View source for Chemistry:Lithium carbonate

{{chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields  = changed
| verifiedrevid  = 476992822
| Name           = Lithium carbonate
| ImageSize      = 150px
| ImageFile1     = Lithium-carbonate-xtal-1979-Mercury-3D-sf.png
| ImageSize1     = 200px
| ImageFile2     = [[File:2.svg|x35px|2]] x35px|Structure of Li<sup>+</sup>-Ions [[File:Carbonat-Ion.svg|100px|Structure of Carbonate]]
| ImageFile3     = Lithium carbonate A.jpg
| ImageName      = Lithium carbonate
| IUPACName      = Lithium carbonate
| OtherNames     = Dilithium carbonate, Carbolith, Cibalith-S, Duralith, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithizine, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs Priadel, [[Chemistry:Zabuyelite|Zabuyelite]]
| Section1       = {{Chembox Identifiers
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 10654
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 2BMD2GNA4V
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 1200826
| InChI = 1/CH2O3.2Li/c2-1(3)4;;/h(H2,2,3,4);;/q;2*+1/p-2
| InChIKey = XGZVUEUWXADBQD-NUQVWONBAY
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 6504
| SMILES = [Li+].[Li+].[O-]C([O-])=O
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/CH2O3.2Li/c2-1(3)4;;/h(H2,2,3,4);;/q;2*+1/p-2
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = XGZVUEUWXADBQD-UHFFFAOYSA-L
| CASNo = 554-13-2
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| PubChem = 11125
| RTECS = OJ5800000
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D00801
 }}
| Section2       = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula = {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}}
| MolarMass = 73.89 g/mol
| Appearance = Odorless white powder
| Density = 2.11{{nbsp}}g/cm<sup>3</sup>
| MeltingPtC = 723
| BoilingPtC = 1310
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />Decomposes from ~1300&nbsp;°C
| Solubility = {{ubl
 | 1.54{{nbsp}}g/100{{nnbsp}}mL (0{{nbsp}}°C)
 | 1.43{{nbsp}}g/100{{nnbsp}}mL (10{{nbsp}}°C)
 | 1.29{{nbsp}}g/100{{nnbsp}}mL (25{{nbsp}}°C)
 | 1.08{{nbsp}}g/100{{nnbsp}}mL (40{{nbsp}}°C)
 | 0.69{{nbsp}}g/100{{nnbsp}}mL (100{{nbsp}}°C)<ref name=sioc>{{cite book|last1 = Seidell|first1 = Atherton|last2 = Linke|first2 = William F.|year = 1952|title = Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds|publisher = Van Nostrand}}</ref>
 }}
| SolubleOther = Insoluble in [[Chemistry:Acetone|acetone]], [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]], [[Chemistry:Ethanol|alcohol]]<ref name=chemister />
| SolubilityProduct = 8.15{{e|&minus;4}}<ref name="crc">{{cite book |author1=John Rumble |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |date=June 18, 2018 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-138-56163-2 |pages=5–188|edition=99 |language=English}}</ref>
| RefractIndex = 1.428<ref>Pradyot Patnaik. ''Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals''. McGraw-Hill, 2002, {{ISBN|0-07-049439-8}}</ref>
| Viscosity = {{ubl
 | 4.64{{nbsp}}cP (777{{nbsp}}°C)
 | 3.36{{nbsp}}cP (817{{nbsp}}°C)<ref name=chemister />
 }}
| MagSus = −27.0·10<sup>−6</sup>{{nbsp}}cm<sup>3</sup>/mol
 }}
| Section4       = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| DeltaGf = −1132.4{{nbsp}}kJ/mol<ref name=chemister>{{cite web|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=608 |title=lithium carbonate |website=Chemister.ru |date=2007-03-19 |access-date=2017-01-02}}</ref>
| DeltaHf = −1215.6{{nbsp}}kJ/mol<ref name=chemister />
| DeltaHc =
| Entropy = 90.37{{nbsp}}J/mol·K<ref name=chemister />
| HeatCapacity = 97.4{{nbsp}}J/mol·K<ref name=chemister />
 }}
| Section7       = {{Chembox Hazards
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS07}}<ref name="sigma">{{Sigma-Aldrich|id=752843|name=Lithium carbonate|accessdate=2014-06-03}}</ref>
| GHSSignalWord = Warning
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|302|319}}<ref name="sigma" />
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|305+351+338}}<ref name="sigma" />
| ExternalSDS = [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1109.htm ICSC 1109]
| MainHazards = Irritant
| FlashPt = Non-flammable
 }}
| Section8       = {{Chembox Related
| OtherCations = [[Chemistry:Sodium carbonate|Sodium carbonate]]<br /> [[Chemistry:Potassium carbonate|Potassium carbonate]]<br /> [[Chemistry:Rubidium carbonate|Rubidium carbonate]]<br /> [[Chemistry:Caesium carbonate|Caesium carbonate]]
 }}
}}

