-authors=0|doi=10.2337/diab.18.8.517|pmid=4897290|volume=18|issue=8|pages=517–22}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Ethanol Causes Acute Inhibition of Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Oxidation and Insulin Resistance|journal=J. Clin. Invest.|year=1988|pmc=329642|pmid=3280601|doi=10.1172/JCI113428|volume=81|issue=4|pages=1137–45 | last1 = Shelmet | first1 = JJ | last2 = Reichard | first2 = GA | last3 = Skutches | first3 = CL | last4 = Hoeldtke | first4 = RD | last5 = Owen | first5 = OE | last6 = Boden | first6 = G}}</ref> Ethanol is directly processed in the liver to acetyl CoA, the same intermediate product as in glucose metabolism. Because ethanol is mostly metabolized and consumed by the liver, chronic excessive use can lead to [[Medicine:Fatty liver|fatty liver]]. This leads to a chronic inflammation of the liver and eventually [[Medicine:Alcoholic liver disease|alcoholic liver disease]].

==Amount of use==
[[File:AlcoholPerCapita.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.]]
The average number of people who drink {{as of|2016|lc=y}} was 39% for males and 25% for females (2.4 billion people in total).<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/> Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while males drink 1.7 drinks per day.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/> The rates of drinking varies significantly in different areas of the world.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/>
<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%" heights="230">
Gr1 lrg.jpg|Age-standardised prevalence of current drinking for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/>
Gr2 lrg.jpg|Average standard drinks (10 g of pure ethanol per serving) consumed per day, age-standardised, for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations.<ref name=Lancet2018GBD/>
</gallery>

==Reasons for use==

===Apéritifs and digestifs===

An apéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate the [[Medicine:Appetite|appetite]],<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 15059684| year = 2004| last1 = Caton| first1 = S.J.| title = Dose-dependent effects of alcohol on appetite and food intake| journal = Physiology & Behavior| volume = 81| issue = 1| pages = 51–58| last2 = Ball| first2 = M| last3 = Ahern| first3 = A| last4 = Hetherington| first4 = M.M.| doi = 10.1016/j.physbeh.2003.12.017}}</ref> while a digestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal for the stated purpose of improving digestion. Fortified wine, liqueurs, and dry champagne are common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, they are usually dry rather than sweet. One example is Cinzano, a brand of vermouth. Digestifs include brandy, fortified wines and herb-infused spirits (Drambuie).

===Flavoring===
[[File:Réduction du vin rouge.jpg|thumb|left|Reduction of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water and most of the more volatile alcohol, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.]]
Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 10940547| year = 2000| last1 = Scinska| first1 = A| title = Bitter and sweet components of ethanol taste in humans| journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence| volume = 60| issue = 2| pages = 199–206| last2 = Koros| first2 = E| last3 = Habrat| first3 = B| last4 = Kukwa| first4 = A| last5 = Kostowski| first5 = W| last6 = Bienkowski| first6 = P | doi=10.1016/s0376-8716(99)00149-0}}</ref> However, ethanol is also a moderately good [[Physics:Solvent|solvent]] for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine#1 | title=6 Secrets of Cooking with Wine}}</ref> Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHp1GJk8IMcC&pg=PA15 | title=Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide, 7th Edition | publisher=Simon and Schuster | author=Parker, Robert M. | year=2008 | page=15 | isbn=978-1-4391-3997-4}}</ref> Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% [[Chemistry:Alcohol by volume|ABV]], with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jancis Robinson |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} See ''alcoholic strength'' at p. 10.</ref> Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

==Alcohol measurement==

===Alcohol concentration===
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|+Typical ABV ranges<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alcoholcontents.com/|title=Find the Alcohol Contents of Beer, Wine, and Liquor|publisher=|accessdate=6 May 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Beers
| typically 5% (range is from 3–15%)
|-
| Wines
| typically 13.5% (range is from 8%–17%)
|-
| Fortified wines
| 15–22%
|-
| Spirits
| typically 30%-40% (range is from 15% to, in some rare cases, up to 98%)
|-
| Fruit juices
| < 0.1%
|-
| Cider, wine coolers
| 4%–8%
|}
{{Main|Chemistry:Alcohol by volume}}
The [[Chemistry:Concentration|concentration]] of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of [[Chemistry:Alcohol by volume|alcohol by volume]]&nbsp; (ABV, the number of milliliters (ml) of pure ethanol in 100 ml of beverage) or as [[Alcohol proof|''proof'']]. In the United States, ''proof'' is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). ''Degrees proof'' were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the [[Physics:Combustion|combustion]] of [[Chemistry:Gunpowder|gunpowder]].

