View source for Chemistry:Chemical weapon

{{Short description|Device that uses chemicals to kill or harm individuals}}
{{Infobox
| title            = Chemical        weapon
| image1           = [[File:WMD-chemical.svg|frameless]]
[[File:155mmMustardGasShells.jpg|frameless]]
| headerstyle      = background-color: lightsteelblue
| caption1         = Pallets of 155&nbsp;mm artillery shells containing "HD" (mustard gas) at Pueblo Depot Activity (PUDA) chemical weapons storage facility
| header1          = [[Chemistry:Blister agent|Blister agent]]s
| label4           = [[Chemistry:Phosgene oxime|Phosgene oxime]]
| data4            = (CX)
| label5           = [[Chemistry:Lewisite|Lewisite]]
| data5            = (L)
| label6           = [[Chemistry:Mustard gas|Mustard gas]] (Yperite)
| data6            = (HD)
| label7           = [[Chemistry:Nitrogen mustard|Nitrogen mustard]]
| data7            = (HN)
| header20         = [[Biology:Nerve agent|Nerve agent]]s
| label21          = [[Chemistry:Tabun (nerve agent)|Tabun]]
| data21           = (GA)
| label22          = [[Chemistry:Sarin|Sarin]]
| data22           = (GB)
| label23          = [[Chemistry:Soman|Soman]]
| data23           = (GD)
| label24          = [[Chemistry:Cyclosarin|Cyclosarin]]
| data24           = (GF)
| label25          = [[Chemistry:VX (nerve agent)|VX]]
| data25           = (VX)
| header40         = Blood agents
| label41          = [[Chemistry:Cyanogen chloride|Cyanogen chloride]]
| data41           = (CK)
| label42          = [[Chemistry:Hydrogen cyanide|Hydrogen cyanide]]
| data42           = (AC)
| header50         = [[Chemistry:Pulmonary agent|Choking agents]]
| label51          = [[Chemistry:Chloropicrin|Chloropicrin]]
| data51           = (PS)
| label52          = [[Chemistry:Phosgene|Phosgene]]
| data52           = (CG)
| label53          = [[Chemistry:Diphosgene|Diphosgene]]
| data53           = (DP)
| label54          = [[Chemistry:Chlorine|Chlorine]]
| data54           = (CI)
| data60           = [[File:Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania.jpg|frameless]]
| below            = Soviet chemical weapons canister from an Albanian stockpile<ref name="ref1"/>
| header60         = [[Chemistry:Vomiting agent|Vomiting agent]]s
| label55          = [[Chemistry:Adamsite|Adamsite]]
| data 55          = Adamsite
}}
{{Chemical agents sidebar}}

A '''chemical weapon''' ('''CW''') is a specialized [[Engineering:Ammunition|munition]] that uses chemicals [[Chemistry:Chemical engineering|formulated]] to inflict death or harm on humans. According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), this can be any chemical compound intended as a [[Social:Weapon|weapon]] "or its [[Biology:Precursor|precursor]] that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves."<ref name="CW"/>

Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMD), though they are distinct from [[Engineering:Nuclear weapon|nuclear weapon]]s, [[Biology:Biological warfare|biological weapon]]s, and radiological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from [[Engineering:Conventional weapon|conventional weapon]]s, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, [[Physics:Kinetic energy|kinetic]], or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas, [[Chemistry:Tear gas|tear gas]], and [[Chemistry:Pepper spray|pepper spray]] are three modern examples of chemical weapons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vilches |first1=Diego |last2=Alburquerque |first2=Germán |last3=Ramirez-Tagle |first3=Rodrigo |date=July 2016 |title=One hundred and one years after a milestone: Modern chemical weapons and World War I |url=http://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/req/article/view/63852 |journal=Educación Química |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=233–236 |doi=10.1016/j.eq.2016.04.004|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Lethal unitary chemical agents and munitions are extremely [[Chemistry:Volatility|volatile]] and they constitute a class of hazardous chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are [[Biology:Nerve agent|nerve agent]]s ([[Chemistry:Tabun (nerve agent)|GA]], [[Chemistry:Sarin|GB]], [[Chemistry:Soman|GD]], and [[Chemistry:VX (nerve agent)|VX]]) and vesicant (blister) agents, which include formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the [[Social:World War I|World War I]], the effects of so-called [[Chemistry:Mustard gas|mustard gas]], phosgene gas, and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming.