'''Lithium carbonate''' is an [[Chemistry:Inorganic compound|inorganic compound]], the [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] [[Chemistry:Salt|salt]] of [[Chemistry:Carbonic acid|carbonic acid]] with the [[Chemistry:Chemical formula|formula]] {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}}. This white [[Chemistry:Salt|salt]] is widely used in processing metal oxides. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines<ref name=WHOEssentialMedicines>{{cite web|title=WHO Model List of Essential Medicines|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1|format=PDF|work=World Health Organization|access-date=22 April 2014|date=October 2013}}</ref> for its efficacy in the [[Chemistry:Lithium (medication)|treatment]] of [[Medicine:Mood disorder|mood disorder]]s such as [[Medicine:Bipolar disorder|bipolar disorder]].<ref name=FDALithiumCarbonateHighlights /><ref name=WHOEssentialMedicines />

==Uses==
Lithium carbonate is an important industrial chemical. Its main use is as a precursor to compounds used in lithium-ion batteries. 

Glasses derived from lithium carbonate are useful in ovenware. Lithium carbonate is a common ingredient in both low-fire and high-fire [[Engineering:Ceramic glaze|ceramic glaze]]. It forms low-melting [[Engineering:Flux (metallurgy)|flux]]es with [[Chemistry:Silica|silica]] and other materials.  Its [[Chemistry:Alkaline|alkaline]] properties are conducive to changing the state of metal oxide colorants in [[Engineering:Ceramic glaze|glaze]], particularly red iron oxide ({{chem|Fe|2|O|3}}). Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile [[Chemistry:Adhesive|adhesive]]s. When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms [[Chemistry:Lithium fluoride|LiF]] which yields a superior [[Physics:Electrolyte|electrolyte]] for the processing of [[Chemistry:Aluminium|aluminium]].<ref name=Ullmann>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Ulrich Wietelmann |author2=Richard J. Bauer |title=Lithium and Lithium Compounds|encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-VCH|location=Weinheim|doi=10.1002/14356007.a15_393|isbn=3-527-30673-0}}</ref>

===Rechargeable batteries===

Lithium carbonate-derived compounds are crucial to [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]]. Lithium carbonate may be converted into [[Chemistry:Lithium hydroxide|lithium hydroxide]] as an intermediate.  In practice, two components of the battery are made with lithium compounds: the [[Physics:Cathode|cathode]] and the [[Physics:Electrolyte|electrolyte]]. The electrolyte is a solution of [[Chemistry:Lithium hexafluorophosphate|lithium hexafluorophosphate]], while the cathode uses one of several lithiated structures, the most popular of which are [[Chemistry:Lithium cobalt oxide|lithium cobalt oxide]] and [[Chemistry:Lithium iron phosphate|lithium iron phosphate]].

[[File:Lithium prices.webp|thumb|center|Lithium prices]]

===Medical uses===
{{main|Chemistry:Lithium (medication)}}
In 1843, lithium carbonate was used to treat stones in the [[Biology:Bladder|bladder]]. In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium [[Chemistry:Salt|salts]] for a number of [[Disease|ailments]], including [[Medicine:Gout|gout]], urinary calculi, [[Medicine:Rheumatism|rheumatism]], [[Medicine:Mania|mania]], [[Medicine:Depression (mood)|depression]], and [[Medicine:Headache|headache]]. 

