View source for Chemistry:Dust explosion

{{Short description|Rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air}}
[[File:Staubexplosion.jpg|thumb|upright|Lab demonstration with burning lycopodium powder]]
A '''dust explosion''' is the rapid [[Physics:Combustion|combustion]] of [[Earth:Particulates|fine particles]] suspended in the air within an enclosed location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible material is present in high-enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium, such as pure [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]]. In cases when fuel plays the role of a combustible material, the explosion is known as a '''fuel-air explosion.'''

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators and [[Engineering:Silo|silo]]s, and other industrial environments. They are also commonly used by [[Special effect|special effect]]s artists, filmmakers, and [[Pyrotechnics|pyrotechnicians]], given their spectacular appearance and ability to be safely contained under certain carefully controlled conditions.

Thermobaric weapons exploit this principle by rapidly saturating an area with an easily combustible material and then igniting it to produce explosive force. These weapons are the most powerful non-nuclear weapons in existence.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/12/russia.lukeharding|title=Russia unveils the 'father of all bombs' |last=Harding |first=Luke |date=2007-09-11 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2019-01-19 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Terminology ==
If rapid combustion occurs in a confined space, enormous [[Physics:Overpressure|overpressure]]s can build up, causing major structural damage and flying debris. The sudden release of energy from a "[[Physics:Detonation|detonation]]" can produce a shockwave, either in open air or in a confined space. If the spread of flame is at [[Physics:Speed of sound|subsonic]] speed, the phenomenon is sometimes called a "[[Physics:Deflagration|deflagration]]", although looser usage calls both phenomena "explosions".

Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust explosions may occur inside process equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled by [[Astronomy:Explosion vent|pressure relief]] through purpose-built ducting to the external atmosphere. Secondary dust explosions are the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and ignited by the primary explosion, resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion that can affect the entire structure. Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely been the result of secondary dust explosions.<ref name=ONE>Eckhoff, Rolf K. (1997). Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. {{ISBN|0-7506-3270-4}}.</ref>

== Conditions required ==
[[File:Dust explosion pentagon simple.png|thumb|Diagram showing the five requirements for a dust explosion]]
There are five necessary conditions for a dust explosion:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/OSHAcombustibledust.pdf |title=OSHA Fact Sheet: Hazard Alert: Combustible Dust Explosions |website=osha.gov |access-date=2018-01-23 |archive-date=2020-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101022138/https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/OSHAcombustibledust.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
# A combustible dust
# The dust is dispersed in the air within certain [[Astronomy:Flammability limit|flammability limit]]s
# There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)
# There is an ignition source
# The area is confined{{snd}}a building can be an enclosure 

=== Sources of dust ===
[[File:Washburnamill.jpg|thumb|right|1878 [[Stereoscopy|stereograph]] rendering of the Great Mill Disaster]]
[[File:MountMulligan.jpg|thumb|right|Mount Mulligan mine disaster in {{wipe|Australia}} 1921. These cable drums were blown 50 feet (15&nbsp;m) from their foundations following a coal dust explosion.]]
[[File:Imperial Sugar Georgia Two.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of 2008 explosion at Imperial Sugar in Port Wentworth, Georgia, US]]
Many common materials which are known to burn can generate a dust explosion, such as coal dust and [[Chemistry:Sawdust#Explosions and fire|sawdust]]. In addition, many otherwise mundane organic materials can also be dispersed into a dangerous dust cloud, such as grain, [[Biology:Flour|flour]], [[Chemistry:Starch|starch]], [[Chemistry:Sugar|sugar]], powdered milk, cocoa, coffee, and [[Biology:Pollen|pollen]]. Powdered metals (such as [[Chemistry:Aluminum|aluminum]], [[Chemistry:Magnesium|magnesium]], and [[Chemistry:Titanium|titanium]]) can form explosive suspensions in air, if finely divided.

A gigantic explosion of flour dust destroyed a mill in Minnesota on May 2, 1878, killing 14 workers at the Washburn A Mill and another four in adjacent buildings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.mnopedia.org/event/1878-washburn-mill-explosion |title=The 1878 Washburn A Mill Explosion|first=Iric |last=Nathanson |access-date=2014-04-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408222412/http://www.mnopedia.org/event/1878-washburn-mill-explosion |archive-date=2014-04-08 }}</ref> A similar problem occurs in [[Engineering:Sawmill|sawmill]]s and other places dedicated to [[Engineering:Woodworking|woodworking]].