Ordinary [[Distillation|distillation]] cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% by weight, which is about 97.2% ABV (194.4 proof) because at that point alcohol is an [[Physics:Azeotrope|azeotrope]] with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and ''does not contain any added flavoring'' is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 US proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.<ref>Lichine, Alexis. ''Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits'' (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 365.</ref>

Most [[Biology:Yeast|yeast]]s cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limit for the strength of fermented drinks such as wine, beer, and sake. However, some strains of yeast have been developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.<ref>Stewart, Graham G. "Biographical Review: Seduced by Yeast". ''Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists'' (2015): 1–21. ''American Society of Brewing Chemists''. 21 Jan. 2015. Web. 14 May 2017.</ref>

===Serving measures===

====Shot sizes====
[[Shot glass#Sizes|Shot sizes]] vary significantly from country to country. In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). A single serving size of spirits (gin, whisky, [[Chemistry:Rum|rum]], and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fifefire.gov.uk/topics/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.display&subjectid=8133D50D-A872-4A5B-9C65EE07BBF04E7E&objectid=6DDC0AD4-C85A-2F07-BE70B5A0D64D0A58|title=fifedirect – Licensing & Regulations – Calling Time on Short Measures!|publisher=Fifefire.gov.uk|date=2008-07-29|accessdate=2010-02-11|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175012/http://www.fifefire.gov.uk/topics/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.display&subjectid=8133D50D-A872-4A5B-9C65EE07BBF04E7E&objectid=6DDC0AD4-C85A-2F07-BE70B5A0D64D0A58|archivedate=2011-07-22}}</ref> Beer is typically served in [[Pint|pint]]s (568&nbsp;ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints. In Israel, a single serving size of spirits is about twice as much, 50 or 60 mL.

The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A [[Organization:Cornell University|Cornell University]] study of students and bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses.<ref>{{cite journal|authors=Wansink, Brian; van Ittersum, Koert|year=2005|title=Shape of glass and amount of alcohol poured: comparative study of effect of practice and concentration|journal=BMJ|url=http://www.bmj.com/content/331/7531/1512|volume=331|issue=7531|pages=1512–14|doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1512|pmid=16373735|pmc=1322248}}</ref> Aiming to pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more) respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into the short glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experienced bartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wide glasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses have more volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.

====Standard drinks====
[[File:Glass of whisky.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A "standard drink" of hard liquor does not necessarily reflect a typical serving size, such as seen here]]
A [[Standard drink#Pure alcohol measure|standard drink]] is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of pure [[Chemistry:Ethanol|alcohol]]. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. It is usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drink always contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the type of alcoholic beverage. The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is 7.62&nbsp;ml (6&nbsp;grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25&nbsp;ml (19.75&nbsp;grams).
* In the United Kingdom, there is a system of [[Unit of alcohol|units of alcohol]] which serves as a guideline for alcohol consumption. A single [[Unit of alcohol|unit of alcohol]] is defined as 10 ml. The number of units present in a typical drink is sometimes printed on bottles. The system is intended as an aid to people who are regulating the amount of alcohol they drink; it is not used to determine serving sizes.
* In the United States, the standard drink contains {{convert|0.6|USoz|ml}} of alcohol. This is approximately the amount of alcohol in a {{convert|12|USoz|ml|adj=on}} glass of beer, a {{convert|5|USoz|ml|adj=on}} glass of wine, or a {{convert|1.5|USoz|ml|adj=on}} glass of a 40% ABV (80 US proof) spirit.

==Laws==
{{anchor|Legal considerations}}
Alcohol laws regulate the manufacture, packaging, labelling, distribution, sale, consumption, blood alcohol content of motor vehicle drivers, open containers, and transportation of alcoholic drinks. Such laws generally seek to reduce the adverse health and social impacts of alcohol consumption. In particular, alcohol laws set the legal drinking age, which usually varies between 16 and 25 years, sometimes depending upon the type of drink (e.g., beer vs. hard liquor). Some countries do not have a legal drinking or purchasing age, but most countries set the minimum age at 18 years.<ref name="IARD"/> Such laws may take the form of permitting distribution only to licensed stores, monopoly stores, or pubs and they are often combined with taxation, which serves to reduce the demand for alcohol (by raising its price) and it is a form of revenue for governments. These laws also often limit the hours or days (e.g., "blue laws") on which alcohol may be sold or served, as can also be seen in the "last call" ritual in US and Canadian bars, where bartenders and servers ask patrons to place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.