In 1948, John Cade discovered the anti-manic effects of lithium ions.<ref name="who-cade-treat-mania">{{Cite journal |last=Cade|first=J. F. |date=2000 |title=Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. 1949. |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=518–520 |issn=0042-9686 |pmc=2560740 |pmid=10885180 }}</ref> This finding led to lithium carbonate's use as a [[Social:Psychiatric medication|psychiatric medication]] to treat mania, the elevated phase of [[Medicine:Bipolar disorder|bipolar disorder]]. Prescription lithium carbonate from a [[Chemistry:Pharmacy|pharmacy]] is suitable for use as medicine in humans but industrial lithium carbonate is not since it may contain unsafe levels of [[Chemistry:Toxic heavy metal|toxic heavy metal]]s or other [[Chemistry:Toxicant|toxicant]]s. After ingestion, lithium carbonate is [[Chemistry:Dissociation|dissociated]] into pharmacologically active [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] ions (Li<sup>+</sup>) and (non-therapeutic) [[Chemistry:Carbonate|carbonate]], with 300&nbsp;mg of lithium carbonate containing approximately 8&nbsp;mEq (8&nbsp;mmol) of lithium ion.<ref name=FDALithiumCarbonateHighlights>{{Cite web|title=Lithium Carbonate Medication Guide|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/017812s031,018421s031,018558s026lbl.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220127181022/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/017812s034,018421s033,018558s028lbl.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2022|access-date=27 January 2022|website=U.S. FDA}}</ref> According to the [[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), 300–600&nbsp;mg of lithium carbonate taken two to three times daily is typical for maintenance of bipolar I disorder in adults,<ref name=FDALithiumCarbonateHighlights /> where the exact dose given varies depending on factors such as the patient's serum lithium concentrations, which must be closely monitored by a [[Medicine:Physician|physician]] to avoid [[Medicine:Lithium toxicity|lithium toxicity]] and potential kidney damage (or even [[Medicine:Kidney failure|kidney failure]]) from [[Chemistry:Lithium (medication)#Kidney damage|lithium-induced]] [[Medicine:Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic diabetes insipidus]].<ref name=Amdisen1978>{{cite journal|author=Amdisen A.|title=Clinical and serum level monitoring in lithium therapy and lithium intoxication|journal=J. Anal. Toxicol.|volume=2|issue=5|pages=193–202|year=1978|doi=10.1093/jat/2.5.193}}</ref><ref name=FDALithiumCarbonateHighlights /> [[Medicine:Dehydration|Dehydration]] and certain drugs, including [[Chemistry:Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAIDs]] such as [[Chemistry:Ibuprofen|ibuprofen]], can increase serum lithium concentrations to unsafe levels whereas other drugs, such as [[Biology:Caffeine|caffeine]], may decrease concentrations.  In contrast to the elemental ions [[Biology:Sodium in biology|sodium]], [[Biology:Potassium in biology|potassium]], and [[Biology:Calcium in biology|calcium]], there is no known cellular mechanism specifically dedicated to regulating [[Biology:Intracellular|intracellular]] lithium. 
Lithium can enter cells through [[Biology:Epithelial sodium channel|epithelial sodium channel]]s.<ref name=UpToDateRenalToxicity /> Lithium ions interfere with ion transport processes {{xref|(see "Sodium pump")}} that relay and amplify messages carried to the cells of the brain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/lithium/article.htm |title=lithium, Lithobid: Drug Facts, Side Effects and Dosing |website=Medicinenet.com |date=2016-06-17 |access-date=2017-01-02}}</ref> Mania is associated with irregular increases in [[Biology:Protein kinase C|protein kinase C]] (PKC) activity within the brain. Lithium carbonate and sodium valproate, another drug traditionally used to treat the disorder, act in the brain by inhibiting PKC's activity and help to produce other compounds that also inhibit the PKC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yildiz |first1=A |last2=Guleryuz |first2=S |last3=Ankerst |first3=DP |last4=Ongür |first4=D |last5=Renshaw |first5=PF |title=Protein kinase C inhibition in the treatment of mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of tamoxifen |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=255–63 |year=2008 |pmid=18316672 |doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.43 |url=http://mediatum.ub.tum.de/doc/1185490/document.pdf |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Lithium carbonate's mood-controlling properties are not fully understood.<ref>[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/lithium_carbonate Lithium Carbonate] at PubChem</ref> 