Since the advent of industrial production–scale [[Chemistry:Metal powder|metal powder]]–based [[3D printing|additive manufacturing]] (AM) in the 2010s, there is growing need for more information and experience with preventing dust explosions and fires from the traces of excess [[Engineering:Metal swarf|metal powder]] sometimes left over after laser [[Earth:Sintering|sintering]] or other fusion methods.<ref name="Simpson_2017-08-17">{{Citation |last=Simpson |first=Timothy W. |date=2017-08-17 |title=Will My AM Part Explode? Not if you're careful. Parts built from metallic powder require extra precautions |journal=Modern Machine Shop |url=https://www.mmsonline.com/columns/will-my-am-part-explode |postscript=.}}</ref> For example, in [[Engineering:Machining|machining]] operations downstream of the AM build, excess powder liberated from porosities in the support structures can be exposed to sparks from the cutting interface.<ref name="Simpson_2017-08-17"/> Efforts are underway not only to build this knowledgebase within the industry but also to share it with local fire departments, who do periodic fire-safety inspections of businesses in their districts and who can expect to answer alarms at shops or plants where AM is now part of the production mix.<ref name="Simpson_2017-08-17"/> 

Although not strictly a dust, paper [[Physics:Particles|particles]] emitted during processing – especially rolling, unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting – are also known to pose an explosion hazard. Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain [[Engineering:Humidifier|very high air humidities]] to reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.

In special effects [[Pyrotechnics|pyrotechnics]], lycopodium powder<ref name=ONE/> and [[Engineering:Non-dairy creamer|non-dairy creamer]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.detonationfilms.com/Fireball_demo.htm|title=Detonation Films – Why Coffee Creamer?|access-date= March 20, 2011}}</ref> are two common means of producing safe, controlled fire effects.

To support rapid combustion, the dust must consist of very small particles with a high [[Biology:Surface-area-to-volume ratio|surface area to volume ratio]], thereby making the collective or combined surface area of all the particles very large in comparison to a dust of larger particles. Dust is defined as powders with particles less than about 500 micrometres in diameter, but [[Physics:Ultrafine particle|finer]] dust will present a much greater hazard than coarse particles by virtue of the larger total surface area of all the particles.

=== Concentration ===
Below a certain value, the [[Astronomy:Flammability limit#Lower explosive limit|lower explosive limit]] (LEL), there is insufficient dust to support the combustion at the rate required for an explosion.<ref name=bartec/> A combustible concentration at or below 25% of the LEL is considered safe.<ref>NFPA 69 8.3.1</ref> Similarly, if the [[Chemistry:Air–fuel ratio|fuel to air ratio]] increases above the [[Astronomy:Flammability limit#Upper explosive limit|upper explosive limit]] (UEL), there is insufficient oxidant to permit combustion to continue at the necessary rate.

Determining the minimum explosive concentration or maximum explosive concentration of dusts in air is difficult, and consulting different sources can lead to quite different results. Typical explosive ranges in air are from few dozens grams/m<sup>3</sup> for the minimum limit, to few kg/m<sup>3</sup> for the maximum limit.  For example, the LEL for sawdust has been determined to be between 40 and 50 grams/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://powderprocess.net/Safety/Dust_Explosion_Concentration.html|title=Dust explosion concentration – Physical meaning and use in risk assessment of powder minimum explosive concentration (MEC)|website=PowderProcess.net}}</ref> It depends on many factors including the type of material used.

=== Oxidant ===
Typically, normal atmospheric oxygen can be sufficient to support a dust explosion if the other necessary conditions are also present. High-oxygen or pure oxygen environments are considered to be especially hazardous, as are strong oxidizing gases such as [[Chemistry:Chlorine|chlorine]] and [[Chemistry:Fluorine|fluorine]]. Also, particulate suspensions of compounds with a high oxidative potential, such as [[Chemistry:Peroxide|peroxide]]s, [[Chemistry:Chlorate|chlorate]]s, [[Chemistry:Nitrate|nitrate]]s, [[Chemistry:Perchlorate|perchlorate]]s, and [[Chemistry:Dichromate|dichromate]]s, can increase risk of an explosion if combustible materials are also present.