During World War II the Nazi regime used a commercial [[Chemistry:Hydrogen cyanide|hydrogen cyanide]] blood agent trade-named [[Biology:Zyklon B|Zyklon B]] to commit industrialised genocide against [[Religion:Jews|Jews]] and other targeted populations in large gas chambers.<ref>Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-280436-5}}.</ref> The Holocaust resulted in the largest death toll to chemical weapons in history.<ref>From Cooperation to Complicity: Degussa in the Third Reich, Peter Hayes, 2004, pp 2, 272, {{ISBN|0-521-78227-9}}</ref>

{{As of|2016}}, [[Chemistry:CS gas|CS gas]] and pepper spray remain in common use for policing and riot control; CS and pepper spray are considered non-lethal weapons. Under the [[Social:Chemical Weapons Convention|Chemical Weapons Convention]] (1993), there is a legally binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. However, large stockpiles of chemical weapons continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against possible use by an aggressor. Continued storage of these chemical weapons is a hazard, as many of the weapons are now more than 50 years old, raising risks significantly.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |last=Blackwood |first=Milton E |date=June 1998 |title=Beyond the Chemical Weapons Stockpile: The Challenge of Non-Stockpile Materiel {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/1998-06/features/beyond-chemical-weapons-stockpile-challenge-non-stockpile-materiel |access-date=2022-06-28 |website=www.armscontrol.org}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last1=Greenberg |first1=M. I. |last2=Sexton |first2=K. J. |last3=Vearrier |first3=D. |date=2016-02-07 |title=Sea-dumped chemical weapons: environmental risk, occupational hazard |url=https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2015.1121272 |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=79–91 |doi=10.3109/15563650.2015.1121272 |issn=1556-3650 |pmid=26692048|s2cid=42603071 }}</ref> The {{wipe|United States}} is now undergoing measures to dispose of their chemical weapons in a safe manner.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last1=Carnes |first1=Sam Abbott |last2=Watson |first2=Annetta Paule |date=1989-08-04 |title=Disposing of the US Chemical Weapons Stockpile: An Approaching Reality |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1989.03430050069029 |journal=JAMA |volume=262 |issue=5 |pages=653–659 |doi=10.1001/jama.1989.03430050069029 |pmid=2746817 |issn=0098-7484}}</ref>

== Use ==
{{Main|Social:Chemical warfare}}

Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of [[Chemistry:Chemical substance|chemical substance]]s as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and [[Biology:Biological warfare|biological warfare]], which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term [[Engineering:Conventional weapon|conventional weapon]]s, which are primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. It depends upon the unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized.

[[File:Englische Gasbomben.jpg|thumb|left|A British gas bomb that was used during World War I]]

A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. [[Earth:Defoliant|Defoliant]]s are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. Chemical warfare can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment, training, and decontamination measures.

== History ==
{{Main articles|Social:History of chemical warfare}}
[[File:Sargent,_John_Singer_(RA)_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|alt=Men walk in a line with hands on each other's backs|left|thumb|John Singer Sargent's iconic World War I painting: ''Gassed'', showing blind casualties on a battlefield after a mustard gas attack]]
Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into the Industrial age.<ref>Samir S. Patel, [http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/syria.html "Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria,"] Archaeology, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010, (accessed October 3, 2014)</ref> It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gases.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eric Croddy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQMGhInCvlgC|title=Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=9780387950761|page=131}}</ref> So alarmed were nations that multiple international treaties, discussed below, were passed {{En dash}} banning chemical weapons. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I. The development of [[Chemistry:Chlorine|chlorine gas]], among others, was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of [[Earth:Trench warfare|trench warfare]]. Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In many cases the gases used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Some 1.3 million gas casualties were recorded, which may have included up to 260,000 civilian casualties.<ref>{{cite book|author=D. Hank Ellison|title=Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition|date=August 24, 2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-1434-6|pages=567–570}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Max Boot|title=War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World|date=August 16, 2007|publisher=Gotham|isbn=978-1-5924-0315-8|pages=245–250}}</ref><ref name="Gross">{{cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|date=Spring 2015|title=Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/chemical-warfare-from-the-european-battlefield-to-the-american-laboratory|journal=Distillations|volume=1|issue=1|pages=16–23|access-date=March 20, 2018}}</ref>

