View source for Chemistry:Honey

{{short description|Sweet and viscous substance made by bees mostly using nectar from flowers}}
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<!-- Definition -->
'''Honey''' is a sweet and [[Physics:Viscosity|viscous]] substance made by several [[Biology:Bee|bee]]s, the best-known of which are [[Biology:Honey bee|honey bee]]s.<ref name="Crane1990">{{cite journal |last= Crane |first=Eva |title=Honey from honeybees and other insects |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=sup1 |pages=100–105 |year=1990 |doi=10.1080/03949370.1991.10721919 }}</ref><ref name= Grüter>{{Cite book |last=Grüter |first=Christoph |title=Stingless Bees: Their Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution |publisher=Springer New York|date=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-60089-1 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-60090-7 |series=Fascinating Life Sciences |s2cid=227250633 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-030-60090-7#toc |url-access=limited}}</ref> Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the [[Chemistry:Sugar|sugar]]y secretions of plants (primarily floral [[Biology:Nectar|nectar]]) or the secretions of other insects, like the [[Biology:Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] of aphids. This refinement takes place both within individual bees, through regurgitation and [[Biology:Enzyme|enzymatic]] activity, and during storage in the hive, through water evaporation that concentrates the honey's sugars until it is thick and viscous.

Honey bees stockpile honey in the hive. Within the hive is a structure made from wax called honeycomb. The honeycomb is made up of hundreds or thousands of [[Hexagon|hexagon]]al cells, into which the bees regurgitate honey for storage. Other honey-producing species of bee store the substance in different structures, such as the pots made of wax and resin used by the [[Biology:Stingless bee|stingless bee]].<ref name="Crane1990"/><ref name="Grüter"/><ref>{{Bulleted list |{{cite book|url=https://ibra.org.uk/product/directory-of-important-world-honey-sources |last1=Crane |first1=Eva |last2=Walker |first2=P. |last3=Day |first3=R. |title=Directory of important world honey sources |publisher=International Bee Research Association |isbn=978-0860981411 |date=1984}} |{{Cite book |publisher=Springer New York |date=2020|isbn=978-3-030-60089-1 |first=Christoph |last=Grüter |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-60090-7 |title=Stingless Bees: Their Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution |series=Fascinating Life Sciences |s2cid=227250633 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-030-60090-7#toc |url-access=limited}} |}}</ref>

Honey for human consumption is collected from wild bee colonies, or from the hives of domesticated bees. The honey produced by honey bees is the most familiar to humans, thanks to its worldwide commercial production and availability.<ref name="crane book">{{cite book |last1=Crane |first1=Ethel Eva |title=The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136746703}}</ref> The husbandry of bees is known as [[Biology:Beekeeping|beekeeping]] or apiculture, with the cultivation of stingless bees usually referred to as meliponiculture.

<!-- Sweetness, nutrition, and safety -->
Honey is sweet because of its high concentrations of the [[Chemistry:Monosaccharide|monosaccharide]]s [[Chemistry:Fructose|fructose]] and [[Chemistry:Glucose|glucose]]. It has about the same relative sweetness as [[Chemistry:Sucrose|sucrose]] (table sugar).<ref name="NHB carbs">National Honey Board. [http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/carb.pdf "Carbohydrates and the Sweetness of Honey"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701123525/http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/carb.pdf |date=1 July 2011 }}. Last accessed 1 June 2012.</ref><ref name="Oregon State University">Oregon State University [https://web.archive.org/web/20121101092211/http://food.oregonstate.edu/learn/faq/faq_sugar53.html "What is the relative sweetness of different sugars and sugar substitutes?"]. Retrieved 1 June 2012.</ref> One standard [[Tablespoon|tablespoon]] (15&nbsp;mL) of honey provides around {{convert|46|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy.<ref name="Nutrient Data"/> It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor when used as a sweetener.<ref name="NHB carbs"/> Most [[Biology:Microorganism|microorganism]]s cannot grow in honey and sealed honey therefore does not spoil. Samples of honey discovered in [[Earth:Archaeology|archaeological]] contexts have proven edible even after millennia.<ref name="Geiling">{{cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-science-behind-honeys-eternal-shelf-life-1218690/?no-ist|title=The Science Behind Honey's Eternal Shelf Life|last=Geiling|first=Natasha|date=22 August 2013|newspaper=Smithsonian|access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref><ref name="Prescott 1999">{{cite book|author1=Prescott, Lansing |author2=Harley, John P. |author3=Klein, Donald A. |title=Microbiology|publisher=WCB/McGraw-Hill|url=https://archive.org/details/microbiology00pres |url-access=registration |location=Boston |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-697-35439-6}}</ref>

[[File:Miels d'Alsace agriculture biologique.jpg|thumb|French honey from different floral sources, with visible differences in color and texture]]
<!-- History -->
Honey use and production has a long and varied history, with its beginnings in [[History:Prehistory|prehistoric times]]. Several cave paintings in Cuevas de la Araña in {{wipe|Spain}} depict humans foraging for honey at least 8,000 years ago.<ref name=hunt/><ref name=Crane83/> While ''Apis melifera'' is an [[Earth:Old World|Old World]] [[Biology:Insect|insect]], large-scale meliponiculture of [[Earth:New World|New World]] stingless bees has been practiced by Mayans since [[History:Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] times.<ref name="Grüter"/><ref name= Quezada-Euan>{{Cite book|publisher=Springer New York|date=2018|isbn=978-3-030-08539-1|first=José Javier G.|last=Quezada-Euán|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-77785-6|title=Stingless Bees of Mexico|s2cid=51912114|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-77785-6#about|url-access=limited}}</ref>

==Formation==

[[File:Bee on -calyx 935.jpg|thumb|A honey bee with its proboscis extended into a calyx of goldenrod]]
[[Image:Honey comb.jpg|thumb|Honeycomb displaying hexagonal prismatic wax cells in which honey bees store honey]]

=== By honey bees ===

Honey is produced by bees who have collected [[Biology:Nectar|nectar]] or [[Biology:Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]]. Bees value honey for its sugars, which they consume to support general [[Biology:Metabolism|metabolic activity]], especially that of their flight muscles during [[Biology:Forage (honey bee)|foraging]], and as a food for their [[Biology:Larva|larva]]e. To this end bees stockpile honey to provide for themselves during ordinary foraging as well as during lean periods, as in [[Biology:Overwintering|overwintering]].<ref name="Suarez Lighton Joos Roberts 1996 pp. 12616–12620">{{cite journal | last1=Suarez | first1=R. K. | last2=Lighton | first2=J. R. | last3=Joos | first3=B. | last4=Roberts | first4=S. P. | last5=Harrison | first5=J. F. | title=Energy metabolism, enzymatic flux capacities, and metabolic flux rates in flying honeybees. | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=93 | issue=22 | date=29 October 1996 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.93.22.12616 | pages=12616–12620 | pmid=8901631 | doi-access=free | pmc=38041 | bibcode=1996PNAS...9312616S }}</ref><ref name="NHB Bee facts"/> During foraging bees use part of the nectar they collect to power their flight muscles. The majority of nectar collected is not used to directly nourish the insects but is instead destined for regurgitation, [[Biology:Enzyme catalysis|enzymatic digestion]], and finally long-term [[Engineering:Food storage|storage]] as honey.<ref name="Suarez Lighton Joos Roberts 1996 pp. 12616–12620"/><ref name="cd">{{cite news |last=Binkley |first=D. |date=31 August 2014 |title=How bees make honey is complex process |no-pp=y |newspaper=The Columbus Dispatch |url=https://www.dispatch.com/story/news/technology/2014/08/31/how-bees-make-honey-is/23975471007/ |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref> During cold weather or when other food sources are scarce, adult and [[Biology:Larva|larva]]l bees consume stored honey, which is many times as energy-dense as the nectar from which it is made.<ref name="NHB Bee facts">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/honey-at-home/learn-about-honey/how-honey-is-made |title=Honey and Bees |access-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305094736/http://www.honey.com/honey-at-home/learn-about-honey/how-honey-is-made |archive-date=5 March 2010 }} National Honey Board</ref>

After leaving the hive a foraging bee collects sugar-rich nectar or honeydew. Nectar from the flower generally has a water content of 70 to 80% and is much less viscous than finished honey, which usually has a water content around 18%.<ref name="South Mountain Bees">{{Cite web |title=Did you know there's water in honey? |url=https://southmountainbees.com/blogs/on-bees-and-honey/how-much-water-is-there-in-honey |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=South Mountain Bees }}</ref><ref>''Beekeeping: Everything You Need to Know to Start Your First Beehive'' by Joachim Petterson -- Weldonowen 2015 Page 57</ref> The water content of honeydew from aphids and other [[Biology:Insect|true bugs]] is generally very close to the sap on which those insects feed and is usually somewhat more dilute than nectar. One source describes the water content of honeydew as around 89%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lamb |first=K. P. |date=1 February 1959 |title=Composition of the honeydew of the aphid Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) feeding on swedes (Brassica napobrassica DC.) |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1910%2859%2990054-X |journal=Journal of Insect Physiology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/0022-1910(59)90054-X |issn=0022-1910}}</ref> Whether it is feeding on nectar or honeydew, the bee sucks these runny fluids through its [[Biology:Proboscis|proboscis]], which delivers the liquid to the bee's honey stomach or "honey crop".<ref name=cd/> This cavity lies just above its food stomach, the latter of which digests pollen and sugars consumed by an individual honey bee for its own nourishment.

In ''Apis mellifera'' the honey stomach holds about 40&nbsp;mg of liquid. This is about half the weight of an unladen bee. Collecting this quantity in nectar can require visits to more than a thousand flowers. When nectar is plentiful it can take a bee more than an hour of ceaseless work to collect enough nectar to fill its honey crop. [[Biology:Saliva|Saliva]]ry enzymes and proteins from the bee's [[Biology:Insect mouthparts#Hypopharynx|hypopharyngeal gland]] are secreted into the nectar once it is in the bee's honey stomach. These [[Biology:Digestive enzyme|substances]] begin [[Chemistry:Hydrolysis|cleaving]] [[Chemistry:Sugar|complex sugars]] like [[Chemistry:Sucrose|sucrose]] and [[Chemistry:Starch|starch]]es into simpler sugars such as [[Chemistry:Glucose|glucose]] and [[Chemistry:Fructose|fructose]]. This process slightly raises the water content and the acidity of the partially digested nectar.<ref name="Suarez Lighton Joos Roberts 1996 pp. 12616–12620"/><ref name="Rossano Larocca Polito Perna 2012 p. e49164">{{cite journal | last1=Rossano | first1=Rocco | last2=Larocca | first2=Marilena | last3=Polito | first3=Teresa | last4=Perna | first4=Anna Maria | last5=Padula | first5=Maria Carmela | last6=Martelli | first6=Giuseppe | last7=Riccio | first7=Paolo | title=What Are the Proteolytic Enzymes of Honey and What They Do Tell Us? A Fingerprint Analysis by 2-D Zymography of Unifloral Honeys | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=7 | issue=11 | date=7 November 2012 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0049164 | page=e49164 | doi-access=free | pmid=23145107 | pmc=3492327 | bibcode=2012PLoSO...749164R }}</ref>

Once filled, the forager bees return to the hive. There they regurgitate and transfer nectar to hive bees. Once in their own honey stomachs the hive bees regurgitate the nectar, repeatedly forming bubbles between their [[Biology:Mandible (insect mouthpart)|mandibles]], speeding its digestion and concentration. These bubbles create a large surface area per volume and by this means the bees evaporate a portion of the nectar's water into the warm air of the hive.<ref name="Suarez Lighton Joos Roberts 1996 pp. 12616–12620"/><ref name="cd"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Standifer |first=L. N. |title=Fact sheets |url=http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/bkCD/HBBiology/nutrition_supplements.htm |access-date=13 July 2023 |publisher=Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium |date=2020}}</ref>

Hive bees form honey processing groups. These groups work in relay, with one bee subjecting the processed nectar to bubbling and then passing the refined liquid on to others. It can take as long as 20 minutes of continuous regurgitation, digestion and evaporation until the product reaches storage quality.<ref name="cd"/> The new honey is then placed in honeycomb cells, which are left uncapped. This honey still has a very high water content, up to 70%, depending on the concentration of nectar gathered. At this stage of its refinement the water content of the honey is high enough that ubiquitous [[Biology:Yeast|yeast]] [[Biology:Spore|spore]]s can reproduce in it, a process which, if left unchecked, would rapidly [[Biology:Fermentation|consume]] the new honey's sugars.<ref>{{Bulleted list|Beekeeping as a Business by Richard Jones -- Commonwealth Secretariat 1999 Page 49 |The BBKA Guide to Beekeeping, Second Edition by Ivor Davis, Roger Cullum-Kenyon -- Bloomsbury Publishing 2015 Page 173-174 |[https://web.archive.org/web/20121205012233/http://www.honey.com/honey-at-home/learn-about-honey/how-honey-is-made/  "Honey and Bees"]. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2015. National Honey Board}}</ref> To combat this, bees use an ability rare among insects: the [[Biology:Endogeny|endogenous]] generation of heat.