=== Sources of ignition ===
There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of the dust explosions in Germany in 2005 were from non-flame sources.<ref name=bartec>{{cite web|url=http://bartec.de/homepage/eng/downloads/produkte/staubexschutz/Dust_Ex.pdf|title=Dust explosion protection|date=2005|website=bartec.de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210052316/https://www.bartec.de/homepage/eng/downloads/produkte/staubexschutz/Dust_Ex.pdf|archive-date=2006-12-10}}</ref> Common sources of ignition include:
* [[Physics:Electrostatic discharge|electrostatic discharge]] (e.g. an improperly installed [[Engineering:Conveyor belt|conveyor belt]], which can act like a [[Organization:Van de Graaff generator|Van de Graaff generator]])
* [[Physics:Friction|friction]] 
* electrical arcing from machinery or other equipment
* hot surfaces (e.g. overheated [[Physics:Bearing (mechanical)|bearings]])
* [[Astronomy:Fire|fire]]
* self-ignition

However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to [[Physics:Static electricity|static electricity]]. Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.

== Mechanism ==
[[File:Dust explosion demonstration.webm|thumb|thumbtime=0:54|Video demonstration of a dust explosion, showing the size of an unignited dust cloud, size of the cloud ignited, a partially contained explosion, and a contained explosion]]
Dusts have a very large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the surface of a solid or liquid, where it can react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more flammable than bulk materials. For example, a {{convert|1|kg}} sphere of a combustible material with a density of 1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> would be about {{convert|12.4|cm|in}} in diameter, and have a surface area of {{convert|0.048|m2}}. However, if it were broken up into spherical dust particles 50 µm in diameter (about the size of [[Biology:Flour|flour]] particles) it would have a surface area of {{convert|120|m2}}. This greatly-increased surface area allows the material to burn much faster, and the extremely small mass of each particle allows them to catch on fire with much less energy than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to conduction within the material.

When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be ignited by even a small spark.

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Demonstration of an open-air dust explosion">
File:Dust explosion 00.jpg|Experimental setup
File:Dust explosion 01.jpg|Finely-ground [[Biology:Flour|flour]] is dispersed
File:Dust explosion 02.jpg|Cloud of flour is ignited
File:Dust explosion 03.jpg|Fireball spreads rapidly
File:Dust explosion 04.jpg|Intense radiant heat has nothing to ignite here
File:Dust explosion 05.jpg|Fireball and superheated gases rise
File:Dust explosion 06.jpg|Aftermath of explosion, with unburned flour on the ground
</gallery>

==Effects==
A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent overpressure or shockwave effects. Flying objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or cause severe skin burns in unprotected persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause asphyxiation.  Where the dust is carbon based (such as in a coal mine), incomplete combustion may cause large amounts of [[Chemistry:Carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (the miners' after-damp) to be created.  This can cause more deaths than the original explosion as well as hindering rescue attempts.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Murray | first1=Charles Edward Robertson | last2=Wilberforce | first2=Daniel | last3=Ritchie | first3=David | date=1903 | title=Mount Kembla Colliery Disaster 31 July 1902 – Report of the Royal Commission, together with minutes of evidence and exhibits | journal=Historical and Cultural Collections – Publications | publisher=New South Wales Legislative Assembly | url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/hcp/2/ | access-date=19 May 2019|page=xxxvi}}</ref><ref>{{citation  | last = Roberts  | first = H C W  | title = Report on the causes of, and circumstances attending, the explosion which occurred at Easington Colliery, County Durham, on the 29th May, 1951.  | date = September 1952  | publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office  | location = London  | series = Cmd 8646  | hdl = 1842/5365 | pages = 9, 39–40}}</ref>

== Protection and mitigation ==
[[File:"Save Lives, Save Food- Save Property. Prevent Dust Explosions...Keep your mill and elevator free from dust and dirt.... - NARA - 512690.tif|thumb|upright|This American poster during World War I warned about grain dust explosions]]
Much research has been carried out in Europe and elsewhere to understand how to control these dangers, but dust explosions still occur. The alternatives for making processes and plants safer depend on the industry.

In the coal mining industry, a methane explosion can initiate a coal dust explosion, which can then engulf an entire mine pit. As a precaution, incombustible stone dust may be spread along mine roadways, or stored in trays hanging from the roof, to dilute the coal dust stirred up by a shockwave to the point where it cannot burn. Mines may also be sprayed with water to inhibit ignition.