The [[History:Interwar period|interwar period]] saw occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly by multiple European colonial forces to put down rebellions. The Italians also used poison gas during their 1936 invasion of Ethiopia.<ref name="EthiopiaHistorical">"Chemical Weapons" in ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', 2d ed. (eds. David H. Shinn & Thomas P. Ofcansky: Scarecrow Press, 2013).</ref> In Nazi Germany, much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent [[Biology:Nerve agent|nerve agent]]s.<ref>Corum, James S., ''The Roots of Blitzkrieg'', University Press of Kansas, USA, 1992, pp.106-107.</ref> However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in World War II. Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but the Allied powers never did, and the Axis used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by the Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities.<ref name="PandH132135">Paxman and Harris: [http://libcom.org/library/churchills-plans-drench-germany-poison-gas-anthrax-robert-harris-jeremy-paxman Churchill's plans 'to drench Germany with poison gas' and anthrax - Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman], p132-35.</ref><ref name="Borchers">Callum Borchers, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2017/04/11/sean-spicer-someone-as-despicable-as-hitler-didnt-even-sink-to-using-chemical-weapons/ Sean Spicer takes his questionable claims to a new level in Hitler-Assad comparison], ''The Washington Post'' (April 11, 2017).</ref> Japanese forces used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against Kuomintang and Chinese communist troops.<ref>Yuki Tanaka, ''Poison Gas, the Story Japan Would Like to Forget,'' Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1988, p. 16-17</ref> However, the Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians in [[Social:The Holocaust|the Holocaust]]. Vast quantities of [[Biology:Zyklon B|Zyklon B]] gas and carbon monoxide were used in the gas chambers of Nazi extermination camps, resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005144|title=Nazi Camps|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/NonJewishVictims.html|title=The Holocaust: Non-Jewish Victims|last=Schwartz|first=Terese Pencak|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library|access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Coffey">Patrick Coffey, ''American Arsenal: A Century of Weapon Technology and Strategy'' (Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 152-54.</ref><ref name="Wirtz">James J. Wirtz, "Weapons of Mass Destruction" in ''Contemporary Security Studies'' (4th ed.), ed. Alan Collins, ''Contemporary Security Studies'' (Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 302.</ref>

The post-war era has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War.<ref>{{citation|last=Fassihi|first=Farnaz|title=In Iran, grim reminders of Saddam's arsenal|date=October 27, 2002|url=http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/mideaststories/me1209.html|journal=New Jersey Star Ledger|access-date=April 22, 2020|archive-date=December 13, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213061050/http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?%2Fspecialprojects%2Fmideaststories%2Fme1209.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Paul Hughes|title=It's like a knife stabbing into me|date=January 21, 2003|url=http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=39470|work=The Star (South Africa)}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Sciolino|first=Elaine|title=Iraq Chemical Arms Condemned, but West Once Looked the Other Way|date=February 13, 2003|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm|journal={{wipe|The New York Times}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527105217/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm|archive-date=May 27, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 Halabja chemical attack.<ref name="BBCHalabja">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/16/newsid_4304000/4304853.stm On this day: 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack], BBC News (March 16, 1988).</ref> The Cuban intervention in Angola saw limited use of [[Chemistry:Organophosphate|organophosphate]]s.<ref name="Angola">{{cite book|title=Bush War: The Road to Cuito Cuanavale: Soviet Soldiers' Accounts of the Angolan War|publisher=Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4314-0185-7|editor1=Tokarev, Andrei|location=Auckland Park|pages=128–130|editor2=Shubin, Gennady}}</ref> The Syrian government has used [[Chemistry:Sarin|sarin]], chlorine, and mustard gas in the Syrian civil war {{En dash}} generally against civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp|title=CDC {{!}} Facts About Sarin|website=www.bt.cdc.gov|access-date=October 7, 2015|archive-date=April 14, 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030414181911/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/world/middleeast/syria-used-chlorine-in-bombs-against-civilians-report-says.html Syria Used Chlorine in Bombs Against Civilians, Report Says], ''The New York Times'', Rick Gladstone, August 24, 2016 retrieved August 25, 2016.</ref> Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in the Tokyo subway sarin attack and the Matsumoto incident.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/06/japan-executes-sarin-gas-attack-cult-leader-shoko-asahara-and-six-members-reports|title=Japan executes sarin gas attack cult leader Shoko Asahara and six members|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 July 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622032307/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/06/japan-executes-sarin-gas-attack-cult-leader-shoko-asahara-and-six-members-reports|archive-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>Seto, Yasuo. "[https://www.opcw.org/news/article/the-sarin-gas-attack-in-japan-and-the-related-forensic-investigation/ The Sarin Gas Attack in Japan and the Related Forensic Investigation.]" The Sarin Gas Attack in Japan and the Related Forensic Investigation. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, June 1, 2001. Web. February 24, 2017.</ref> See also [[Social:Chemical terrorism|chemical terrorism]].