Bees are among the few insects that can create large amounts of body heat. They use this ability to produce a constant ambient temperature in their hives. Hive temperatures are usually around {{convert|35|C|F}} in the honey-storage areas. This temperature is regulated either by generating heat with their bodies or removing it through water evaporation. The evaporation removes water from the stored honey, drawing heat from the colony. The bees use their wings to govern hive cooling. Coordinated wing beating moves air across the wet honey, drawing out water and heat. Ventilation of the hive eventually expels both excess water and heat into the outside world.

The process of evaporating continues until the honey reaches its final water content of between 15.5% to 18%.<ref name="South Mountain Bees"/> This concentrates the sugars far beyond the [[Chemistry:Solubility#Factors affecting solubility|saturation point]] of water, which is to say there is far more sugar dissolved in what little water remains in honey than ever could be dissolved in an equivalent volume of water. Honey, even at hive temperatures, is therefore a [[Physics:Supercooling|supercooled]] solution of various sugars in water. These concentrations of sugar can only be achieved near room temperature by evaporation of a less concentrated solution, in this case nectar. For [[Biology:Osmotic pressure|osmotic reasons]] such high concentrations of sugar are extremely unfavorable to microbiological reproduction and all fermentation is consequently halted.<ref name="NHB Bee facts"/><ref name="cd"/> The bees then cap the cells of finished honey with wax. This seals them from contamination and prevents further evaporation.<ref name="cd"/>

So long as its water concentration does not rise much above 18%, honey has an indefinite shelf life, both within the hive and after its removal by a beekeeper.<ref name="NHB Bee facts"/>

=== By other insects ===
Honey bees are not the only [[Biology:Eusociality|eusocial insects]] to produce honey. All non-parasitic [[Biology:Bumblebee|bumblebee]]s and [[Biology:Stingless bee|stingless bee]]s produce honey. Some wasp species, such as ''[[Biology:Brachygastra lecheguana|Brachygastra lecheguana]]'' and ''[[Biology:Brachygastra mellifica|Brachygastra mellifica]],'' found in South and Central America, are known to feed on nectar and produce honey.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bequaert |first=J.Q. |date=1932 |title=The Nearctic social wasps of the subfamily polybiinae (Hymenoptera; Vespidae) |journal=Entomologica Americana}}</ref> Other wasps, such as ''[[Biology:Polistes versicolor|Polistes versicolor]]'', also consume honey. In the middle of their life cycles they alternate between feeding on protein-rich pollen and feeding on honey, which is a far [[Physics:Energy density|denser]] source of food energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Britto |first1=Fábio Barros |last2=Caetano |first2=Flávio Henrique |year=2006 |title=Morphological Features and Occurrence of Degenerative Characteristics in the Hypopharyngeal Glands of the Paper Wasp Polistes versicolor (Olivier) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) |journal=Micron |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=742–47 |doi=10.1016/j.micron.2006.03.002 |pmid=16632372}}</ref>

=== Human intervention ===
Human beings have semi-domesticated several species of honey bee by taking advantage of their swarming stage. Swarming is the means by which new colonies are established when there is no longer space for expansion in the colony's present hive. The old queen lays eggs that will develop into new queens and then leads as many as half the colony to a site for a new hive. Bees generally swarm before a suitable location for another hive has been discovered by scouts sent out for this purpose. Until such a location is found the swarm will simply conglomerate near the former hive, often from tree branches. These swarms are unusually docile and amenable to transport by humans. When provided with a suitable nesting site, such as a commercial Langstroth hive, the swarm will readily form a new colony in artificial surroundings. These semi-domesticated colonies are then looked after by humans practicing apiculture or meliponiculture. Captured bees are encouraged to forage, often in agricultural settings such as orchards, where pollinators are highly valued. The honey, [[Biology:Bee pollen|pollen]], [[Chemistry:Beeswax|wax]] and [[Biology:Plant defense against herbivory|resins]] the bees produce are all harvested by humans for a variety of uses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seeley |first=Thomas D. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1059264208 |title=The lives of bees : the untold story of the honey bee in the wild |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-16676-6 |location=Princeton, NJ |oclc=1059264208}}</ref>

The term "semi-domesticated" is preferred because all bee colonies, even those in very large agricultural apiculture operations, readily leave the protection of humans in swarms that can establish successful wild colonies. Much of the effort in commercial beekeeping is dedicated to persuading a hive that is ready to swarm to produce more honeycomb in its present location. This is usually done by adding more space to the colony with ''honey supers'', empty boxes placed on top of an existing colony. The bees can then usually be enticed to develop this empty space instead of dividing their colony through swarming.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Civitts |first=Ray |date=15 April 2019 |title=When do you add a honey super? |url=https://mountainsweethoney.com/add-honey-super/ |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Mountain Sweet Honey |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Production==

===Collection===


[[File:Sealed Honey in frame.JPG|thumb|Sealed frame of honey]]
[[File:Extractor Beekeeping.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction from a honeycomb]]
[[File:Filtering of honey.jpg|thumb|upright|Filtering from a honeycomb]]

Honey is collected from wild bee colonies or from domesticated beehives. On average, a hive will produce about {{convert|65|lb|kg|order=flip}} of honey per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.honey.com/about-honey/how-honey-is-made |title=How honey is made |publisher=National Honey Board (NHB) |date=2018 |access-date=29 June 2018}}</ref> Wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a [[Biology:Honeyguide|honeyguide]] bird.

To safely collect honey from a hive, beekeepers typically pacify the bees using a [[Engineering:Bee smoker|bee smoker]]. The smoke triggers a feeding instinct (an attempt to save the resources of the hive from a possible fire), making them less aggressive, and obscures the pheromones the bees use to communicate. The honeycomb is removed from the hive and the honey may be extracted from it either by crushing or by using a honey extractor. The honey is then usually filtered to remove beeswax and other debris.

Before the invention of removable frames, bee colonies were often sacrificed to conduct the harvest. The harvester would take all the available honey and replace the entire colony the next spring. Since the invention of removable frames, the principles of husbandry led most beekeepers to ensure that their bees have enough stores to survive the winter, either by leaving some honey in the beehive or by providing the colony with a honey substitute such as sugar water or crystalline sugar (often in the form of a "candyboard"). The amount of food necessary to survive the winter depends on the variety of bees and on the length and severity of local winters.

Many animal species are attracted to wild or domestic sources of honey.<ref>{{cite book |title=Animals that eat nectar and honey |last=Hopf |first=Alice L. |date=1979|publisher=Holiday House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STYkAAAAMAAJ |isbn=9780823403387 |access-date=28 May 2016}}</ref>

===Preservation===
Because of its composition and chemical properties, honey is suitable for long-term storage, and is easily assimilated even after long preservation. Honey, and objects immersed in honey, have been preserved for centuries.<ref>{{cite wikisource |first=H. A. |last=Hagen |title=The History of the Origin and Development of Museums |wslink=The American Naturalist/Volume 10/Number 2/The History of the Origin and Development of Museums |jstor=2448028 |journal=[[Biology:The American Naturalist|The American Naturalist]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=82-83 |year=1876 |editor-last=Packard |editor-first=Alpheus Spring |scan=Page:The American naturalist. (IA mobot31753002156567).pdf/88}}</ref><ref>1894. [https://archive.org/details/mummychapterson00budggoog ''The Mummy: A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology'']. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Reprinted New York: Dover Publications, 1989)</ref> The key to preservation is limiting access to humidity. In its cured state, honey has a sufficiently high sugar content to inhibit fermentation. If exposed to moist air, its [[Chemistry:Hydrophilic|hydrophilic]] properties pull moisture into the honey, eventually diluting it to the point that fermentation can begin.<ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348"/>

The long [[Finance:Shelf life|shelf life]] of honey is attributed to an [[Biology:Enzyme|enzyme]] found in the stomach of bees. The bees mix [[Chemistry:Glucose oxidase|glucose oxidase]] with expelled nectar they previously consumed, creating two byproducts &ndash; [[Chemistry:Gluconic acid|gluconic acid]] and [[Chemistry:Hydrogen peroxide|hydrogen peroxide]], which are partially responsible for honey acidity and suppression of bacterial growth.<ref name=Geiling/>

===Adulteration===

Honey is sometimes [[Chemistry:Adulterant|adulterated]] by the addition of other sugars, syrups, or compounds to change its flavor or viscosity, reduce cost, or increase the fructose content to inhibit [[Physics:Crystallization|crystallization]]. Adulteration of honey has been practiced since ancient times, when honey was sometimes blended with plant syrups such as maple, [[Chemistry:Birch syrup|birch]], or sorghum and sold to customers as pure honey. Sometimes crystallized honey was mixed with flour or other fillers, hiding the adulteration from buyers until the honey was liquefied. In modern times the most common adulterant became clear, almost-flavorless corn syrup; the adulterated mixture can be very difficult to distinguish from pure honey.<ref>''The Hive: The Story of the Honeybee and Us'' By Bee Wilson --St. Martins Press 2004 Page 167</ref>

According to the [[Finance:Codex Alimentarius|Codex Alimentarius]] of the United Nations, any product labeled as "honey" or "pure honey" must be a wholly natural product, although labeling laws differ between countries.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-1119-5_8 |title=Food Authentication |pages=259–303 |year=1996 |last1=Molan |first1=P. C. |isbn=978-1-4612-8426-0 |chapter=Authenticity of honey}}</ref> In the United States, according to the National Honey Board, "Ensuring honey authenticity is one of the great challenges facing the honey industry today. Over the past half century, a number of honey testing methods have been developed to detect food fraud. To date, there is no single universal analytical method available which is capable of detecting all types of adulteration with adequate sensitivity."<ref name="nhb">{{cite web |title=FAQS on honey testing methods for detecting adulteration with sugar syrups |website=National Honey Board |url=https://honey.com/images/files/NHB-Honey-Testing-FAQs.pdf |date=2023 |access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref>

Isotope ratio mass spectrometry can be used to detect addition of [[Chemistry:Corn syrup|corn syrup]] and cane sugar by the carbon [[Physics:Isotopic signature|isotopic signature]]. Addition of sugars originating from corn or sugar cane ([[Biology:C4 carbon fixation|C4 plants]], unlike the plants used by bees, and also [[Biology:Sugar beet|sugar beet]], which are predominantly [[Biology:C3 carbon fixation|C3 plants]]) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars present in honey,<ref name=nhb/> but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins. In an unadulterated honey, the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match. Levels as low as 7% of addition can be detected.<ref name=nhb/>

===Worldwide production===

{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; text-align:center;"
|+ Production of natural honey in 2020
|-
!  scope="col" |Country
!  scope="col" |Production<br /><small>([[Tonne|tonne]]s)</small>
|-
|{{CHN}} ||458,100
|-
|{{TUR}} ||104,077
|-
|{{IRN}} ||79,955
|-
|{{ARG}} ||74,403
|-
|{{UKR}} ||68,028
|-
|{{USA}} ||66,948
|- 
|'''World''' ||'''1,770,119'''
|-
|colspan="2" |<small>Source: FAOSTAT</small><ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=Production quantity of honey (natural) in 2020, Livestock Primary/World Regions/Production Quantity from picklists|date=2020|access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>
|}

In 2020, global production of honey was 1.8{{nbsp}}million [[Tonne|tonne]]s, led by China with 26% of the world total (table).<ref name=faostat/> Other major producers were [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]], [[Religion:Iran|Iran]], {{wipe|Argentina}}, and {{wipe|Ukraine}}.<ref name=faostat/>

==Modern uses==

===Food===


Over its history as a food,<ref name=hunt/> the main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, desserts, as a spread on bread, as an addition to various beverages such as tea, and as a sweetener in some commercial beverages.<ref>{{Citation |last=White |first=Jonathan W. |title=Honey |year=1978 |series=Advances in Food Research |volume=24 |pages=287–374 |editor-last=Chichester |editor-first=C. O. |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/s0065-2628(08)60160-3|pmid=367113 |isbn=9780120164240 }}</ref>