====Health risks====

Taking lithium salts has risks and side effects.  Extended use of lithium to treat mental disorders has been known to lead to acquired [[Medicine:Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic diabetes insipidus]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Richard T. Timmer |author2=Jeff M. Sands |url=http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/10/3/666.short |title=Lithium Intoxication |journal=Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |date=1999-03-01 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=666–674 |doi=10.1681/ASN.V103666 |pmid=10073618 |access-date=2017-01-02|doi-access=free }}</ref> Lithium [[Medicine:Substance intoxication|intoxication]] can affect the [[Biology:Central nervous system|central nervous system]] and renal system and can be lethal.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1001/archinte.149.1.36|last1=Simard|pmid=2492186|first1=M|year=1989|pages=36–46|issue=1|last2=Gumbiner|volume=149|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|first2=B|last3=Lee|first3=A|last4=Lewis|first4=H|last5=Norman|first5=D|title=Lithium carbonate intoxication. A case report and review of the literature|url=http://archinte.highwire.org/cgi/reprint/149/1/36.pdf|access-date=2010-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726151128/http://archinte.highwire.org/cgi/reprint/149/1/36.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-26}}</ref> Over a prolonged period, lithium can accumulate in the principal cells of the collecting duct and interfere with antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting tubule.<ref name=UpToDateRenalToxicity>{{cite web|last=Lerma|first=Edgar V.|title=Renal toxicity of lithium|work=[[Medicine:UpToDate|UpToDate]]|access-date=8 March 2022|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/renal-toxicity-of-lithium}}</ref> The medullary interstitium of the collecting duct system naturally has a high sodium concentration and attempts to maintain it. There is no known mechanism for cells to distinguish lithium ions from sodium ions, so damage to the kidney's nephrons may occur if lithium concentrations become too high as a result of [[Medicine:Dehydration|dehydration]], [[Medicine:Hyponatremia|hyponatremia]], an unusually low sodium diet, or certain drugs.

===Red pyrotechnic colorant===
Lithium carbonate is used to [[Physics:Fireworks#Pyrotechnic compounds|impart a red color to fireworks]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Chemistry of Fireworks | url=https://fireworks.com/education-and-safety/chemistry-compounds}}</ref>

==Properties and reactions ==
Unlike [[Chemistry:Sodium carbonate|sodium carbonate]], which forms at least three [[Physics:Water of crystallization|hydrates]], lithium carbonate exists only in the anhydrous form. Its solubility in water is low relative to other lithium salts. The isolation of lithium from aqueous extracts of lithium [[Earth:Ore|ore]]s capitalizes on this poor solubility. Its apparent solubility increases 10-fold under a mild pressure of [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]]; this effect is due to the formation of the [[Chemistry:Metastability|metastable]] [[Chemistry:Lithium bicarbonate|lithium bicarbonate]], which is more soluble:<ref name=Ullmann/>
:{{chem|Li|2|CO|3}} + {{chem|CO|2}} + {{chem|H|2|O}}   {{eqm}}   2 {{chem|LiHCO|3}}
The extraction of lithium carbonate at high pressures of {{chem|CO|2}} and its precipitation upon depressurizing is the basis of the Quebec process.

Lithium carbonate can also be purified by exploiting its diminished solubility in hot water.  Thus, heating a saturated aqueous solution causes crystallization of {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}}.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Caley | first1 = E. R. | last2 = Elving | first2 = P. J. | title = Inorganic Syntheses | year = 1939 | chapter = Purification of Lithium Carbonate | series = Inorganic Syntheses | volume = 1 | pages = 1–2 | doi = 10.1002/9780470132326.ch1 | isbn = 978-0-470-13232-6 }}</ref>

Lithium carbonate, and other carbonates of [[Chemistry:Alkali metal|group 1]], do not decarboxylate readily. {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}} decomposes at temperatures around 1300&nbsp;°C.

==Production==
Lithium is extracted from primarily two sources: [[Chemistry:Spodumene|spodumene]] in [[Earth:Pegmatite|pegmatite]] deposits, and lithium salts in underground [[Earth:Brine pool|brine pool]]s.  About 82,000 tons were produced in 2020, showing significant and consistent growth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/606684/world-production-of-lithium/|title = Global lithium production 2020}}</ref>

===From underground brine reservoirs===
In the Salar de Atacama in the Atacama desert of Northern Chile, lithium carbonate and hydroxide are produced from brine.<ref name="SQM-SUS">{{cite web |title=Sustainability of lithium production in Chile |url=https://www.sqm.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/SQM_-_Sustainable_Lithium_-_English.pdf |website=SQM |publisher=SQM |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Telsnig |first1=Thomas |last2=Potz |first2=Christian |last3=Haas |first3=Jannik |last4=Eltrop |first4=Ludger |last5=Palma-Behnke |first5=Rodrigo |title=Opportunities to integrate solar technologies into the Chilean lithium mining industry – reducing process related GHG emissions of a strategic storage resource |conference=Solarpaces 2016: International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems |series=AIP Conference Proceedings |date=2017 |volume=1850 |issue=1 |page=110017 |doi=10.1063/1.4984491|bibcode=2017AIPC.1850k0017T |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The process pumps lithium rich brine from below ground into shallow pans for evaporation. The brine contains many different dissolved ions, and as their concentration increases, salts precipitate out of solution and sink.  The remaining supernatant liquid is used for the next step. The sequence of pans may vary depending on the concentration of ions in a particular source of brine.