== International law==

=== Before the Second World War ===

[[Finance:International law|International law]] has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention: Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference "especially" prohibited employing "poison and poisoned arms".<ref name="Auto5R-1"/><ref name="Auto5R-2"/> A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles "the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases".<ref name="Auto5R-3"/>

The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6, 1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning chemical warfare but did not succeed because France rejected it. The subsequent failure to include chemical warfare has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles.<ref name="ref15"/>

The [[Social:Geneva Protocol|Geneva Protocol]], officially known as the ''Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare'', is an International treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and [[Biology:Biological warfare|biological weapon]]s in international armed conflicts. It was signed at [[Place:Geneva|Geneva]] June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties<ref name="AutoBS-1"/> to the treaty. {{wipe|Ukraine}} is the newest signatory, acceding August 7, 2003.<ref name="AutoBS-2"/>

This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world". And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted.

=== Modern agreements ===

The 1993 [[Social:Chemical Weapons Convention|Chemical Weapons Convention]] (CWC) is the most recent [[Engineering:Arms control|arms control]] agreement with the force of [[Finance:International law|International law]]. Its full name is the ''Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction''. That agreement outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons&nbsp;(OPCW), which is an independent organization based in [[Place:The Hague|The Hague]].<ref name="ref38"/>

The OPCW administers the terms of the CWC to 192 signatories, which represents 98% of the global population. {{As of|June 2016}}, 66,368 of 72,525 metric tonnes, (92% of chemical weapon stockpiles), have been verified as destroyed.<ref name="AutoF5-1"/><ref name="AutoBS-3"/> The OPCW has conducted 6,327 inspections at 235 chemical weapon-related sites and 2,255 industrial sites. These inspections have affected the sovereign territory of 86 States Parties since April 1997. Worldwide, 4,732 industrial facilities are subject to inspection under provisions of the CWC.<ref name="AutoBS-3"/>

== Countries with stockpiles ==
{{Main|Social:Chemical weapon proliferation}}

In 1985, the United States Congress passed legislation requiring the disposal of the stockpile chemical agents and [[Engineering:Ammunition|munitions]] consisting of over 3 million chemical weapons, adding up to 31,000 tons of chemical weapons needing to be disposed of.<ref name=":03"/> This was ordered because a timely and safe disposal of chemical weapons is far safer than chemical weapon storage.<ref name=":32"/><ref name=":42"/> Between the years of 1982 and 1992, the United States army reported approximately 1,500 leaking chemical weapons munitions, and in 1993 a 100-gallon chemical spill was reported at the Tooele Army Depot in Utah consisting of [[Chemistry:Mustard gas|mustard agents]].<ref name=":03" /> When chemical weapons are leaked or spilled into the ground, an insidious process follows where the condition of the agent is unknown.<ref name=":03" /> This occurs because the process of chemical agents degrading in soil is a complex process that is affected by many factors such as [[Physics:Temperature|temperature]], [[Biology:Soil pH|acidity]], [[Biology:Soil pH|alkalinity]], meteorological conditions, and the types of organisms present in the soil.<ref name=":03" /> This complexity causes persistent agents such as [[Chemistry:Mustard gas|sulfur mustards]] to be harmful for decades.<ref name=":03" />

== Manner and form ==

[[File:JACADS prior to demolition.jpg|thumb|Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System prior to demolition]]
[[File:Chemical agent protection.jpg|thumb|A Swedish Army soldier wearing a chemical agent protective suit (''C-vätskeskydd'') and protection mask (''skyddsmask 90'')]]

There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant and/or explosive components. The next form are aircraft-delivered munitions.<ref name="ref2"/> Together they constitute the two forms that have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready munitions. The final of the three forms are raw agent housed in one-ton containers. The remaining 61%<ref name="ref2"/> of the stockpile was in this form.<ref name="ref10"/> Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature,<ref name="ref2"/><ref name="ref3"/> the sulfur mustards H and HD freeze in temperatures below {{convert|55|F|C|1}}. Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers the freezing point to {{convert|-13|F|C|1}}.<ref name="ref4"/>

Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the installations.<ref name="ref11"/> Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized training.<ref name="ref12"/> The [[Organization:Oak Ridge National Laboratory|Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] conducted a study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian populations during related emergencies,<ref name="ref13"/> and the effectiveness of expedient, [[Social:Shelter in place|in-place shelters]].<ref name="ref14"/>