Due to its energy density, honey is an important food for virtually all [[Biology:Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer]] cultures in warm climates, with the Hadza people ranking honey as their favorite food.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marlowe |first1=Frank W. |last2=Berbesque |first2=J. Colette |last3=Wood |first3=Brian |last4=Crittenden |first4=Alyssa |last5=Porter |first5=Claire |last6=Mabulla |first6=Audax |title=Honey, Hadza, hunter-gatherers, and human evolution |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=1 June 2014 |volume=71 |pages=119–128 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.03.006 |pmid=24746602}}</ref> Honey hunters in Africa have a [[Biology:Mutualism|mutualistic]] relationship with certain species of [[Biology:Honeyguide|honeyguide]] birds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spottiswoode |first1=Claire N. |last2=Begg |first2=Keith S.|last3=Begg |first3=Colleen M. |date=22 July 2016 |title=Reciprocal signaling in honeyguide-human mutualism |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf4885 |journal=Science |volume=353 |issue=6297 |pages=387–389 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf4885 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=27463674 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |bibcode=2016Sci...353..387S |s2cid=206648494}}</ref>

===Fermentation===

Possibly the world's oldest fermented beverage, dating from 9,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGovern |first1=Patrick E. |last2=Zhang |first2=Juzhong |last3=Tang |first3=Jigen |last4=Zhang |first4=Zhiqing |last5=Hall |first5=Gretchen R. |last6=Moreau |first6=Robert A. |last7=Nuñez |first7=Alberto |last8=Butrym |first8=Eric D. |last9=Richards |first9=Michael P. |last10=Wang |first10=Chen-shan |last11=Cheng |first11=Guangsheng |last12=Zhao |first12=Zhijun |last13=Wang |first13=Changsui |display-authors=3 |title=Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=21 December 2004 |volume=101 |issue=51 |pages=17593–17598 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407921102 |pmid=15590771 |pmc=539767 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10117593M |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Chemistry:Mead|mead]] ("honey wine") is the alcoholic product made by adding [[Biology:Yeast|yeast]] to honey-water [[Religion:Must|must]] and fermenting it for weeks or months.<ref name="jib">{{cite journal |last1=Pereira |first1=Ana Paula |last2=Mendes-Ferreira |first2=Ana |last3=Estevinho |first3=Leticia M. |last4=Mendes-Faia |first4=Arlete |title=Improvement of mead fermentation by honey-must supplementation |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |date=2015 |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=405–410 |doi=10.1002/jib.239 |hdl=10198/16120 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="mol">{{cite journal |pmid=25153872 |pmc=6271869 |year=2014 |last1=Iglesias |first1=A. |title=Developments in the fermentation process and quality improvement strategies for mead production |journal=Molecules |volume=19 |issue=8|pages=12577–12590 |last2=Pascoal |first2=A. |last3=Choupina |first3=A. B. |last4=Carvalho |first4=C. A. |last5=Feás |first5=X. |last6=Estevinho |first6=L. M. |doi=10.3390/molecules190812577 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The yeast ''[[Biology:Saccharomyces cerevisiae|Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' is commonly used in modern mead production.<ref name=jib/><ref name=mol/>

Mead varieties include drinks called metheglin (with spices or herbs), melomel (with fruit juices, such as grape, specifically called pyment), hippocras (with [[Biology:Cinnamon|cinnamon]]), and sack mead (high concentration of honey),<ref name=mol/> many of which have been developed as commercial products numbering in the hundreds in the United States.<ref name="tierney">{{cite magazine |last=Tierney |first=John |title=Making Mead in a Space-Age World |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/10/making-mead-in-a-space-age-world/381433/ |magazine=The Atlantic |access-date=20 June 2017 |date=21 October 2014}}</ref> Honey is also used to make mead beer, called "braggot".<ref>{{cite web |title=Braggot: The Best of Mead and Beer |url=https://www.homebrewersassociation.org/how-to-brew/braggot-the-best-of-mead-and-beer/ |publisher=American Home Brewers Association|access-date=19 June 2017 |date=2017}}</ref>

==Physical and chemical properties==

[[File:Crystallized honey with close-up.jpg|thumb|Crystallized honey: The inset shows a close-up of the honey, showing the individual glucose grains in the fructose mixture.]]

The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a [[Physics:Supersaturation|supersaturated]] liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a [[Physics:Supercooling|supercooled]] liquid, in which the glucose precipitates into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of [[Chemistry:Precipitation|precipitated]] glucose [[Earth:Crystal|crystal]]s in a solution of fructose and other ingredients.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The [[Physics:Density|density]] of honey typically ranges between 1.38 and 1.45&nbsp;kg/L at 20&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Tomasik2003">{{cite book |first=Piotr |last=Tomasik |title=Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Saccharides |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RfVqdqxCiUC&pg=PA74 |date=20 October 2003 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-203-49572-8 |pages=74–}}</ref>

===Phase transitions===

The melting point of crystallized honey is between {{convert|40|and|50|C|F}}, depending on its composition. Below this temperature, honey can be either in a metastable state, meaning that it will not crystallize until a [[Earth:Seed crystal|seed crystal]] is added, or, more often, it is in a "labile" state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously.<ref>Root, p. 355</ref> The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as [[Biology:Brassica|brassica]] honey, crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or [[Biology:Tupelo|tupelo]] honey, do not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce few but very large crystals, while others produce many small crystals.<ref name="Piotr Tomasik p. 74">Tomasik, Piotr (2004) ''Chemical and functional properties of food saccharides'', CRC Press, p. 74, {{ISBN|0-8493-1486-0}}</ref>

Crystallization is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water inhibits crystallization, as does a high [[Chemistry:Dextrin|dextrin]] content. Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, with the fastest growth occurring between {{convert|13|and|17|C|F}}. Crystal nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by stirring, shaking, or agitating, rather than if left at rest. However, the [[Physics:Nucleation|nucleation]] of microscopic seed-crystals is greatest between {{convert|5|and|8|C|F}}. Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, while smaller but more-numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures. Below 5&nbsp;°C, the honey will not crystallize, thus the original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely.<ref name="Piotr Tomasik p. 74"/>

Honey is a supercooled liquid when stored below its melting point, as is normal. At very low temperatures, honey does not freeze solid; rather its viscosity increases. Like most [[Physics:Viscous liquid|viscous liquid]]s, the honey becomes thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature. At {{convert|-20|C|F}}, honey may appear or even feel solid, but it continues to flow at very low rates. Honey has a [[Biology:Glass transition|glass transition]] between {{convert|-42|and|-51|C|F}}. Below this temperature, honey enters a [[Chemistry:Glass|glass]]y state and becomes an [[Physics:Amorphous solid|amorphous solid]] (noncrystalline).<ref name="Kántor Pitsi Thoen 1999 pp. 2327–2330">{{cite journal |last1=Kántor |first1=Zoltán |last2=Pitsi |first2=Guido |last3=Thoen |first3=Jan |title=Glass Transition Temperature of Honey as a Function of Water Content As Determined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) |volume=47 |issue=6 |date=6 May 1999 |issn=0021-8561 |doi=10.1021/jf981070g |pages=2327–2330|pmid=10794630 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Russell |first1=E. V. |last2=Israeloff |first2=N. E. |title=Direct observation of molecular cooperativity near the glass transition |journal=Nature |volume=408 |issue=6813 |pages=695–698 |year=2000 |pmid=11130066 |doi=10.1038/35047037 |arxiv=cond-mat/0012245 |bibcode=2000Natur.408..695V |s2cid=4365023 }}</ref>

===Rheology===

[[File:Honey-miel.jpg|thumb|right|Pouring raw honey. The sheet-like appearance of the flow is the result of high viscosity and low surface tension, contributing to the stickiness of honey.<ref>{{cite book |title=Physics of Continuous Matter, Second Edition: Exotic and Everyday Phenomena in the macroscopic world |first=B. |last=Lautrup |publisher=CRC Press |date=2011 |page=207}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/~helenj/Fluids/Fluids06.pdf |title=Lecture 6: Real fluids – viscosity and turbulence |website=physics.usyd.edu.au |date=23 September 2014 |access-date=21 January 2022 }}</ref>]]

The [[Physics:Viscosity|viscosity]] of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey [[Physics:Fluid dynamics|flows]]. Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of most types of honey also has little effect on viscosity. At {{convert|25|C|F}}, honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400&nbsp;[[Physics:Poise (unit)|poise]], while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20&nbsp;poise. Viscosity increases very slowly with moderate cooling; a honey containing 16% water, at {{convert|70|C|F}}, has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at {{convert|30|C|F}}, the viscosity is around 70 poise. With further cooling, the increase in viscosity is more rapid, reaching 600 poise at around {{convert|14|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Value-added products from beekeeping |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BzzBBbnIJhIC |year=1996 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-103819-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BzzBBbnIJhIC/page/n196 7]–8|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="bee-hexagon.net">{{cite web |last=Bogdanov |first=Stefan |date=2009 |url=http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/4PhysicalPropertiesHoney.pdf |title=Physical Properties of Honey |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920094501/http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/4PhysicalPropertiesHoney.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2009}}</ref> However, while honey is viscous, it has low [[Physics:Surface tension|surface tension]] of 50–60 mJ/m<sup>2</sup>, making its wettability similar to water, glycerin, or most other liquids.<ref>''Wetting of Real Surfaces'' by Edward Yu. Bormashenko -- Walter D Gruyter 2013 Page 4</ref> The high viscosity and wettability of honey cause [[Chemistry:Adhesion|stickiness]], which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (T<sub>g</sub>) and the crystalline-melting temperature.<ref>''Food Engineering Interfaces'' by José Miguel Aguilera, Ricardo Simpson, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Daniela Bermudez Aguirre, Gustavo Barbosa-Canovas -- Springer 2011 Pages 479-487</ref>

Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, but a few types have [[Physics:Non-Newtonian fluid|non-Newtonian]] viscous properties. Honeys from heather or [[Biology:Leptospermum scoparium|manuka]] display thixotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but liquefy when stirred.<ref>Krell, pp. 5–6</ref>

===Electrical and optical properties===

Because honey contains [[Physics:Electrolyte|electrolyte]]s, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of [[Physics:Electrical conductivity|electrical conductivity]]. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of [[Chemistry:Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]] content.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/>

The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality. Variations in its water content alter its [[Physics:Refractive index|refractive index]]. Water content can easily be measured with a [[Physics:Refractometer|refractometer]]. Typically, the refractive index for honey ranges from 1.504 at 13% water content to 1.474 at 25%. Honey also has an effect on [[Physics:Polarized light|polarized light]], in that it rotates the polarization plane. The fructose gives a negative rotation, while the glucose gives a positive one. The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/><ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348">Root, p. 348</ref> Honey is generally pale yellow and dark brown in color,{{cn|date=November 2023}} but other colors can occur, depending on the sugar source.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9587260/Bees-producing-MandMs-coloured-honey.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9587260/Bees-producing-MandMs-coloured-honey.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bees 'producing M&M's coloured honey'|date=4 October 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=30 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Bee colonies that forage on [[Biology:Kudzu|Kudzu]] ([[Biology:Pueraria montana var. lobata|''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata'']]) flowers, for example, produce honey that varies in color from red to purple.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rusty |date=17 September 2012 |title=Kudzu: the dark secret of purple honey? |url=https://www.honeybeesuite.com/purple-honey/ |access-date=30 May 2021 |website=Honey Bee Suite}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}

===Hygroscopy and fermentation===
Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called [[Biology:Hygroscopy|hygroscopy]]. The amount of water the honey absorbs is dependent on the relative humidity of the air. Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's water content rises much above 25%. Honey tends to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains.<ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348"/>

Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized, to kill any yeast, by heating it above {{convert|70|C|F}}.<ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348"/>

===Thermal characteristics===

[[File:Creamed honey Maillard reaction after aging.jpg|thumb|Creamed honey: the honey on the left is fresh, and the honey on the right has been aged at room temperature for two years. The Maillard reaction produces considerable differences in the color and flavor of the aged honey, which remains edible.]]