In the first pan, [[Chemistry:Halite|halite]] (sodium chloride or common salt) crystallises.  This has little economic value and is discarded.  The supernatant, with ever increasing concentration of dissolved solids, is transferred successively to the [[Earth:Sylvinite|sylvinite]] (sodium potassium chloride) pan, the carnalite (potassium magnesium chloride) pan and finally a pan designed to maximise the concentration of lithium chloride. The process takes about 15 months.  The concentrate (30-35% lithium chloride solution) is trucked to Salar del Carmen. There, [[Chemistry:Boron|boron]] and magnesium are removed (typically residual boron is removed by solvent extraction and/or [[Chemistry:Ion exchange|ion exchange]] and magnesium by raising the [[Chemistry:PH|pH]] above 10 with [[Chemistry:Sodium hydroxide|sodium hydroxide]])<ref>
{{cite web 
|last1=Dry 
|first1=Mike 
|title=Extraction of Lithium from Brine – Old and New Chemistry |url=http://downloads.aqsim.com/Extraction%20of%20Lithium%20from%20Brine%20%2013%20Old%20and%20New%20Chemistry.pdf |website=Critical Materials Symposium, EXTRACTION 2018, Ottawa, August 26–29 
|access-date=1 December 2020}}
</ref> then in the final step, by addition of [[Chemistry:Sodium carbonate|sodium carbonate]], the desired lithium carbonate is precipitated out, separated, and processed.

Some of the by-products from the evaporation process may also have economic value.

There is considerable attention to the use of water in this water poor region. SQM commissioned a life-cycle analysis (LCA) which concluded that water consumption for SQM's lithium hydroxide and carbonate is significantly lower than the average consumption by production from the main ore-based process, using [[Chemistry:Spodumene|spodumene]]. A more general LCA suggests the opposite for extraction from reservoirs.<ref name="BBC" >{{cite web |last1=Early |first1=Catherine |title=The new 'gold rush' for green lithium |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201124-how-geothermal-lithium-could-revolutionise-green-energy |website=Future Planet |publisher=BBC |access-date=2 December 2020 |date=25 Nov 2020}}</ref>

The majority of brine based production is in the "lithium triangle" in South America.

=== From 'geothermal' brine ===

A potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, carried to the surface.<ref name="bourcier">Parker, Ann. [https://www.llnl.gov/str/JanFeb05/Bourcier.html Mining Geothermal Resources] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917035952/https://www.llnl.gov/str/JanFeb05/Bourcier.html |date=17 September 2012 }}. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</ref> Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple precipitation and filtration.<ref name="Simbol">Patel, P. (16 November 2011) [http://www.technologyreview.com/news/426131/startup-to-capture-lithium-from-geothermal-plants/ Startup to Capture Lithium from Geothermal Plants]. technologyreview.com</ref> The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.<ref name="NYT">Wald, M. (28 September 2011) [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/energy-environment/simbol-materials-plans-to-extract-lithium-from-geothermal-plants.html Start-Up in California Plans to Capture Lithium, and Market Share] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408033249/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/energy-environment/simbol-materials-plans-to-extract-lithium-from-geothermal-plants.html |date=8 April 2017 }}. The New York Times</ref>

The brine of United Downs Deep Geothermal Power project near Redruth is claimed by Cornish Lithium to be valuable due to its high lithium concentration (220&nbsp;mg/L) with low magnesium (<5&nbsp;mg/L) and total dissolved solids content of <29g/L,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cornish Lithium Releases Globally Significant Lithium Grades |url=https://cornishlithium.com/company-announcements/cornish-lithium-releases-globally-significant-lithium-grades/ |website=Cornish Lithium |date=17 September 2020 |access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> and a flow rate of 40-60l/s.<ref name="BBC"/>

===From ore===

α-spodumene is roasted at 1100&nbsp;°C for 1h to make β-spodumene, then roasted at 250&nbsp;°C for 10 minutes with sulphuric acid.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meshram |first1=Pratima |last2=Pandey |first2=B. D. |last3=Mankhand |first3=T. R. |title=Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review |journal=Hydrometallurgy |date=1 December 2014 |volume=150 |pages=192–208 |doi=10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.10.012|bibcode=2014HydMe.150..192M |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X14002278|access-date= 2 Dec 2020}}</ref><ref name="SQM-SUS"/>

As of 2020, Australia was the world's largest producer of lithium intermediates,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-lithium.pdf|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020|last=Jaskula|first=Brian W.|date=January 2020|website=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> all based on spodumene.