== Disposal ==

At the end of [[Social:World War II|World War II]], the Allies occupied {{wipe|Germany}} and found large stockpiles of chemical weapons that they did not know how to dispose of or deal with.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Glasby |first=G. P. |date=1997-11-05 |title=Disposal of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969797800150 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=206 |issue=2 |pages=267–273 |doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)80015-0 |pmid=9394485 |bibcode=1997ScTEn.206..267G |issn=0048-9697}}</ref> Ultimately, the Allies disposed large quantities of these chemical weapons into the [[Place:Baltic Sea|Baltic Sea]], including 32 000 tonnes of chemical [[Engineering:Ammunition|munitions]] and chemical warfare agents dumped into the [[Place:Baltic Sea|Bornholm Basin]], and another 2000 tonnes of chemical weapons in the Gotland Basin.<ref name=":12"/>

The majority of these chemical munitions were dumped into the sea while contained in simple wooden crates, leading to a rapid proliferation of chemicals.<ref name=":12"/> Chemical Weapons being disposed in the ocean during the 20th century is not unique to the [[Place:Baltic Sea|Baltic Sea]], and other heavily contaminated areas where disposal occurred are the European, Japanese, Russian, and United States coasts.<ref name=":42"/> These chemical weapons dumped in the ocean pose a continual environmental and human health risk, and chemical agents and breakdown products from said agents have been recently been identified in ocean sediment near historical dumping sites.<ref name=":42"/> When chemical weapons are dumped or otherwise improperly disposed of, the chemical agents are quickly distributed over a wide range.<ref name=":12"/> The long term impacts of this wide-scale distribution are unknown, but known to be negative.<ref name=":12" /> In the Vietnam War of 1955–1975, a chemical weapon called [[Biology:Agent Orange|agent orange]] was widely used by United States forces.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Alvin L. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1066598939 |title=The history, use, disposition, and environmental fate of Agent Orange |date=April 21, 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-87486-9 |oclc=1066598939}}</ref> The {{wipe|United States}} utilized [[Biology:Agent Orange|agent orange]] as a type of 'tactical herbicide', aiming to destroy Vietnamese foliage and plant life to ease military access.<ref name=":5" /> This usage of [[Biology:Agent Orange|agent orange]] has left lasting impacts that are still observable today in the Vietnamese environment, causing [[Disease|disease]], [[Medicine:Birth defect|stunted growth]], and [[Biology:Deformity|deformities]].<ref name=":5" />{{Main|Destruction of chemical weapons}}
[[File:USChemicalWeaponsStockpiles082808.jpg|thumb|Stockpile/disposal site locations for the United States' chemical weapons and the sites operating status as of August 28, 2008]]

=== United States ===

The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years,<ref name="ref15"/> are now considered obsolete.<ref name="ref16"/> Public Law 99-145, contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense&nbsp;(DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency&nbsp;(FEMA).<ref name="ref2"/> The Congressional directive has resulted in the present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program.

Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to as [[Earth:Operation CHASE|Operation CHASE]]).<ref name="ref17"/> However, in 1969, the National Research Council&nbsp;(NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in the selection of incineration technology, which is now incorporated into what is known as the ''baseline'' system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System&nbsp;(JACADS) began in 1985.

This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992, directed the Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National Academy of Sciences makes ..."<ref name="ref10"/> In June 2007, the disposal program achieved the milestone of reaching 45% destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile.<ref name="ref18"/> The Chemical Materials Agency&nbsp;(CMA) releases regular updates to the public regarding the status of the disposal program.<ref name="ref19"/> On July 7, 2023, the program completed destruction of all declared chemical weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-08 |title=Last Chemical Weapon Destroyed at Blue Grass Army Depot - Program Executive Office Assembled Chemical Weapons Alternative |url=https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/2023/07/07/last-chemical-weapon-destroyed-at-blue-grass-army-depot/ |access-date=2023-07-08 |archive-date=July 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708090548/https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/2023/07/07/last-chemical-weapon-destroyed-at-blue-grass-army-depot/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-08 |title=Destruction Progress: PEO ACWA U.S. Chemical Weapons |url=https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/destruction-progress/ |access-date=2023-07-08 |archive-date=July 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708085943/https://www.peoacwa.army.mil/destruction-progress/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

== Lethality ==

Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death".<ref name="ref20"/> At the start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into "lifeless wastelands".<ref name="ref21"/> However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent predicted by the press.