In some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of [[Religion:Religion|religion]] (e.g., Islamic countries with [[Religion:Sharia|sharia law]]) or for reasons of local option, public health, and [[Philosophy:Morality|morals]] (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an [[Philosophy:Crime|illegal offense]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Lizzie|title=Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide|page=101}}</ref> although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.<ref>''Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History'' p. 329 David M. Fahey, Ian R. Tyrrell (2003)</ref>

==History==
[[File:Corps Brunsviga Göttingen - 1837.jpg|thumb|Members of a German Student Corps (Duchy of Brunswick) shown drinking in a picture from 1837.]]
* 10,000–5,000 BC: Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggests that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patrick |first=Clarence Hodges |location=Durham, NC |year=1952 |title=Alcohol, Culture, and Society |publisher=Duke University Press (reprint edition by AMS Press, New York, 1970) |isbn=978-0-404-04906-5 |pages=26–27}}</ref>
* 7000–5600 BC: Examination and analysis of ancient pottery jars from the neolithic village of Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed residue left behind by the alcoholic drinks they had once contained. According to a study published in the ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grape and hawthorn fruit wine, honey mead and rice beer was being produced in 7000–5600 BC (McGovern et al., 2005; McGovern 2009).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chrzan |first=Janet |year=2013 |title=Alcohol: Social Drinking in Cultural Context |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-89249-0 |page=13}}</ref><ref name="mcgovern">{{Cite journal | last1 = McGovern | first1 = P.E. | last2 = Zhang | first2 = J. | last3 = Tang | first3 = J. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = Z. | last5 = Hall | first5 = G.R. | last6 = Moreau | first6 = R.A. | last7 = Nunez | first7 = A. | last8 = Butrym | first8 = E.D. | last9 = Richards | first9 = M.P. | last10 = Wang | first10 = C.-S. | last11 = Cheng | first11 = G. | last12 = Zhao | first12 = Z. | last13 = Wang | first13 = C. | title = Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0407921102 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 101 | issue = 51 | pages = 17593–98 | year = 2004 | pmid =  15590771| pmc = 539767| bibcode = 2004PNAS..10117593M }}</ref> The results of this analysis were published in December 2004.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/34435526/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/cheers-eight-ancient-drinks-uncorked-science/ |title=Cheers! Eight ancient drinks uncorked by science |last1=Roach |first1=John |website=nbcnews.com |publisher=Nbc News |accessdate=9 June 2013}}</ref>
* 9th century AD: The [[Chemistry:Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|medieval Arabs]] used the [[Distillation|distillation]] process extensively, and applied it to the distillation of alcohol. The Arab chemist [[Biography:Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi]] unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century.<ref name="hassan">[[Biography:Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|Ahmad Y. al-Hassan]] (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=h2g1qte4iegC&pg=PA65 ''Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences'', pp. 65-69], [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]]</ref><ref name=Hassan-Alcohol>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |title=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources |accessdate=2014-04-19 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/2281757 The Economist: "Liquid fire – The Arabs discovered how to distill alcohol. They still do it best, say some"] December 18, 2003</ref>
* 12th century: The process of distillation spread from the [[Place:Middle East|Middle East]] to Italy,<ref name="hassan"/><ref name="habib">Irfan Habib (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 55], Pearson Education</ref> where distilled alcoholic drinks were recorded in the mid-12th century.<ref name="Forbes1970"/> In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties.<ref name=haw>{{cite book | last= Haw | first= Stephen G. |  title= Marco Polo in China | publisher= Routledge | year= 2006 | isbn= 978-1-134-27542-7 | chapter= Wine, women and poison | pages= 147–48 | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148 | accessdate= 2016-07-10 | quote= The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties}}</ref> A [[Chemistry:Still|still]] has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.<ref name=haw/>
* 14th century: In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use in the [[History:Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultanate]] by the 14th century.<ref name="habib"/> By the early 14th century, distilled alcoholic drinks had spread throughout the [[Earth:Continental Europe|European continent]].<ref name="Forbes1970">{{Cite book|last=Forbes|first=Robert James|title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XeqWOkKYn28C|accessdate=28 June 2010|year=1970|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-00617-1}}</ref>

==See also==

===Beverage-related articles===
* Beer and breweries by region
* Chinese alcoholic beverages
* Cooking with alcohol
* Homebrewing
* List of alcoholic drinks
* List of countries by alcohol consumption
* List of national drinks
* Mixed drink

===Social and health===
* Alcohol-related crime
* Alcohol and health
* Long-term effects of alcohol consumption
* Religion and alcohol
* Short-term effects of alcohol consumption
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikivoyage|Alcoholic beverages}}
* [http://dailyemerald.com/2012/05/22/redefining-alcoholic-what-this-means-for-students/ About 37 percent of college students could now be considered alcoholics], ''Daily Emerald''
* [http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/alcohol/index_en.htm Alcohol, Health-EU Portal], Health-EU Portal
* [https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/pocketguide/pocket_guide2.htm What Is a Standard Drink?], [[Organization:National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism|National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]]

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