Like all sugar compounds, honey caramelizes if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color, and eventually burns. However, honey contains fructose, which caramelizes at lower temperatures than glucose.<ref>Hans-Dieter Belitz, Werner Grosch, Peter Schieberle [https://books.google.com/books?id=xteiARU46SQC ''Food chemistry''] Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg 2004 p. 884 {{ISBN|3-540-69933-3}}</ref> The temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between {{convert|70|and|110|C|F}}. Honey also contains acids, which act as [[Chemistry:Catalyst|catalyst]]s for caramelization. The specific types of acids and their amounts play a primary role in determining the exact temperature.<ref>Zdzisław E. Sikorski ''Chemical and functional properties of food components'' CRC Press 2007 p. 121 {{ISBN|0-8493-9675-1}}</ref> Of these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called melanoidins, during a [[Chemistry:Maillard reaction|Maillard reaction]]. The Maillard reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but speeds up dramatically with increasing temperatures. However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures.<ref>Root, p. 350</ref>

Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor [[Physics:Thermal conductivity|thermal conductivity]] of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of [[Chemistry:Copper|copper]]), taking a long time to reach [[Physics:Thermal equilibrium|thermal equilibrium]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html |title=Thermal Conductivity of common Materials and Gases}}</ref> Due to its high [[Physics:Kinematic viscosity|kinematic viscosity]] honey does not transfer heat through momentum diffusion ([[Astronomy:Convection|convection]]) but rather through [[Physics:Heat conduction|thermal diffusion]] (more like a solid), so melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot or not evenly distributed. However, honey takes substantially longer to liquefy when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/> Melting {{Cvt|20|kg}} of crystallized honey at {{convert|40|C|F}} can take up to 24 hours, while {{Cvt|50|kg}} may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at {{convert|50|C|F}}; however, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature and for the shortest time possible.<ref>Krell, pp. 40–43</ref>

===Acid content and flavor effects===

The average [[Chemistry:PH|pH]] of honey is 3.9, but can range from 3.4 to 6.1.<ref name="nhbtech">{{cite web |url=http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/ph-acidsinhoney.pdf |publisher=National Honey Board Food Technology/Product Research Program |title=pH and acids in honey |date=April 2006 |access-date=1 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701123559/http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/ph-acidsinhoney.pdf |archive-date=1 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Honey contains many kinds of acids, both [[Chemistry:Organic acid|organic]] and [[Chemistry:Amino acid|amino]]. However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on the type of honey. These acids may be [[Chemistry:Aromaticity|aromatic]] or [[Chemistry:Aliphatic compound#Aliphatic acids|aliphatic]] (nonaromatic). The aliphatic acids contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of other ingredients.<ref name="nhbtech"/>

Organic acids comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for 0.17–1.17% of the mixture, with [[Chemistry:Gluconic acid|gluconic acid]] formed by the actions of [[Chemistry:Glucose oxidase|glucose oxidase]] as the most prevalent.<ref name="nhbtech"/> Minor amounts of other organic acids are present, consisting of [[Chemistry:Formic acid|formic]], [[Chemistry:Acetic acid|acetic]], [[Chemistry:Butyric acid|butyric]], [[Chemistry:Citric acid|citric]], [[Chemistry:Lactic acid|lactic]], [[Chemistry:Malic acid|malic]], [[Chemistry:Pyroglutamic acid|pyroglutamic]], [[Chemistry:Propionic acid|propionic]], [[Chemistry:Valeric acid|valeric]], capronic, [[Chemistry:Palmitic acid|palmitic]], and [[Chemistry:Succinic acid|succinic]], among many others.<ref name="nhbtech"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/jf00060a006 |author1=Wilkins, Alistair L. |author2=Lu, Yinrong |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |year=1995 |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=3021–3025 |title=Extractives from New Zealand Honeys. 5. Aliphatic Dicarboxylic Acids in New Zealand Rewarewa (Knightea excelsa) Honey}}</ref>

===Volatile organic compounds===

Individual honeys from different plant sources contain over 100 [[Earth:Volatile organic compound|volatile organic compound]]s (VOCs), which play a primary role in determining honey flavors and [[Chemistry:Odor|aromas]].<ref name="patt">{{cite journal |last1=Pattamayutanon |first1=Praetinee |last2=Angeli |first2=Sergio |last3=Thakeow |first3=Prodpran |last4=Abraham |first4=John |last5=Disayathanoowat |first5=Terd |last6=Chantawannakul |first6=Panuwan |editor-last=Rueppell |editor-first=Olav |title=Volatile organic compounds of Thai honeys produced from several floral sources by different honey bee species |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=2 |date=13 February 2017 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0172099 |page=e0172099|pmid=28192487|pmc=5305196|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1272099P |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Patrignani">{{cite journal |last1=Patrignani |first1=Mariela |last2=Fagúndez |first2=Guillermina Andrea |last3=Tananaki |first3=Chrysoula |last4=Thrasyvoulou |first4=Andreas |last5=Lupano |first5=Cecilia Elena |title=Volatile compounds of Argentinean honeys: Correlation with floral and geographical origin |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=246 |year=2018 |issn=0308-8146 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.11.010 |pages=32–40|pmid=29291855}}</ref><ref name="suarez">{{cite book|title=Bee Products: Chemical and Biological Properties (volatiles, page 61--67, 114)|editor=José M Alvarez-Suarez|publisher=Springer International|date=2017|isbn=978-3319596891|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlU0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114}}</ref> VOCs are carbon-based compounds that readily [[Physics:Vaporization|vaporize]] into the air, providing aroma, including the scents of flowers, essential oils, or ripening fruit.<ref name=patt/><ref name=suarez/> The typical chemical families of VOCs found in honey include [[Chemistry:Hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]]s, [[Chemistry:Aldehyde|aldehyde]]s, [[Chemistry:Alcohol|alcohol]]s, [[Chemistry:Ketone|ketone]]s, [[Chemistry:Ester|ester]]s, [[Chemistry:Acid|acid]]s, [[Chemistry:Benzene|benzene]]s, [[Chemistry:Furan|furan]]s, pyrans, norisoprenoids, and [[Biology:Terpene|terpene]]s, among many others and their derivatives.<ref name=patt/><ref name=suarez/> The specific VOCs and their amounts vary considerably between different types of honey obtained by bees foraging on different plant sources.<ref name=patt/><ref name=Patrignani/><ref name=suarez/> By example, when comparing the mixture of VOCs in different honeys in one review, [[Biology:Longan|longan]] honey had a higher amount of volatiles (48 VOCs), while sunflower honey had the lowest number of volatiles (8 VOCs).<ref name=patt/>

VOCs are primarily introduced into the honey from the nectar, where they are excreted by the flowers imparting individual scents.<ref name=patt/> The specific types and concentrations of certain VOCs can be used to determine the type of flora used to produce monofloral honeys.<ref name=patt/><ref name=suarez/> The specific geography, soil composition and acidity used to grow the flora also have an effect on honey aroma properties,<ref name=Patrignani/> such as a "fruity" or "grassy" aroma from longan honey, or a "waxy" aroma from sunflower honey.<ref name=patt/> Dominant VOCs in one study were [[Chemistry:Linalool|linalool]] [[Chemistry:Oxide|oxide]], trans-linalool oxide, 2-[[Chemistry:Phenylacetaldehyde|phenylacetaldehyde]], benzyl [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]], [[Chemistry:Isophorone|isophorone]], and methyl nonanoate.<ref name=patt/>

VOCs can also be introduced from the bodies of the bees, be produced by the enzymatic actions of digestion, or from chemical reactions that occur between different substances within the honey during storage, and therefore may change, increase, or decrease over long periods of time.<ref name=patt/><ref name=Patrignani/> VOCs may be produced, altered, or greatly affected by temperature and processing.<ref name=Patrignani/> Some VOCs are heat labile, and are destroyed at elevated temperatures, while others can be created during non-enzymatic reactions, such as the [[Chemistry:Maillard reaction|Maillard reaction]].<ref name="suarez"/> VOCs are responsible for nearly all of the aroma produced by a honey, which may be described as "sweet", "flowery", "citrus", "almond" or "rancid", among other terms.<ref name=patt/> In addition, VOCs play a large role in determining the specific flavor of the honey, both through the aromas and flavor.<ref name=patt/> VOCs from honeys in different geographic regions can be used as floral markers of those regions, and as markers of the bees that foraged the nectars.<ref name=patt/><ref name=Patrignani/>

==Classification==

Honey is classified by its floral source, and divisions are made according to the packaging and processing used. Regional honeys are also identified. In the US, honey is also graded on its color and optical density by USDA standards, graded on the Pfund scale, which ranges from 0 for "water white" honey to more than 114 for "dark amber" honey.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/w0076E/w0076e04.htm Value-added products from beekeeping. Chapter 2]. Fao.org. Retrieved on 14 April 2011.</ref>

===Floral source===

Generally, honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made. Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars or can be blended after collection. The pollen in honey is traceable to floral source and therefore region of origin. The [[Physics:Rheology|rheological]] and [[Biology:Melissopalynology|melissopalynological]] properties of honey can be used to identify the major plant nectar source used in its production.<ref name="honeyRheo">{{cite web|url=http://www.minervascientific.co.uk/bulletins/Rheological_Properties_of_Honey.pdf|title=The Rheological & Mellisopalynological Properties of Honey |publisher=Minerva Scientific|access-date=10 December 2012|quote=If however, rheological measurements are made on a given sample it can be deduced that the sample is predominantly Manuka (Graph 2) or Kanuka (Graph 3) or a mixture of the two plant species}}</ref>

====Blended====

Most commercially available honey is a blend<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWwCXEZJ-u8C&q=Most+commercially+available+honey+is+blended&pg=PA274|title=Homebrewing For Dummies|last=Nachel|first=Marty|date=23 June 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470374160}}</ref> of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density, or geographic origin.<ref name="honeydefs">{{cite web|url=https://www.honey.com/about-honey/honey-varietals|title=Honey Varietals|publisher=National Honey Board|date=2018|access-date=25 June 2018|quote=The color, flavor and even aroma of honey differs, depending on the nectar of flowers visited by the bees that made it. There are more than 300 unique types of honey available in the United States alone, each originating from a different floral source.}}</ref>

====Polyfloral====

Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey,<ref name="Honey Floral Source Guide">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/newsroom/press-kits/honey-color-and-flavor|title=Honey Color and Flavor|publisher=National Honey Board|access-date=3 February 2011|quote=Wildflower honey is often used to describe honey from miscellaneous and undefined flower sources.}}</ref> is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers.<ref name=honeydefs/><ref name="honeybook_polyfloral">{{cite web|url=http://www.honeybook.net/polyfloral_honey.shtml|title=Varieties of honey: Polyfloral honey|publisher=The Honey Book|access-date=10 November 2007|quote=Honey that is from wild or commercialized honeybees that is derived from many types of flowers is a resulting polyfloral honey.|archive-date=9 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309203727/http://www.honeybook.net/polyfloral_honey.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which flowers are blooming.<ref name=honeydefs/>

====Monofloral====

Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Monofloral honeys have distinctive flavors and colors because of differences between their principal [[Biology:Nectar source|nectar source]]s.<ref name="mieliditalia1">[http://www.mieliditalia.it/colori/inglese/home.htm The Colours Of Honey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115003240/http://www.mieliditalia.it/colori/inglese/home.htm |date=15 January 2013 }}. Mieliditalia.it. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access, as far as possible, to only one type of flower. In practice a small proportion of any monofloral honey will be from other flower types. Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are [[Biology:Clover|clover]], orange blossom, sage, [[Biology:Tupelo|tupelo]], [[Biology:Buckwheat|buckwheat]], fireweed, [[Biology:Mesquite|mesquite]], sourwood,<ref name="Honey Grading Manual"/> [[Biology:Cherry|cherry]], and [[Biology:Blueberry|blueberry]]. Some typical European examples include [[Biology:Thyme|thyme]], [[Thistle|thistle]], [[Biology:Ericaceae|heather]], [[Biology:Acacia|acacia]], dandelion, sunflower, lavender, [[Biology:Honeysuckle|honeysuckle]], and varieties from [[Biology:Tilia|lime]] and [[Biology:Chestnut|chestnut]] trees.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} In [[Place:North Africa|North Africa]] (e.g. Egypt), examples include clover, [[Biology:Cotton|cotton]], and [[Biology:Citrus|citrus]] (mainly orange blossoms).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} The unique flora of Australia yields a number of distinctive honeys, with some of the most popular being yellow box, blue gum, [[Biology:Ironbark|ironbark]], bush [[Biology:List of Eucalyptus species|mallee]], Tasmanian [[Biology:Eucryphia lucida|leatherwood]], and [[Biology:Macadamia|macadamia]].