An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari. A [[Place:Nazi Germany|German]] attack on the evening of December 2, 1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted a total of 628 casualties.<ref name="ref22"/><ref name="ref23"/><ref name="ref37"/>

[[File:Gas shell (AWM 028467).jpg|thumb|left|An Australian observer, who has moved into a gas-affected target area to record results, examines an un-exploded shell.]]

The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers affected.<ref name="ref24"/> Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials"<ref name="ref34"/> carried out by the British Government to determine the likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of such possibilities at that time.

Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes; rendering the victim unable to perform their assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness.<ref name="ref25"/>

== Unitary versus binary weapons ==

{{Further|Chemistry:Binary chemical weapon}}

Binary munitions contain two, unmixed and isolated chemicals that do not react to produce lethal effects until mixed. This usually happens just prior to battlefield use. In contrast, unitary weapons are lethal chemical munitions that produce a toxic result in their existing state.<ref name="ref31"/> The majority of the chemical weapon stockpile is unitary and most of it is stored in one-ton bulk containers.<ref name="ref26"/><ref name="ref27"/>

== See also ==

* 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord
* [[Social:CB military symbol|CB military symbol]]
* General-purpose criterion
* [[Chemistry:List of chemical warfare agents|List of chemical warfare agents]]
* [[Social:Riot control|Riot control]]

== References ==

{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="ref1">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/cw/documents/cwagents.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174010/http://fas.org/cw/documents/cwagents.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-03|title= Types of Chemical Weapons|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|website=www.fas.org|access-date= June 27, 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="CW">{{cite web|title=Brief Description of Chemical Weapons|url=http://www.opcw.org/about-chemical-weapons/what-is-a-chemical-weapon/|website=Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|access-date=October 21, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-1"><span class="plainlinks">Article 23</span>. wikisource.org. Retrieved June 27, 2016.</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-2">{{cite web|date=July 29, 1899|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague02.asp#art23|title= Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II); Article 23|website=www.yale.edu|access-date= September 14, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-3">{{cite web|date=July 29, 1899|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/dec99-02.asp|title= Laws of War: Declaration on the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases|website=www.yale.edu|access-date=September 14, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="ref15">{{cite web|last=Shrivastav|first= Sanjeev Kumar|date=January 1, 2010|url=http://www.idsa.in/cbwmagazine/UnitedStatesofAmericaChemicalWeaponsProfile_skshrivastav_0110|title= United States of America: Chemical Weapons Profile|website=www.idsa.in|access-date= September 14, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoBS-1">{{cite web|url=http://archives.sipri.org/contents/expcon/cbwarfare/cbw_research_doc/cbw_historical/cbw-hist-geneva-res.html|title=Geneva Protocol reservations: Project on Chemical and Biological Warfare|website=www.sipri.org|access-date=September 14, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906181240/http://archives.sipri.org/contents/expcon/cbwarfare/cbw_research_doc/cbw_historical/cbw-hist-geneva-res.html|archive-date=September 6, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoBS-2">{{cite web|url=http://archives.sipri.org/contents/expcon/cbwarfare/cbw_research_doc/cbw_historical/cbw-hist-geneva-parties.html|title=High Contracting Parties to the Geneva Protocol|website=www.sipri.org|access-date=September 14, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906184639/http://archives.sipri.org/contents/expcon/cbwarfare/cbw_research_doc/cbw_historical/cbw-hist-geneva-parties.html|archive-date=September 6, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="ref38">{{cite web|url=http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-3&chapter=26&lang=en|title=Status as at: 07-11-2010 01:48:46 EDT, Chapter XXVI, Disarmament|website=www.un.org|access-date=September 14, 2013|archive-date=April 7, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407202014/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-3&chapter=26&lang=en|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoF5-1">{{cite web|title=Demilitarisation|url=http://www.opcw.org/our-work/demilitarisation/|publisher=Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|website=www.opcw.org|access-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoBS-3">{{cite web|url=http://www.opcw.org/|title= Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (home page)|website=www.opcw.org|access-date= June 27, 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="ref2">{{cite web|title=Public Law 99-145 Attachment E|url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/plan/6-ch-e.pdf |work=www.fema.gov}}</ref>

<ref name="ref4">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/army/fm/3-9/fm3-9.pdf|title=FM 3–9 (field manual)|access-date=2010-08-10}}</ref>