Some industries exclude oxygen from dust-raising  processes, a precaution known as "inerting". Typically this uses [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]], [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]], or [[Chemistry:Argon|argon]], which are incombustible gases which can displace oxygen. The same method is also used in large storage tanks where flammable vapors can accumulate. However, use of oxygen-free gases brings a risk of asphyxiation of the workers. Workers who need illumination in enclosed spaces where a dust explosion is a high risk often use lamps designed for underwater divers, as they have no risk of producing an open spark due to their sealed waterproof design.

Good housekeeping practices, such as eliminating build-up of combustible dust deposits that could be disturbed and lead to a secondary explosion, also help mitigate the problem.

Best engineering control measures which can be found in the [[Organization:National Fire Protection Association|National Fire Protection Association]] (NFPA) Combustible Dust Standards<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards|title=List of NFPA Codes & Standards|website=NFPA.org}}</ref> include:
* Wetting
* Oxidant concentration reduction 
* Deflagration venting
* Deflagration pressure containment
* Deflagration suppression
* Deflagration venting through a dust retention and flame-arresting device

== Notable incidents ==
<!-- >>>> NOTE TO EDITORS <<<<
Do NOT add an entry to the table without *either* a Wikilink to an existing article covering the incident *or* a footnote reference directly documenting the incident. Documentation from a reliable source is required; a separate article about the incident is not required. Undocumented additions will be commented out or deleted. 
 -->