===Honeydew honey===

Instead of taking nectar, bees can take [[Biology:Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]], the sweet secretions of [[Biology:Aphid|aphid]]s or other plant-sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not as sweet as nectar honeys.<ref name="mieliditalia1"/> Germany's Black Forest is a well-known source of honeydew-based honeys, as are some regions in Bulgaria, Tara in Serbia, and Northern California in the United States. In Greece, pine honey, a type of honeydew honey, constitutes 60–65% of honey production.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gounari|first=Sofia|title=Studies on the phenology of [[Biology:Marchalina hellenica|Marchalina hellenica]] (gen.) (Hemiptera: coccoidea, margarodidae) in relation to honeydew flow|journal=Journal of Apicultural Research|volume=45|issue=1|pages=8–12 |year=2006|doi=10.3896/IBRA.1.45.1.03}}</ref> Honeydew honey is popular in some areas, but in other areas, beekeepers have difficulty selling honeydew honey, due to its stronger flavor.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVesQl4EBbgC&q=Honeydew+honey+is+popular+in+some+areas&pg=PA25|title=The Honey Prescription: The Amazing Power of Honey as Medicine|last=Altman|first=Nathaniel|date=9 March 2010|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=9781594773464}}</ref>

The production of honeydew honey has some complications and dangers. This honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, thus causing [[Biology:Diseases of the honey bee#Dysentery|dysentery to the bees]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.beeculture.com/a-short-story-about-a-wintering-colony-with-dysentery/|title=A Short Story About A Wintering Colony With Dysentery {{!}} Bee Culture|date=19 April 2015|work=Bee Culture|access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref> resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas. Bees collecting this resource also have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.

Honeydew honey is sometimes called "myelate".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latiendadelapicultor.com/en/honey-analysis/honey-conductivity-tester.html|title=Honey Conductivity tester - Honey analysis}}</ref>

===Classification by packaging and processing===

[[File:Texas State Fair honey.jpg|thumb|A variety of honey flavors and container sizes and styles from the 2008 Texas State Fair]]

Generally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form, but it is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods.

* '''Crystallized honey''' occurs when some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. It is also called "granulated honey" or "candied honey". Honey that has crystallized (or is commercially purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming.<ref name="Flottum2010">{{cite book|author=Flottum, Kim |title=The Backyard Beekeeper: An Absolute Beginner's Guide to Keeping Bees in Your Yard and Garden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xmAIU0MY64C&pg=PA170|year=2010|publisher=Quarry Books|isbn=978-1-61673-860-0|pages=170–|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref>
* '''Pasteurized honey''' has been heated in a [[Chemistry:Pasteurization|pasteurization]] process which requires temperatures of {{convert|161|F|C|order=flip}} or higher. Pasteurization destroys yeast cells. It also liquefies any microcrystals in the honey, which delays the onset of visible crystallization. However, excessive heat exposure also results in product deterioration, as it increases the level of [[Chemistry:Hydroxymethylfurfural|hydroxymethylfurfural]] (HMF){{Citation needed|reason=Increases the level of something not even proven to be there? How about some citation of a scientifically and statistically relevant study proving both the existence of HMF in honey in any significant quantity AND its increase to significant or dangerous levels by heating? I.e. Onus probandi.|date=January 2014}} and reduces enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. Heat also darkens the honey, and affects taste and fragrance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Subramanian |first1=R.|last2=Hebbar |first2=H. Umesh |last3=Rastogi|first3=N. K.|title=Processing of Honey: A Review|journal=International Journal of Food Properties|volume=10|pages=127–143|year=2007 |doi=10.1080/10942910600981708 |s2cid=98158536|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* '''Raw honey''' is as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling, or straining, without adding heat (although some honey that has been "minimally processed" is often labeled as raw honey).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honey.com/downloads/honeydefs.pdf |title=Definition of Honey and Honey Products |work=National Honey Board |date=15 June 1996 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203010606/http://www.honey.com/downloads/honeydefs.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2007}}</ref> Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax.
* '''Strained honey''' has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zztzDAAAQBAJ&q=%C2%A0Strained+honey+has+been+passed+through+a+mesh+material+to+remove+particulate+material&pg=PT10|title=Food Safety Management: Chapter 11. Honey, Confectionery and Bakery Products|last=Chaven|first=Suchart|date=1 November 2013|publisher=Elsevier Inc. Chapters |isbn=9780128056509}}</ref> (pieces of wax, [[Biology:Propolis|propolis]], other defects) without removing pollen, minerals, or enzymes.
* '''Filtered honey''' of any type has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found in suspension, have been removed.<ref>{{cite web|title=United States Standards for Grades of Extracted Honey|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011895|publisher=U.S. [[Organization:Agricultural Marketing Service|Agricultural Marketing Service]] (AMS)|access-date=20 January 2012|archive-date=15 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315015648/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011895|url-status=dead}}</ref> The process typically heats honey to {{convert|150|–|170|F|C|order=flip}} to more easily pass through the filter.<ref name="Damerow2011">{{cite book|author=Damerow, Gail|title=The Backyard Homestead Guide to Raising Farm Animals: Choose the Best Breeds for Small-Space Farming, Produce Your Own Grass-Fed Meat, Gather Fresh Eggs, Collect Fresh Milk, Make Your Own Cheese, Keep Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Rabbits, Goats, Sheep, Pigs, Cattle, & Bees|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mmhsorsesy0C&pg=PA167|year= 2011|publisher=Storey Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-1-60342-697-8|pages=167–|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly,<ref name="Damerow2011"/> making it preferred by supermarkets.<ref name="FRTWfB">{{cite book|title=First Regional Training Workshop for Beekeepers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA55|publisher=Bib. Orton IICA / CATIE|pages=55–|year=1992|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> The most common method involves the addition of [[Earth:Diatomaceous earth|diatomaceous earth]] to honey that is heated to {{convert|140|F|C|order=flip}} and passed through filter paper or canvas until a filter cake of diatomaceous earth builds up on the filter.<ref name="Honey Grading Manual">{{cite web |title=Extracted Honey Grading Manual |url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Extracted_Honey_Inspection_Instructions%5B1%5D.pdf |publisher=U.S. [[Organization:Agricultural Marketing Service|Agricultural Marketing Service]] (AMS) |access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref>
* '''Ultrasonicated honey''' has been processed by [[Sonication|ultrasonication]], a nonthermal processing alternative for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed. Those cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow, which reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially. Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and inhibits further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures around {{convert|95|F|C|order=flip}} and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds.<ref>[https://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/honey_01.htm Ultrasonic Honey Processing]. Hielscher.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref>
* '''Creamed honey''', also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned honey, honey fondant, and, in the UK, set honey, has been processed to control crystallization. Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth, spreadable consistency.<ref name="Sharma2005">{{cite book|author=Sharma, Rajeev |title=Improve your Health! with Honey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1FkltLNQ-AC&pg=PA33|year=2005|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books|isbn=978-81-288-0920-0|pages=33–|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref>
* '''Dried honey''' has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and [[Chemistry:Anticaking agent|anticaking agent]]s.<ref name="Krell1996">{{cite book|author=Krell, Rainer|title=Value-added Products Froom Beekeeping|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzzBBbnIJhIC&pg=PA25|year=1996|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-103819-2|pages=25–|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> Dried honey is used in baked goods,<ref name="Krell1996"/> and to garnish desserts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDQSCgAAQBAJ&q=Dry+honey+used+to++garnish+desserts&pg=PT23|title=The Honey Book|last=Thacker|first=Emily|date=22 April 2012|publisher=James Direct, Inc.|isbn=9781623970611}}</ref>
* '''Comb honey''' is still in the honey bees' wax comb. It is traditionally collected using standard wooden frames in honey supers. The frames are collected and the comb is cut out in chunks before packaging. As an alternative to this labor-intensive method, plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting of the comb, and speed packaging. Comb honey harvested in the traditional manner is also referred to as "cut-comb honey".<ref name="Flottum2010"/>{{rp|13}}<ref>[http://www.beeworks.com/informationcentre/honey_processing.html Honey Processing] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213235637/http://beeworks.com/informationcentre/honey_processing.html |date=13 February 2009 }}. Beeworks.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref>
* '''Chunk honey''' is packed in wide-mouthed containers; it consists of one or more pieces of comb honey immersed in extracted liquid honey.<ref name="Flottum2010"/>{{rp|13}}
* '''Honey decoctions''' are made from honey or honey byproducts which have been dissolved in water, then reduced (usually by means of boiling). Other ingredients may then be added. (For example, abbamele has added citrus.) The resulting product may be similar to [[Chemistry:Molasses|molasses]].
* '''Baker's honey''' is outside the normal specification for honey, due to a "foreign" taste or odor, or because it has begun to ferment or has been overheated. It is generally used as an ingredient in food processing. Additional requirements exist for labeling baker's honey, including that it may not be sold labeled simply as "honey".<ref>[http://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/multimedia/pdfs/honeyguidance.pdf ''Honey Regulations 2003''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126001746/https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/multimedia/pdfs/honeyguidance.pdf |date=26 November 2016 }}, UK Food Standards Agency. Section 2.5 (p 8), section 4.2 (pp 12-14).</ref>

===Grading===


Countries have differing standards for grading honey. 
In the US, honey grading is performed voluntarily based upon USDA standards. USDA offers inspection and grading "as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a fee-for-service basis." Honey is graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and aroma, absence of defects, and clarity. Honey is also classified by color, though it is not a factor in the grading scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Extracted_Honey_Standard%5B1%5D.pdf|title=United States Standards for Grades of Extracted Honey|publisher=U.S. [[Organization:Agricultural Marketing Service|Agricultural Marketing Service]] (AMS)|access-date=8 April 2016}}</ref>

'''The honey grade scale is''':
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grade
! Soluble solids
! Flavor and aroma
! Absence of defects
! Clarity
|-
! A
|≥ 81.4%
|Good—"has a good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is free from caramelized flavor or objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|Practically free—"contains practically no defects that affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|Clear—"may contain air bubbles which do not materially affect the appearance of the product and may contain a trace of pollen grains or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not affect the appearance of the product"
|-
! B
|≥ 81.4%
|Reasonably good—"has a reasonably good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a reasonably good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is practically free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|Reasonably free—"may contain defects which do not materially affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|Reasonably clear—"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not materially affect the appearance of the product"
|-
! C
|≥ 80.0%
|Fairly good—"has a fairly good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a fairly good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is reasonably free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source"
|Fairly free—"may contain defects which do not seriously affect the appearance or edibility of the product"
|Fairly clear—"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not seriously affect the appearance of the product"
|-
! Substandard
|Fails Grade C
|Fails Grade C
|Fails Grade C
|Fails Grade C
|}

India certifies honey grades based on additional factors, such as the Fiehe's test, and other empirical measurements.<ref>[http://agmarknet.nic.in/honeygmr.pdf NOTIFICATION] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213163011/http://agmarknet.nic.in/honeygmr.pdf |date=13 December 2010 }}, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (Department of Agriculture and Co-operation) New Delhi, 24 December 2008</ref>

===Indicators of quality===

High-quality honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency. Ripe, freshly collected, high-quality honey at {{convert|20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops.<ref name="Honey production">{{cite web |author=Bogdanov, Stefan |date=2008 |url=http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/Honey%20ProductionCorr.pdf |title=Honey production |work=Bee Product Science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305184128/http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/Honey%20ProductionCorr.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2009}}</ref> After falling down, the honey should form a bead. The honey, when poured, should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity. If not, it indicates honey with excessive water content of over 20%,<ref name="Honey production"/> not suitable for long-term preservation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Allan, Matthew |url=http://www.beedata.com/data2/basic_honey_processing.htm |title=Basic Honey Processing |journal=Beekeeping in a Nutshell |volume=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010217104623/http://www.beedata.com/data2/basic_honey_processing.htm |archive-date=17 February 2001}}</ref>

In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers. Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-colored solid. Some varieties of honey, including tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly. Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of {{convert|40|–|49|C|F}} to delay or inhibit crystallization. Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for instance, [[Biology:Diastase|diastase]] activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the [[Biology:Phadebas|Phadebas]] methods. A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a container's sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process.

A 2008 Italian study determined that [[Physics:Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]] can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced. Researchers were able to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing proportions of fructose and sucrose, as well as differing levels of aromatic [[Chemistry:Amino acid|amino acid]]s [[Chemistry:Phenylalanine|phenylalanine]] and [[Chemistry:Tyrosine|tyrosine]]. This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cen-v086n035.p043|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|year=2008|volume=86|title=Keeping Tabs on Honey|pages=43–44|issue=35}}</ref>

==Nutrition==

{{nutritional value|name=Honey|kJ=1272|protein=0.3 g|fat=0 g|carbs=82.4 g|sugars=82.12 g|fiber=0.2 g|sodium_mg=4|potassium_mg=52|vitC_mg=0.5|riboflavin_mg=0.038|niacin_mg=0.121|pantothenic_mg=0.068|folate_ug=2|iron_mg=0.42|magnesium_mg=2|phosphorus_mg=4|zinc_mg=0.22|calcium_mg=6|vitB6_mg=0.024|water=17.10 g|note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160312070344/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6287?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=honey&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= Full Link to USDA Database entry] }}

One hundred grams of honey provides about {{convert|304|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=on}} of energy with no significant amounts of essential [[Earth:Nutrient|nutrient]]s.<ref name="Nutrient Data">{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6287?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=honey&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby=|title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 19296, Honey|publisher=USDA National Nutrient Database, Agricultural Research Service, Release 28|date=2015|access-date=30 October 2015|archive-date=12 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312070344/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6287?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=honey&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby=|url-status=dead}}</ref> Composed of 17% water and 82% [[Chemistry:Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]]s, honey has low content of [[Chemistry:Fat|fat]], dietary fiber, and [[Biology:Protein|protein]].