<ref name="ref10">{{cite web |url=http://www.stormingmedia.us/06/0636/A063674.html |title=Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement Volume 3: Appendices A-S&nbsp;– Storming Media |publisher=Stormingmedia.us |access-date=2010-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907022438/http://www.stormingmedia.us/06/0636/A063674.html |archive-date=September 7, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="ref3">{{cite web|date=June 15, 2010|url=http://chsdemocrats.house.gov/SiteDocuments/20100615101417-64589.pdf|title=Record Version Written Statement by Carmen J. Spencer Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army|website=www.chsdemocrats.house.govhouse.gov|access-date=November 11, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111122654/http://chsdemocrats.house.gov/SiteDocuments/20100615101417-64589.pdf|archive-date=November 11, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="ref11">{{cite web|last1=Rogers|first1=G. O.|last2=Watson|first2=A. P.|last3=Sorensen|first3=J. H.|last4=Sharp|first4=R. D.|last5=Carnes|first5=S. A.|date=April 1, 1990|url=http://emc.ed.ornl.gov/publications/PDF/EvalDocFinal.pdf|title=Evauluating Protective Actions for Chemical Agent Emergencies |website=www.emc.ed.ornl.gov|access-date=November 11, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111123228/http://emc.ed.ornl.gov/publications/PDF/EvalDocFinal.pdf|archive-date=November 11, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="ref12">{{cite journal|title=Methods for Assessing and Reducing Injury from Chemical Accidents|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|url=http://dge.stanford.edu/SCOPE/SCOPE_40/SCOPE_40_2.6_McQuaid_157-188.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name="ref13">{{cite journal|title=Technical Options for Protecting Civilians from Toxic Vapors and Gases|publisher=[[Organization:Oak Ridge National Laboratory|Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]|url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1988/3445602739936.pdf|access-date=August 11, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113092649/http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1988/3445602739936.pdf|archive-date=January 13, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="ref14">{{cite web|title=Effectiveness of expedient sheltering in place in a residents|publisher=Journal of Hazardous Materials, Elsiver.com|url=http://orise.orau.gov/csepp/documents/planning/reports/misc-reports/paperSIP010406.pdf|access-date=November 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111103357/http://orise.orau.gov/csepp/documents/planning/reports/misc-reports/paperSIP010406.pdf|archive-date=November 11, 2013|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="ref16">{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/cw.htm |title=Chemical Weapons |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=2013-11-11}}</ref>

<ref name="ref17">{{cite web|author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/chase.htm |title=Operation CHASE (for "Cut Holes and Sink 'Em") |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=2010-08-09}}</ref>

<ref name="ref18">{{cite journal|title=45 Percent CWC Milestone|publisher=U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003676901|access-date=August 9, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608073109/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003676901|archive-date=June 8, 2011|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="ref19">{{cite journal|title=Agent Destruction Status|publisher=United States Army Chemical Materials Agency|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/verticalmetricswindow.aspx?graph=Agent&desc=Agent%20Destruction%20Status|access-date=June 16, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624111454/http://www.cma.army.mil/verticalmetricswindow.aspx?graph=Agent&desc=Agent%20Destruction%20Status|archive-date=June 24, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="ref20">{{cite web|url=http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2059.pdf |title=TextHandbook-EforS.fm |access-date=2010-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703004123/http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2059.pdf |archive-date=July 3, 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name="ref21">{{cite web |url=http://www.vectorsite.net/twgas_2.html |title=&#91;2.0&#93; A History of Chemical Warfare (2) |publisher=Vectorsite.net |access-date=2010-08-09 |archive-date=June 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604115952/http://www.vectorsite.net/twgas_2.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="ref22">{{cite web|url=http://mcm.fhpr.osd.mil/cb_exposures/ww2/ww2mustard.aspx|title=Mustard Disaster at Bari|website=www.mcm.fhpr.osd.mil|access-date=November 11, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111123123/http://mcm.fhpr.osd.mil/cb_exposures/ww2/ww2mustard.aspx|archive-date=November 11, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="ref23">{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq104-4.htm |title=Naval Armed Guard: at Bari, Italy |publisher=History.navy.mil |access-date=2010-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100409224015/http%3A//www%2Ehistory%2Enavy%2Emil/faqs/faq104%2D4%2Ehtm |archive-date= April 9, 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="ref37">{{cite web|url=http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/sbtwc/keytext/genprot.htm|title=Text of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention|website=www.brad.ac.uk|access-date=7 March 2022|archive-date=September 7, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907031103/http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/sbtwc/keytext/genprot.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="ref24">{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/rockrep.cfm |title=Is Military Research Hazardous to Veterans' Health? Lessons Spanning Half a Century. United States Senate December 8, 1994 |publisher=Gulfweb.org |access-date=2010-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813164326/http://gulfweb.org/bigdoc/rockrep.cfm |archive-date=August 13, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="ref34">{{cite web|url=http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/brook%20island%20trial.htm |title=Brook Island Trials of Mustard Gas during WW2 |publisher=Home.st.net.au |access-date=2010-09-15}}</ref>