Dust clouds are a common source of explosions, causing an estimated 2,000 explosions annually in Europe.<ref name=HazardEx/> The table lists notable incidents worldwide.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 17%;" | Event
! scope="col" style="width:  8%;" | Date
! scope="col" style="width: 10%;" | Location
! scope="col" style="width: 10%;" | Country 
! scope="col" style="width: 10%;" | Source material
! scope="col" style="width:  5%;" data-sort-type="number" | Fatalities
! scope="col" style="width:  5%;" data-sort-type="number" | Injuries
! scope="col" style="width: 35%;" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| scope="row" | Tradeston Flour Mills explosion || {{dts|1872-07-09}} || Glasgow, Scotland || {{flagcountry|UK}} || grain dust || 18 || 16 || Destroyed the mill building and damaged surrounding buildings, and started a fire that killed others. The investigation into the explosion was published across Europe and the Americas. 
|-
| scope="row" | Great Mill Disaster|| {{dts|1878-05-02}} || Minneapolis, Minnesota || {{flagcountry|USA|variant=1877}} || grain dust || 18 || || Destroyed the largest grain mill in the world and leveled five other mills, effectively reducing the milling capacity of Minneapolis by one-third to one-half. Prompted mills throughout the country to install better ventilation systems to prevent dust build-up. 
|-
|Husted Mill and Elevator Disaster
|June 24, 1913
|Buffalo, New York
|{{Flagicon|United States of America|variant=1912}}{{wipe|United States}}
|grain dust
|33
|80
|This workday afternoon explosion destroyed a grain elevator and mill complex. The engineer of a passing railroad switch engine was blown from the cab and died. Windows of a passing Nickel Plate Road passenger train were broken, but no passengers were injured.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buffalo, NY Grain Elevator Explosion, June 1913 {{!}} GenDisasters ... Genealogy in Tragedy, Disasters, Fires, Floods Page 1 |url=http://www.gendisasters.com/new-york/17188/buffalo-ny-grain-elevator-explosion-june-1913?page=0,0 |access-date=2022-02-28 |website=www.gendisasters.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Henry H. |first=Baxter |url=http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/Buffalos_Grain_Elevators.pdf |title=Grain Elevators |publisher=Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society |year=1980 |location=Buffalo, NY |pages=14}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Milwaukee Works explosion 
|| {{dts|1919-05-20}} 
|| Milwaukee, Wisconsin
|| {{flagcountry|USA}} 
|| Feed grinding plant
|| 3
|| 4
|| The blast was felt for miles around and completely leveled the plant owned by the company.  
|-
| scope="row" | Douglas Starch Works explosion 
|| {{dts|1919-05-22}} 
|| Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
|| {{flagcountry|USA|variant=1912}} 
|| [[Chemistry:Corn starch|corn starch]] 
|| 43 
|| 30 
|| The blast was felt for miles around and completely leveled the plant owned by the company. 
|-
| scope="row" | Port Colborne explosion
|| {{dts|1919-08-09}} 
|| Port Colborne 
|| {{flagcountry|Canada|variant=1868}} 
|| grain
|| 10
|| 16
|| Blast also destroyed the steamer ''Quebec'', which was near the grain elevator
|-
| scope="row" | Large terminal grain elevator in Kansas City 
|| {{dts|1919-09-13}} 
|| Kansas City, Missouri 
|| {{flagcountry|USA|variant=1912}} 
||  
|| 14
|| 10
|| Originated in basement of elevator, during a cleanup period, and travelled up through the elevator shaft
|-
| scope="row" | Mount Mulligan mine disaster || {{dts|1921-09-19}} || Mount Mulligan, Queensland || {{flagcountry|Australia}} || coal dust || 75 ||  || The series of coal dust explosions within a mine rocked the close-knit township and was audible as far as {{convert|30|km}} away.
|-
| scope="row" | Benxihu Colliery explosion || {{dts|1942-04-26}} || Benxi, Liaoning || {{flagcountry|Manchukuo}} (now China) || coal dust and gas || 1,549 ||  || 34% of the miners working that day were killed. This is the world's worst-ever coal-mining accident. 
|-
|Pillsbury Explosion and Fire
|January 2, 1972
|Buffalo, New York
|{{Flagicon|United States of America}}{{wipe|United States}}
|[[Biology:Wheat flour|wheat flour]]
|3
|8
|New Year's weekend explosion at what was then the world's biggest flour mill. The blast occurred in a series of 500-foot-long, 10-story-tall concrete-and-steel bulk flour storage bins. Repairs took a year to complete.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1972-01-03 |title=1 Dead, 2 Lost as Blast in Buffalo Rips World's Biggest Flour Mill |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/03/archives/1-dead-2-lost-as-blast-in-buffalo-rips-worlds-biggest-flour-mill.html |access-date=2022-02-28 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" |Westwego grain elevator explosion||{{dts|1977-12-22}} || Westwego, Louisiana || {{flagcountry|USA}} || grain dust || 36 || 13 || <ref name=TheDay>{{cite news| journal=The Day |title=Explosion suits settled |date=24 April 1980 |page=26 |place=New London, Connecticut}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Galveston grain elevator explosion || {{dts|1977-12-27}} || Galveston, {{wipe|Texas}} || {{flagcountry|USA}} || grain dust || 20 || || <ref name=TheDay/>
|-
| scope="row" | Bird's Custard factory explosion || {{dts|1981-11-18}} || Banbury|| {{flagcountry|UK}} || [[Chemistry:Corn starch|corn starch]] ||   || 9 || <ref name=HazardEx>{{cite web |title=Dust to Dust |url=http://www.hazardexonthenet.net/article/40288/Dust-to-Dust.aspx |first=Julian |last=Hought |date=28 February 2011 |access-date=2015-07-02}}</ref><ref>"Corn Starch Dust Explosion at General Foods Ltd, Banbury, Oxfordshire – 18th November 1981". Great Britain: January 1983. Occupational Health & Safety Information Service, UK. {{ISBN|0-11-883673-0}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Metz malt factory explosion || {{dts|1982-10-18}} || Metz || {{flagcountry|France}} || barley dust || 12 || 1 || <ref>[http://www.aria.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/accident/8781/ Explosion dans un silo d'une malterie]{{in lang|fr}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Ingeniero White Silo Nº 5 explosion || 13 March 1985 || Ingeniero White || {{flagcountry|Argentina}} || grain dust || 22 ||   || <ref>{{cite news |title=En un emotivo acto presentaron el documental "Elevador 5 – 35 años" |url=https://www.lanueva.com/nota/2020-3-13-15-11-0-en-un-emotivo-acto-presentaron-el-documental-silo-5-35-anos |date=13 March 2020 |access-date=17 November 2021 |journal=La Nueva |lang=es}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Harbin textile factory explosion || {{dts|1987-03-17}} || Harbin || {{flagcountry|China}} || [[Biology:Flax|flax]] dust || 58 || 177 || <ref name=LATimesHarbin>{{cite news |title=47 Die, 179 Injured in Blast at Linen Mill in Northeast China |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1987-03-17/news/mn-12499_1_linen-mill |date=March 17, 1987 |access-date=2015-07-02 |journal=Los Angeles Times }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Sukhodilska–Skhidna coal mine accident || {{dts|1992-06-9}} || Sukhodilsk || {{flagcountry|Ukraine}} || coal dust and firedamp || 63 || 37 || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fireman.club/statyi-polzovateley/vzryv-na-shaxte-suxodolskaya-vostochnaya/|title = Взрыв на шахте «Суходольская-Восточная»|date = 25 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tsn.ua/ru/ukrayina/samye-masshtabnye-avarii-na-shahtah-za-gody-nezavisimoy-ukrainy-815354.html|title=Самые масштабные аварии на шахтах за годы независимой Украины|date=2 March 2017}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | Blaye grain explosion || {{dts|1997-08}} || Blaye || {{flagcountry|France}} || grain dust || 11 || 1 || Explosion in a grain storage facility at the Société d’Exploitation Maritime Blayaise killed 11 people in nearby offices and injured one.<ref name=HazardEx/>
|-
| scope="row" | Debruce elevator explosion || {{dts|1998-06}} || Wichita, Kansas || {{flagcountry|USA}} || grain dust || 7 || 10 || Multiple explosions occurred in what was then the world's largest grain elevator. Dust collection systems were not properly maintained.<ref>[https://www.osha.gov/grain-handling/geeit OSHA report on the Debruce explosion]</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | West Pharmaceutical Services explosion || {{dts|2003-01-29}} || Kinston, North Carolina || {{flagcountry|USA}} || [[Chemistry:Polyethylene|polyethylene]] dust || 6 || 38 || 
|-
| scope="row" | Imperial Sugar explosion|| {{dts|2008-02-07}} || Port Wentworth, Georgia || {{flagcountry|USA}} || [[Chemistry:Sugar|sugar]] dust || 14 || 42 || <ref name=HazardEx/> 
|-
| scope="row" | 2014 Kunshan explosion || {{dts|2014-08-02}} || Kunshan || {{flagcountry|China}} || metal powder || 146 || 114 ||
|-
| scope="row" | Formosa Fun Coast explosion || {{dts|2015-06-27}} || New Taipei || {{flagcountry|Taiwan}} || colored starch powder || 15 || 498 || Explosion when Holi-like colored powder was released at an outdoor music and color festival at the Formosa Fun Coast.
|-
| scope="row" | Bosley wood flour mill explosion || {{dts|2015-07-17}} || Bosley, Cheshire || {{flagcountry|UK}} || wood flour || 4 || 4 || <ref>{{cite web |title=Bosley explosion: Four missing in Wood Flour Mills blast |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-33566064 |work=BBC News |date=July 17, 2015 |access-date=2015-12-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bosley Wood flour mill explosion: Fourth body found in wreckage of building gutted by blast |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/bosley-wood-flour-mill-explosion-6150258 |first=Kim |last=Pilling |work=Mirror Online |date=July 27, 2015 |access-date=2015-12-02 }}</ref>
|-
|}