===Sugar profile===
A mixture of sugars and other carbohydrates, honey is mainly [[Chemistry:Fructose|fructose]] (about 38%) and [[Chemistry:Glucose|glucose]] (about 32%),<ref name="NHB carbs"/> with remaining sugars including [[Chemistry:Maltose|maltose]], [[Chemistry:Sucrose|sucrose]], and other [[Chemistry:Oligosaccharide|complex carbohydrates]].<ref name="NHB carbs"/> Its [[Medicine:Glycemic index|glycemic index]] ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety.<ref>Arcot, Jayashree and Brand-Miller, Jennie (March 2005) [https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/05-027.pdf A Preliminary Assessment of the Glycemic Index of Honey]. A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. RIRDC Publication No 05/027. rirdc.infoservices.com.au</ref> The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.<ref name="hunt">{{cite book|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89094204153;view=1up;seq=3|publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 653|vauthors=Hunt CL, Atwater HW|date=7 April 1915|title=Honey and Its Uses in the Home|access-date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

One 1980 study found that mixed [[Biology:Flower|floral]] honey from several United States regions typically contains the following:<ref name="Comp">{{cite web|url=http://www.beesource.com/resources/usda/honey-composition-and-properties|title=Beesource Beekeeping: Honey Composition and Properties|publisher=Beesource.com|date=October 1980|access-date=6 February 2011|archive-date=24 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224183023/http://www.beesource.com/resources/usda/honey-composition-and-properties/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Fructose: 38.2%
* Glucose: 31.3%
* Maltose: 7.1%
* Sucrose: 1.3%
* Water: 17.2%
* [[Chemistry:Maltodextrin|Higher sugars]]: 1.5%
* Ash: 0.2%
* Other/undetermined: 3.2%
This means that 55% of the combined fructose and glucose content was fructose and 45% was glucose, which enables comparison with the essentially identical result (average of 56% and 44%) in the study described below:

A 2013 NMR spectroscopy study of 20 different honeys from Germany found that their sugar contents comprised:
* Fructose: 28% to 41%
* Glucose: 22% to 35%
The average ratio was 56% fructose to 44% glucose, but the ratios in the individual honeys ranged from a high of 64% fructose and 36% glucose (one type of flower honey; table 3 in reference) to a low of 50% fructose and 50% glucose (a different floral source). This NMR method was not able to quantify maltose, [[Chemistry:Galactose|galactose]], and the other minor sugars as compared to fructose and glucose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ohmenhaeuser |first1=Marc |last2=Monakhova |first2=Yulia B. |last3=Kuballa |first3=Thomas |last4=Lachenmeier |first4=Dirk W. |title=Qualitative and Quantitative Control of Honeys Using NMR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics |journal=ISRN Analytical Chemistry |date=2013 |volume=2013 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1155/2013/825318 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/438103 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Medical use and research==


===Wounds and burns===

Honey is a folk treatment for burns and other skin injuries. Preliminary evidence suggests that it aids in the healing of partial thickness burns 4–5 days faster than other dressings, and moderate evidence suggests that post-operative infections treated with honey heal faster and with fewer adverse events than with [[Chemistry:Antiseptic|antiseptic]] and gauze.<ref name=Jull2015>{{Cite journal |title=Honey as a topical treatment for wounds |last1=Jull |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Cullum |first2=Nicky |last3=Dumville |first3=Jo C. |last4=Westby |first4=Maggie J. |last5=Deshpande |first5=Sohan |last6=Walker |first6=Natalie |year=2015 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=3 |pages=CD005083 |pmid=25742878 |doi=10.1002/14651858.cd005083.pub4 |pmc=9719456 |quote=Honey appears to heal partial thickness burns more quickly than conventional treatment (which included polyurethane film, paraffin gauze, soframycin-impregnated gauze, sterile linen and leaving the burns exposed) and infected post-operative wounds more quickly than antiseptics and gauze.|url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:370288/UQ370288_OA.pdf }}</ref> The evidence for the use of honey in various other wound treatments is of low quality, and firm conclusions cannot be drawn.<ref name=Jull2015/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Majtan |first1=J. |title=Honey: an immunomodulator in wound healing |journal=Wound Repair and Regeneration |date=2014 |volume=22 |issue=2 Mar–Apr |pages=187–192 |doi=10.1111/wrr.12117 |pmid=24612472|s2cid=40188613 }}</ref> Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products for the treatment of [[Medicine:Venous ulcer|venous stasis ulcers]] or ingrown toenail.<ref name="OMeara Al-Kurdi Ologun Ovington 2014">{{cite journal |last1=O'Meara |first1=Susan |last2=Al-Kurdi |first2=Deyaa |last3=Ologun |first3=Yemisi |last4=Ovington |first4=Liza G. |last5=Martyn-St James |first5=Marrissa |last6=Richardson |first6=Rachel |title=Antibiotics and antiseptics for venous leg ulcers |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |publisher=Wiley |volume=2014 |issue=1 |date=10 January 2014 |pages=CD003557 |issn=1465-1858 |doi=10.1002/14651858.cd003557.pub5 |pmid=24408354 |pmc=10580125 }}</ref><ref name="Eekhof Van Wijk Knuistingh Neven van der Wouden 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Eekhof |first1=Just A.H. |last2=Van Wijk |first2=Bart |last3=Knuistingh Neven |first3=Arie |last4=van der Wouden |first4=Johannes C. |title=Interventions for ingrowing toenails |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |publisher=Wiley |date=18 April 2012 |issue=4 |pages=CD001541 |issn=1465-1858 |doi=10.1002/14651858.cd001541.pub3|pmid=22513901 |hdl=1887/117180 |s2cid=44706332 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Several medical-grade honey products have been approved by the [[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] for use in treating minor wounds and burns.<ref name="Saikaly2017">{{cite journal |last1=Saikaly |first1=Sami K. |last2=Khachemoune |first2=Amor |title=Honey and Wound Healing: An Update |journal=American Journal of Clinical Dermatology |date=6 January 2017 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=237–251 |doi=10.1007/s40257-016-0247-8 |pmid=28063093|s2cid=207482579 }}</ref>

===Antibiotic===

Honey has long been used as a topical antibiotic by practitioners of [[Medicine:Traditional medicine|traditional]] and [[Medicine:Herbal medicine|herbal medicine]].<ref name="Buhner">{{cite book |last1=Buhner |first1=Stephen Harrod |title=Herbal Antibiotics: Natural Alternatives for Treating Drug-Resistant Bacteria |date=2012 |publisher=Storey Publishing |isbn=978-1603429870 |pages=188–196 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Boukraa">{{cite book |editor1-last=Boukraâ |editor1-first=Laïd |title=Honey in Traditional and Modern Medicine |date=2014 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439840160 |page=126}}</ref> Honey's antibacterial effects were first demonstrated by the Dutch scientist Bernardus Adrianus van Ketel in 1892.<ref name="Dustmann">{{cite journal |last1=Dustmann |first1=J. H. |title=Antibacterial Effect of Honey |journal=Apiacta |date=1979 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=7–11 |issn=1221-7816}}</ref><ref name="Nolan2019">{{cite journal |last1=Nolan |first1=Victoria C. |last2=Harrison |first2=James |last3=Cox |first3=Jonathan A. G. |title=Dissecting the Antimicrobial Composition of Honey |journal=Antibiotics |date=5 December 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |page=251 |doi=10.3390/antibiotics8040251 |pmid=31817375 |pmc=6963415|doi-access=free }}</ref> Since then, numerous studies have shown that honey has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against [[Biology:Gram-positive bacteria|gram-positive]] and [[Biology:Gram-negative bacteria|gram-negative]] bacteria, although potency varies widely between different honeys.<ref name="Saikaly2017"/><ref name="Nolan2019"/><ref name="Molan2015">{{cite journal |last1=Molan |first1=P. |last2=Rhodes |first2=T. |title=Honey: A Biologic Wound Dressing. |journal=Wounds |date=June 2015 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=141–51 |pmid=26061489}}</ref><ref name="future">{{cite journal |last1=Maddocks |first1=Sarah E |last2=Jenkins |first2=Rowena E |title=Honey: a sweet solution to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance? |journal=Future Microbiology |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=1419–1429 |doi=10.2217/fmb.13.105 |pmid=24199801 }}</ref> Due to the proliferation of [[Biology:List of antibiotic-resistant bacteria|antibiotic-resistant bacteria]] in the last few decades, there has been renewed interest in researching the antibacterial properties of honey.<ref name="Boukraa"/> Components of honey under preliminary research for potential antibiotic use include [[Chemistry:Methylglyoxal|methylglyoxal]], [[Chemistry:Hydrogen peroxide|hydrogen peroxide]], and royalisin (also called defensin-1).<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Methylglyoxal-induced modifications of significant honeybee proteinous components in manuka honey: Possible therapeutic implications|journal=Fitoterapia|date=1 June 2012|pages=671–677|volume=83|issue=4|doi=10.1016/j.fitote.2012.02.002|first1=Juraj|last1=Majtan|first2=Jaroslav|last2=Klaudiny|first3=Jana|last3=Bohova|first4=Lenka|last4=Kohutova|first5=Maria|last5=Dzurova|first6=Maria|last6=Sediva|first7=Maria|last7=Bartosova|first8=Viktor|last8=Majtan|pmid=22366273}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22095907|year=2012|last1=Kwakman|first1=P. H. |title=Antibacterial components of honey|journal=IUBMB Life|volume=64|issue=1|pages=48–55|last2=Zaat|first2=S. A. |doi=10.1002/iub.578|s2cid=19954920|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Cough===

For chronic and acute coughs, a [[Organization:Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review found no strong evidence for or against the use of honey.<ref name="lozenges">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulholland S, Chang AB |title=Honey and lozenges for children with non-specific cough |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=2 |pages=CD007523 |year=2009 |volume=2009 |pmid=19370690 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007523.pub2 |pmc=7202236 |type=Systematic review|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:263794/UQ263794_OA.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Oduwole-2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Oduwole|first1=Olabisi|last2=Udoh|first2=Ekong E.|last3=Oyo-Ita|first3=Angela|last4=Meremikwu|first4=Martin M.|date=2018|title=Honey for acute cough in children|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=4|issue=12|pages=CD007094|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007094.pub5|issn=1469-493X|pmid=29633783|pmc=6513626}}</ref> For treating children, the systematic review concluded with moderate to low evidence that honey helps more than no treatment, [[Chemistry:Diphenhydramine|diphenhydramine]], and [[Medicine:Placebo|placebo]] at giving relief from coughing.<ref name="Oduwole-2018"/> Honey does not appear to work better than [[Chemistry:Dextromethorphan|dextromethorphan]] at relieving coughing in children.<ref name="Oduwole-2018"/> Other reviews have also supported the use of honey for treating children.<ref name=Goldman2014>{{cite journal |last1=Goldman |first1=Ran D. |title=Honey for treatment of cough in children |journal=Canadian Family Physician |date=December 2014 |volume=60 |issue=12 |pages=1107–1110 |pmid=25642485 |pmc=4264806 |url=http://www.cfp.ca/content/60/12/1107.long |type=Systematic review}}</ref><ref name="Paul2012">{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Ian M. |title=Therapeutic Options for Acute Cough Due to Upper Respiratory Infections in Children |journal=Lung |date=February 2012 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=41–44 |doi=10.1007/s00408-011-9319-y|pmid=21892785 |s2cid=23865647 }}</ref>