<ref name="ref25">{{cite web|url=http://www.brooksidepress.org/Products/OperationalMedicine/DATA/operationalmed/Manuals/RedHandbook/007IncapacitatingAgents.html |title=007 Incapacitating Agents |publisher=Brooksidepress.org |access-date=2010-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616133920/http://brooksidepress.org/Products/OperationalMedicine/DATA/operationalmed/Manuals/RedHandbook/007IncapacitatingAgents.html |archive-date=June 16, 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="ref31">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2cJLoEvIaAC&q=Lethal+Unitary+Chemical+Agents+and+Munitions+%22soviet%22&pg=PA22|title=Alternative technologies for the destruction of chemicam agents and munitions|publisher=National Research Council (U.S.)|isbn=9780309049467|year=1993}}</ref>

<ref name="ref26">{{cite web |url=http://www.armscontrol.org/print/363 |title=Beyond the Chemical Weapons Stockpile: The Challenge of Non-Stockpile Materiel |publisher=Armscontrol.org |access-date=2010-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908034743/http://www.armscontrol.org/print/363 |archive-date=September 8, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="ref27">{{cite book|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Committee on the Survey of the Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite|title=Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMJw_6sx1jIC&pg=PA49|date=1993|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-04832-3|page=49}}</ref>

<!--  REFERENCES NOT USED IN ARTICLE
<ref name="Auto5R-5">{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/nationnow/2011/10/umatilla-chemical-weapons-depot-oregon.html|title=Chemical weapon stockpile destroyed at Oregon's Umatilla site| publisher=Latimesblogs.latimes.com|date=October 25, 2011|access-date=2013-09-05}}</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-6">{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Arndt|url=https://www.army.mil/article/48134/U_S__Army_Completes_Chemical_Stockpile_Destruction_at_Pine_Bluff_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_Facility/|title= U.S. Army Completes Chemical Stockpile Destruction at Pine Bluff Chemical Agent Disposal Facility|publisher= U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency|date=November 15, 2010|access-date=June 27, 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-7">{{cite web|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?DocID=003683880 |title=Army Agency Completes Mission to Destroy Chemical Weapons|publisher=U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency|website=www.cma.army.mil|access-date= January 21, 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="Auto5R-8">{{cite web|first=Michael |last=Abrams|date=September 29, 2011|url=http://www.army.mil/article/66391/ |title=ANCDF completes chemical munitions mission|website=www.army.mil|access-date=June 27, 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="ref8">{{cite web|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/pueblo.aspx|title=The U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) – Pueblo, Colorado|publisher=Cma.army.mil|access-date=2010-08-09}}</ref>

<ref name="AutoF5-2">{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Army Public Health Command|title= Chemical Warfare Agents|url= http://phc.amedd.army.mil/topics/envirohealth/em/Pages/CWA.aspx|access-date= July 10, 2015}}</ref> -->
}}

==Further reading==
* Glenn Cross, ''Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980'', Helion & Company, 2017

== External links ==

* [https://www.opcw.org/ Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons] Home page
* [https://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Onate-Laborde_AC.html Lecture] by Santiago Oñate Laborde entitled ''The Chemical Weapons Convention: an Overview'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* {{Cite web |title=The Government of Canada 'Challenge' for chemical substances that are a high priority for action |date=November 28, 2006|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/challenge.html}}
* {{Cite web|title=Chemical categories |url=http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlistchem-category.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051108133544/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlistchem-category.asp |archive-date=November 8, 2005 }}
* {{Cite web|title=U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency (home page)|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/home.aspx|access-date=August 10, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041015020742/http://www.cma.army.mil/home.aspx|archive-date=October 15, 2004|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}
{{Chemical warfare}}
{{U.S. chemical weapons}}


[[Category:Chemical weapons| ]]
[[Category:Chemical warfare]]

{{Sourceattribution|Chemical weapon}}