== See also ==
* Air to fuel ratio
* [[Engineering:Power tool|Power tool]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |editor-first=John |editor-last=Barton |title=Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection: A Practical Guide |publisher=Institution of Chemical Engineers |year=2002 |isbn=0-85295-410-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-EKRC-UW_AC}}
*{{cite book |first=Rolf K. |last=Eckhoff |title=Dust Explosions in the Process Industries |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |edition=2nd |year=1997 |isbn=0-7506-3270-4 }}
*{{cite journal |first=David J. |last=Price |title=A Disastrous Explosion of Starch Dust |journal=American Miller and Processor |volume=49 |issue=1–6 |year=1921 |publisher=National Miller Publications}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
'''Incidents in France and the US:'''
* [http://www.csb.gov/investigations/completed-investigations/?F_AccidentTypeId=1 Combustible dust explosion investigation products] from the Chemical Safety Board 
* [http://dustexplosions.blogspot.com/ Combustible Dust Policy Institute-ATEX] 
* [https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/shib073105.pdf OSHA case studies of dust explosions]

'''Protecting process plant, grain handling facilities, etc. from the risk of dust hazard explosions:'''
* [http://www.go4b.com/usa/technical-papers/hazard-monitoring-paper-geaps.pdf Hazard Monitoring Equipment – Selection, Installation and Maintenance]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130814224030/http://www.safedust.com/ Seminars for Combustible Dust Safety]
* [http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg103.htm HSE (UK) advice on safe handling of combustible dust]
* [https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/combustible_dust.html Combustible Dust, CCOHS]  

{{Fire protection}}


[[Category:Chemical processes]]

{{Sourceattribution|Dust explosion}}