The UK [[Organization:Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency|Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]] recommends avoiding giving over-the-counter cough and [[Medicine:Common cold|common cold]] medication to children under six, and suggests "a homemade remedy containing honey and lemon is likely to be just as useful and safer to take", but warns that honey should not be given to babies because of the risk of infant [[Medicine:Botulism|botulism]].<ref name="nhs-cough">{{cite web |publisher=NHS Choices |title=Cough |access-date=18 June 2014 |date=20 June 2013 |url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cough/pages/introduction.aspx}}</ref> The World Health Organization recommends honey as a treatment for coughs and sore throats, including for children, stating that no reason exists to believe it is less effective than a commercial remedy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children |url=https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/fch_cah_01_02/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825012135/http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/fch_cah_01_02/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 August 2013 |publisher=[[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) |year=2001 |id=WHO/FCH/CAH/01.02 |hdl=10665/66856 |last1=Organization |first1=World Health }}</ref>

===Other===

The use of honey has been recommended as a temporary intervention for known or suspected button cell battery ingestions to reduce the risk and severity of injury to the [[Biology:Esophagus|esophagus]] caused by the battery prior to its removal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poison.org/battery/guideline|title=Button Battery Ingestion: Triage and Treatment Guideline |publisher=National Capital Poison Center, Washington, DC |date=June 2018|access-date=5 July 2018}}</ref><ref name="Mubarak Benninga Broekaert Dolinsek 2021 pp. 129–136">{{cite journal | last1=Mubarak | first1=Amani | last2=Benninga | first2=Marc A. | last3=Broekaert | first3=Ilse | last4=Dolinsek | first4=Jernej | last5=Homan | first5=Matjaž | last6=Mas | first6=Emmanuel | last7=Miele | first7=Erasmo | last8=Pienar | first8=Corina | last9=Thapar | first9=Nikhil | last10=Thomson | first10=Mike | last11=Tzivinikos | first11=Christos | last12=de Ridder | first12=Lissy | title=Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Button Battery Ingestion in Childhood: A European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition Position Paper | journal=Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=73 | issue=1 | date=14 January 2021 | issn=0277-2116 | doi=10.1097/mpg.0000000000003048 | pages=129–136| doi-access=free | pmid=33555169 }}</ref><ref name="Sethia Gibbs Jacobs Reilly 2021 pp. 549–563">{{cite journal | last1=Sethia | first1=Rishabh | last2=Gibbs | first2=Hannah | last3=Jacobs | first3=Ian N. | last4=Reilly | first4=James S. | last5=Rhoades | first5=Keith | last6=Jatana | first6=Kris R. | title=Current management of button battery injuries | journal=Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology | publisher=Wiley | volume=6 | issue=3 | date=15 April 2021 | issn=2378-8038 | doi=10.1002/lio2.535 | pages=549–563| doi-access=free | pmid=34195377 | pmc=8223456 }}</ref>

There is no evidence that honey is beneficial for treating [[Medicine:Cancer|cancer]],<ref name="mayo">{{cite web |publisher=Mayo Clinic |title=Honey |access-date=24 September 2015 |date=1 November 2013 |url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/honey/evidence/hrb-20059618}}</ref> although honey may be useful for controlling [[Medicine:Side effect|side effect]]s of [[Physics:Radiation therapy|radiation therapy]] or [[Medicine:Chemotherapy|chemotherapy]] used to treat cancer.<ref name="Bardy Slevin Mais Molassiotis 2008 pp. 2604–2623">{{cite journal | last1=Bardy | first1=Joy | last2=Slevin | first2=Nicholas J | last3=Mais | first3=Kathleen L | last4=Molassiotis | first4=Alexander | title=A systematic review of honey uses and its potential value within oncology care | journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing | publisher=Wiley | volume=17 | issue=19 | date=17 September 2008 | issn=0962-1067 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02304.x | pages=2604–2623| pmid=18808626 }}</ref>

Consumption is sometimes advocated as a treatment for seasonal allergies due to [[Biology:Pollen|pollen]], but scientific evidence to support the claim is inconclusive.<ref name=mayo/> Honey is generally considered ineffective for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis.<ref name=mayo/><ref name="Rudmik Hoy Schlosser Harvey 2012 pp. 281–298">{{cite journal | last1=Rudmik | first1=Luke | last2=Hoy | first2=Monica | last3=Schlosser | first3=Rodney J. | last4=Harvey | first4=Richard J. | last5=Welch | first5=Kevin C. | last6=Lund | first6=Valerie | last7=Smith | first7=Timothy L. | title=Topical therapies in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis: an evidence-based review with recommendations | journal=International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology | publisher=Wiley | volume=3 | issue=4 | date=8 October 2012 | issn=2042-6976 | doi=10.1002/alr.21096 | pages=281–298| doi-access=free | pmid=23044832 }}</ref>

The majority of calories in honey are from fructose. When consumed in addition to a normal diet, fructose causes significant weight gain, but when fructose was substituted for other carbohydrates of equal energy value there was no effect on body weight.<ref name="aim">{{cite journal|vauthors=Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, Mirrahimi A, Yu ME, Carleton AJ, Beyene J, Chiavaroli L, Di Buono M, Jenkins AL, Leiter LA, Wolever TM, Kendall CW, Jenkins DJ |title=Effect of Fructose on Body Weight in Controlled Feeding Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Ann Intern Med|year=2012|volume=156 |issue=4 |pages=291–304|pmid=22351714|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-156-4-201202210-00007|s2cid=207536440}}</ref>

Honey has a mild laxative effect which has been noted as being helpful in alleviating constipation and bloating.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news24.com/health24/natural/natural-living/the-health-benefits-of-honey-20130523|title=The health benefits of honey|last1=Ottermann|first1=Birgit|publisher=News24|quote=Honey has a mild laxative effect which can help combat constipation and bloating.|date=23 May 2013|accessdate=1 May 2022}}</ref>

===Health hazards===

Honey is generally safe when taken in typical food amounts,<ref name=Goldman2014/><ref name=mayo/> but it may have various, potential [[Medicine:Adverse effect|adverse effect]]s or [[Medicine:Drug interaction|interactions]] in combination with excessive consumption, existing [[Disease|disease]] conditions, or drugs.<ref name=mayo/> Included among these are mild reactions to high intake, such as anxiety, [[Medicine:Insomnia|insomnia]], or hyperactivity in about 10% of children, according to one study.<ref name=Goldman2014/> No symptoms of anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity were detected with honey consumption compared to [[Medicine:Placebo|placebo]], according to another study.<ref name=Goldman2014/> Honey consumption may interact adversely with existing [[Medicine:Allergy|allergies]], high blood sugar levels (as in [[Medicine:Diabetes|diabetes]]), or [[Medicine:Anticoagulant|anticoagulant]]s used to control [[Medicine:Bleeding|bleeding]], among other clinical conditions.<ref name=mayo/>

People who have a weakened immune system may be at risk of bacterial or fungal infection from eating honey.<ref name=safety>{{cite book | last1=Prakash | first1=V. | last2=Martin-Belloso | first2=Olga | last3=Keener | first3=Larry | last4=Astley | first4=Siân B. | last5=Braun | first5=Susanne | last6=McMahon | first6=Helena | last7=Lelieveld | first7=Huub | title=Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods | publisher=Academic Press | date=2015-11-25 | isbn=978-0-12-800620-7 | page=223}}</ref>

====Botulism====

Infants can develop botulism after consuming honey contaminated with ''[[Biology:Clostridium botulinum|Clostridium botulinum]]'' endospores.<ref name="NHB botulism">{{cite web |url=https://www.honey.com/faq |title=Frequently Asked Questions |work=National Honey Board |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201094727/http://www.honey.com/nhb/about-honey/frequently-asked-questions/category/honey-properties/ |archive-date=1 February 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Infantile botulism shows geographical variation. In the UK, only six cases were reported between 1976 and 2006,<ref name="FSA botulism">{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/infantbotulismreport.pdf |title=Report on Minimally Processed Infant Weaning Foods and the Risk of Infant Botulism |date=July 2006 |work=Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food |access-date=9 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019005426/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/infantbotulismreport.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2010}}</ref> yet the US has much higher rates: 1.9 per 100,000 live births, 47.2% of which are in California.<ref name="CdcBotulism">[https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/pdf/bot-manual.pdf Botulism in the United States, 1899–1996], Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians, and Laboratory Workers, Atlanta, GA. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998)</ref> While the risk honey poses to infant health is small, taking the risk is not recommended until after one year of age, and then giving honey is considered safe.<ref name="ENY128">{{cite web |last1=Sanford |first1=Malcolm T. |last2=Atkinson |first2=Eddie |last3=Klopchin |first3=Jeanette |last4=Ellis |first4=Jamie R. |title=Infant Botulism and Honey |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/aa142 |website=Every Day Information Source |date=4 April 2019 }}</ref>

====Toxic honey====


Mad honey intoxication is a result of eating honey containing [[Biology:Grayanotoxin|grayanotoxin]]s.<ref name=JansenKleerekooper2012>{{cite journal|last1=Jansen|first1=Suze A.|last2=Kleerekooper|first2=Iris|last3=Hofman |first3=Zonne L. M.|last4=Kappen|first4=Isabelle F. P. M.|last5=Stary-Weinzinger|first5=Anna|last6=van der Heyden|first6=Marcel A. G.|title=Grayanotoxin Poisoning: 'Mad Honey Disease' and Beyond|journal=Cardiovascular Toxicology|volume=12|issue=3|year=2012 |pages=208–215|doi=10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2|pmid=22528814|pmc=3404272}}</ref> Honey produced from flowers of [[Biology:Rhododendron|rhododendron]]s, [[Biology:Kalmia latifolia|mountain laurels]], [[Biology:Kalmia angustifolia|sheep laurel]], and [[Biology:Azalea|azalea]]s may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea, and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. Honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources, is thought to dilute any toxins.<ref name="FDA">{{Cite web |title="Grayanotoxin" |url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/ucm071128.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308010321/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/ucm071128.htm |archive-date=8 March 2013 |access-date=13 July 2009 |website=[[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] }} in the ''Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook'', FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.</ref>

Toxic honey may also result when bees are proximate to [[Biology:Tutu (plant)|tutu]] bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''[[Biology:Scolypopa australis|Scolypopa australis]]''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison [[Chemistry:Tutin (toxin)|tutin]] into honey.<ref name="NBA">{{citation |url=http://nba.org.nz/uploads/starting-with-bees-tutin-section.pdf |title=Tutu Bush and Toxic Honey |work=National Beekeepers Association, New Zealand |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005173024/http://nba.org.nz/uploads/starting-with-bees-tutin-section.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2011}}</ref> Only a few areas in New Zealand (the Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty Region and the Marlborough Sounds) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma, and violent convulsions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/read-the-journal/all-issues/2010-2019/2013/vol-126-no-1370/cc-belcher|title=Tutu toxicity: three case reports of Coriaria arborea ingestion, review of literature and recommendations for management - New Zealand Medical Journal|website=www.nzma.org.nz|access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref> To reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on|frac=2}} of their apiary. {{citation needed|reason=needed for section in general|date=April 2015}} Intoxication is rarely dangerous.<ref name=JansenKleerekooper2012/>

===Folk medicine===

In [[Social:Myth|myth]]s and folk medicine, honey was used both orally and topically to treat various ailments including gastric disturbances, [[Medicine:Ulcer|ulcer]]s, [[Biology:Skin|skin]] [[Medicine:Wound|wound]]s, and skin [[Physics:Burn|burn]]s by ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and in [[Philosophy:Ayurveda|Ayurveda]] and [[Medicine:Traditional Chinese medicine|traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref name="Pećanac-"/>

==History==

[[File:Cueva arana.svg|thumb|150px|Honey seeker depicted in an 8000-year-old cave painting at Coves de L'Aranya, Bicorp in València]]

Honey collection is an ancient activity,<ref name=Crane83/> long preceding the honey bee's domestication; this traditional practice is known as honey hunting. A Mesolithic rock painting in a cave in Valencia, Spain, dating back at least 8,000 years, depicts two honey foragers collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bees' nest. The figures are depicted carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ladder or series of ropes to reach the nest.<ref name=Crane83>Crane, Eva (1983) ''The Archaeology of Beekeeping'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|0-8014-1609-4}}</ref> Humans followed the greater honeyguide bird to wild beehives;<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Isack HA, Reyer HU |title=Honeyguides and honey gatherers: interspecific communication in a symbiotic relationship |journal=Science |volume=243 |issue=4896 |pages=1343–6 |year=1989 |pmid=17808267 |doi=10.1126/science.243.4896.1343 |bibcode=1989Sci...243.1343I |s2cid=4220280 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d05b/5dc81c11741b9430c3ed49aed270e6bf83fe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030337/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d05b/5dc81c11741b9430c3ed49aed270e6bf83fe.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> this behavior may have evolved with early hominids.<ref>Short, Lester, Horne, Jennifer and Diamond, A. W. (2003). "Honeyguides". In Christopher Perrins (Ed.). Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. pp. 396–397. {{ISBN|1-55297-777-3}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/00306525.1981.9633599|title=A Review of African Birds Feeding in Association with Mammals|year=1981|last1=Dean|first1=W. R. J.|last2=MacDonald|first2=I. A. W.|journal=Ostrich|volume=52|issue=3|pages=135–155|bibcode=1981Ostri..52..135D }}</ref> The oldest known honey remains were found in [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]] during the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline: archaeologists found honey remains on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed in an ancient tomb, dating back between 4,700 and 5,500 years.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00334-006-0067-5|title=The first find in southern Georgia of fossil honey from the Bronze Age, based on palynological data|year=2006|last1=Kvavadze|first1=Eliso|last2=Gambashidze |first2=Irina|last3=Mindiashvili |first3=Giorgi|last4=Gogochuri|first4=Giorgi|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany|volume=16|issue=5 |pages=399–404|s2cid=128835308}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cncworld.tv/news/v_show/23243_Georgian_ancient_honey.shtml Georgian ancient honey] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704110909/http://www.cncworld.tv/news/v_show/23243_Georgian_ancient_honey.shtml |date=4 July 2012 }}. cncworld.tv (31 March 2012). Retrieved on 10 July 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/node/65204 Report: Georgia Unearths the World's Oldest Honey]. EurasiaNet (30 March 2012). Retrieved on 3 July 2015.</ref> In ancient Georgia, several types of honey were buried with a person for journeys into the afterlife, including linden, berry, and meadow-flower varieties.<ref>[http://guildofscientifictroubadours.com/2012/04/02/the-worlds-first-winemakers-were-the-worlds-first-beekeepers/ The world's first winemakers were the world's first beekeepers.] guildofscientifictroubadours.com (2 April 2012). Retrieved on 10 July 2012.</ref>

The first written records of beekeeping are from ancient Egypt{{when|date=April 2023}}, where honey was used to sweeten cakes, biscuits, and other foods and as a base for unguents in Egyptian hieroglyphs. The dead were often buried in or with honey in Egypt, Mesopotamia and other regions. Bees were kept at temples to produce honey for temple offerings, mummification and other uses.<ref name=med>{{cite book |author=Rachel Hajar |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-first=Helaine |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |page=89}}</ref>

In {{wipe|Ancient Greece}}, honey was produced from the Archaic to the Hellenistic periods. In 594&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|author=Pliny|title=XI.9.19}}</ref> beekeeping around [[Place:Athens|Athens]] was so widespread that [[Biography:Solon|Solon]] passed a law about it: "He who sets up hives of bees must put them {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=off|disp=sqbr|sigfig=1}} away from those already installed by another".<ref>{{cite book|author=Plutarch|title=Life of Solon|page=23}}</ref><ref name="crane book"/> Greek archaeological excavations of pottery located ancient hives.<ref name="Princeton University Press">{{cite book|last1=Bresson|first1=Alain|title=The Making of the Ancient Greek Economy: Institutions, Markets and Growth|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wU9FCQAAQBAJ&q=honey+ancient+greek&pg=PA130|access-date=16 December 2015|isbn=9781400852451|date=3 November 2015}}</ref> According to Columella, Greek beekeepers of the Hellenistic period did not hesitate to move their hives over rather long distances to maximize production, taking advantage of the different vegetative cycles in different regions.<ref name="Princeton University Press"/> The spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in both the [[Religion:Vedas|Vedas]] and the [[Philosophy:Ayurveda|Ayurveda]] texts.<ref name="Pećanac-">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pećanac M, Janjić Z, Komarcević A, Pajić M, Dobanovacki D, Misković SS|title=Burns treatment in ancient times |journal=Med Pregl |volume=66 |issue=5–6 |pages=263–7 |year=2013 |pmid=23888738 |doi=10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00603-5 }}</ref>

==Religious significance==

===Ancient Greece===

In [[Religion:Ancient Greek religion|ancient Greek religion]], the food of [[Religion:Zeus|Zeus]] and the twelve Gods of Olympus was honey in the form of nectar and [[Unsolved:Ambrosia|ambrosia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNeTxae8vV4C|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=1 April 1980|isbn=9780674379305|language=en|first=Albert|last=Henrichs}}</ref>

===Judaism===

====Hebrew Bible====

=====The promised "land of milk and honey"=====

In the [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Bible]], the [[Unsolved:Promised Land|Promised Land]] (Canaan, the Land of Israel) is described 16 times as "the land of milk and honey"<ref name=1stANE>{{cite web |author=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |title= First Beehives In Ancient Near East Discovered |url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070904114558.htm |website= ScienceDaily |access-date=6 October 2015}}</ref> as a metaphor for its bounty. God promises such a land to the Israelites ({{bibleverse|Exodus|3:8}}), and the spies sent in by [[Biography:Moses|Moses]] confirm that the land fits the description ({{bibleverse|Numbers|13:27}}).<ref name=med/>

====="Honey" in other contexts=====

The word "honey" appears for a further 39 times, outside the above-mentioned phrase.<ref name=1stANE/> In the Book of Judges, Samson finds a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion ({{bibleverse|Judges|14:8}}). Biblical law covered offerings made in the temple to God. The Book of Leviticus says that "Every grain offering you bring to the Lord must be made without yeast, for you are not to burn any yeast or honey in a food offering presented to the Lord" ({{bibleverse|Lev|2:11}}). In the Books of Samuel, Jonathan is forced into a confrontation with his father King Saul after eating honey in violation of a rash oath Saul has made ({{bibleverse|1|Samuel|14:24–47|NKJV}}). {{bibleverse|Proverbs|16:24}} in the JPS Tanakh 1917 version says "Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, Sweet to the soul, and health to the bones."<ref name=Berel>Berel, Rabbi. (24 September 2005) [https://aish.com/apples_and_honey/ Apples and Honey]. Aish.com. Re-accessed on 6 April 2023.</ref>{{clarify|reason= Didn't find anything about this in the source. Must be the result of repeated editing.|date=April 2023}} The Book of Proverbs says, "Eat honey, my son, for it is good" ({{bibleverse|Prov.|24:13}}), but also, "It is not good to eat much honey" ({{bibleverse|Prov.|25:27}}).<ref name=med/>

=====Bee or date honey? Wild or domesticated bees?=====

Of the 55 times the word "honey" appears in the Hebrew Bible, 16 are part of the expression "the land of milk and honey", and only twice is "honey" explicitly associated with bees, both being related to wild bees: Samson collecting bees' honey from inside a lion's corpse ({{bibleverse|Judges|14:8-9}}) is the first instance, with Jonathan, King Saul's son, tasting from a honeycomb after the battle of Michmash ({{bibleverse|1 Samuel|14:27}}) being the second.<ref name=1stANE/>

Modern biblical researchers long considered that the original Hebrew word used in the Bible, דבש ''devash'', refers to the [[Chemistry:Date honey|sweet syrup]] produced from [[Biology:Fig|fig]]s or dates, because the domestication of the honey bee was completely undocumented through archaeology anywhere in the [[History:Ancient Near East|ancient Near East]] (excluding Egypt) at the time associated with the earlier biblical narratives<ref name=1stANE/> (books of Exodus, Judges, Kings, etc.). In 2005, however, an apiary dating from the 10th century BC was found in Tel Rehov, Israel that contained 100 hives, estimated to produce half a ton of honey annually.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mazar|first1=Amihai|last2=Panitz-Cohen|first2=Nava|title=It Is the Land of Honey: beekeeping at Tel Rehov|journal=Near Eastern Archaeology|date=2007|volume=70|issue=4|pages=202–219|doi=10.1086/nea20361335|s2cid=158044206|url= https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c6d/b8daed1b1fd569827468b0b80ffb5d35a109.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200215174239/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c6d/b8daed1b1fd569827468b0b80ffb5d35a109.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=1stANE/> This was, as of 2007, the only such finding made by archaeologists in the entire ancient Near East region, and it opens the possibility that biblical honey was indeed bee honey.<ref name=1stANE/>

====Rabbinic Judaism====

In Jewish tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year, ''Rosh Hashanah''. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. Some ''Rosh Hashanah'' greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CD8U0PXesiMC&q=straws&pg=PA121|title=Napa Valley's Jewish Heritage|last1=Michalski|first1=Henry|last2=Mendelsohn|first2=Donna|last3=Valley|first3=Jewish Historical Society of Napa|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738588988}}</ref>

Pure honey is considered kosher (permitted to be eaten by religious Jews), though it is produced by a flying insect, a non-kosher creature; eating other products of non-kosher animals is forbidden.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/712032/jewish/Why-Is-honey-kosher.htm "Why is honey kosher?"] Chabad.org. Retrieved 30 November 2010.</ref> It belongs among the ''parve'' (neutral) foods, containing neither meat nor dairy products and allowed to be eaten together with either.

===Christianity===

The Christian [[Religion:New Testament|New Testament]] says that [[Biography:John the Baptist|John the Baptist]] lived for a long of time in the wilderness on a diet of locusts and wild honey<ref name=med/> (see for instance {{bibleverse|Mark|1:6}}).

[[Religion:Early Christianity|Early Christians]] used honey as a symbol of spiritual perfection in christening ceremonies.<ref name=med/>

===Islam===

In Islam, an entire chapter ([[Religion:Surah|Surah]]) in the [[Religion:Quran|Quran]] is called ''an-Nahl'' (the Bees). According to his teachings (''[[Religion:Hadith|hadith]]''), [[Biography:Muhammad|Muhammad]] strongly recommended honey for healing purposes.The Quran promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food, saying:
{{blockquote|And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought.<ref>[Al-Quran 16:68–69]</ref><ref name="'Abdullah Yusuf 'Ali">{{cite book|first='Abdullah |last=Yusuf 'Ali |title=An Nahl, Al-Quran Chapter 16 (The Bee) quoted from "The Holy Qur'an: Original Arabic Text with English Translation & Selected Commentaries" |url=http://muslimaccess.com/quraan/translations/yusufali/016.htm |access-date=20 May 2013 |publisher=Saba Islamic Media |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226013840/http://muslimaccess.com/quraan/translations/yusufali/016.htm |archive-date=26 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}}

===Hinduism===

In [[Religion:Hinduism|Hinduism]], honey (''[[Religion:Madhu|Madhu]]'') is one of the five elixirs of life (''Panchamrita''). In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called ''Madhu [[Religion:Abhisheka|abhisheka]]''. The ''Vedas'' and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great medicinal and health food.<ref name="fjnet.com">[http://www.fjnet.com/english/society/t20061117_41041.htm A Meaningful Story of Buddha, Elephant and Monkey] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319080236/http://www.fjnet.com/english/society/t20061117_41041.htm |date=19 March 2008 }} by Marguerite Theophil, United Press International, 16 November 2006, accessed 9 August 2008</ref>

===Buddhism===

In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of ''Madhu Purnima'', celebrated in India and Bangladesh. The day commemorates [[Biography:Gautama Buddha|Buddha's]] making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. According to legend, while he was there a monkey brought him honey to eat. On ''Madhu Purnima'', Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to monks. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in Buddhist art.<ref name="fjnet.com"/>

==Popular culture==

Honey is especially associated with Winnie-the-Pooh, and Bamse's thunder honey.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/46916003|title=Winnie the Pooh Day 2023|publisher=BBC|language=English|date=18 January 2023|accessdate=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/6348955|title=The world's 'strongest bear' celebrates 50th anniversary|publisher=Sveriges Radio|language=English|date=19 January 2016|accessdate=27 June 2023}}</ref>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Biology:Bee pollen|Bee pollen]]
* Honey hunting
* List of spreads
* Mellivory
* ''More than Honey''{{nsmdns}}a 2012 Swiss documentary film on the current state of honey bees and beekeeping
* National Honey Show
* Royal jelly
{{div col end}}

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==

* {{cite book|author=Krell, R.|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=Value-added products from beekeeping|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BzzBBbnIJhIC|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BzzBBbnIJhIC/page/n167 5]|year=1996|isbn=978-92-5-103819-2|ref=Krell|access-date=5 January 2016}}
* {{cite book|author1=Root, A. I. |author2=Root, E. R. |title=The ABC and Xyz of Bee Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0PoSYNEsh0C&pg=PA355|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-2427-1|ref=Root|access-date=5 January 2016}}

==External links==


* [https://www.fao.org/3/y5110e/y5110e00.htm Beekeeping and Sustainable Livelihoods] (2004), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
* {{Cite NSRW|short=x|wstitle=Honey}}

{{Non-timber forest products}}

[[Category:Demulcents]]

{{Sourceattribution|Honey}}