In recent years mining companies have begun exploration of [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] projects throughout [[Earth:North America|North America]], [[Earth:South America|South America]] and {{wipe|Australia}} to identify economic deposits that can potentially bring new supplies of lithium carbonate online to meet the growing demand for the product.<ref>{{cite web
| url= https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/news-topics/topic/lithium.html
| title= Junior mining companies exploring for lithium
| agency= www.juniorminingnetwork.com
| access-date= 2017-03-30
| archive-date= 2017-03-31
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331034435/https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/news-topics/topic/lithium.html

}}</ref>

===From clay===
In 2020 Tesla Motors announced a revolutionary process to extract lithium from clay in Nevada using only salt and no acid.  This was met with scepticism.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Scheyder |first1=Ernest |title=Tesla's Nevada lithium plan faces stark obstacles on path to production |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/tesla-batteryday-lithium/teslas-nevada-lithium-plan-faces-stark-obstacles-on-path-to-production-idINL2N2GK2E1 |access-date=2 December 2020 |work=Reuters |date=24 Sep 2020}}</ref>

===From end-of-life batteries===
A few small companies are recycling spent batteries, focusing on recovering copper and cobalt. Some recover lithium carbonate alongside the compound Li<sub>2</sub>Al<sub>4</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)(OH)<sub>12</sub>⋅3H<sub>2</sub>O
also.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Serna-Guerrero |first1=Rodrigo |title=A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective |journal=Batteries |page=68 |doi=10.3390/batteries5040068 |date=5 November 2019 |volume=5 |issue=4 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Dolotko Gehrke Malliaridou Sieweck 2023 p. ">{{cite journal | last=Dolotko | first=Oleksandr | last2=Gehrke | first2=Niclas | last3=Malliaridou | first3=Triantafillia | last4=Sieweck | first4=Raphael | last5=Herrmann | first5=Laura | last6=Hunzinger | first6=Bettina | last7=Knapp | first7=Michael | last8=Ehrenberg | first8=Helmut | title=Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry | journal=Communications Chemistry | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=6 | issue=1 | date=March 28, 2023 | issn=2399-3669 | doi=10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2 | pmc=10049983 }}</ref><ref name="Kropachev Kalabskiy 2020 p=106470">{{cite journal | last=Kropachev | first=Andrey | last2=Kalabskiy | first2=Igor | title=Hydrometallurgical preparation of lithium aluminum carbonate hydroxide hydrate, Li2Al4(CO3)(OH)12·3H2O from aluminate solution | journal=Minerals Engineering | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=155 | year=2020 | issn=0892-6875 | doi=10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106470 | page=106470}}</ref><ref name="Dave Borlace 2023">{{cite AV media | title=Battery recycling just got a whole lot better. | type=YouTube video|publisher=Just Have a Think|location=London|date=15 May 2023 |people=Dave Borlace| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFmBX0Uq0wY | access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>

===Other===
In April 2017 MGX Minerals reported it had received independent confirmation of its rapid [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] extraction process to recover lithium and other valuable minerals from oil and gas wastewater [[Earth:Brine|brine]].
<ref>{{cite web 
| url= https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/junior-miner-news/press-releases/28-cse/xmg/31459-mgx-minerals-receives-independent-confirmation-of-rapid-lithium-extraction-process.html
|title = MGX Minerals Receives Independent Confirmation of Rapid Lithium Extraction Process
|date = 20 April 2017
|agency=www.juniorminingnetwork.com
| access-date=2017-04-20}}
</ref>

[[Chemistry:Electrodialysis|Electrodialysis]] has been proposed to extract lithium from seawater, but it is not commercially viable.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/538036/quest-to-mine-seawater-for-lithium-advances/|title=Quest to Mine Seawater for Lithium Advances|last=Martin|first=Richard|date=2015-06-08|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=2016-02-10}}</ref>

==Natural occurrence==
Natural lithium carbonate is known as [[Chemistry:Zabuyelite|zabuyelite]].<ref name="webmineral.com">{{cite web
| url=http://webmineral.com/data/Zabuyelite.shtml
| title=Zabuyelite Mineral Data
| author=David Barthelmy
| work=Mineralogy Database
| access-date=2010-02-07}}</ref> This mineral is connected with deposits of some [[Chemistry:Salt lake|salt lake]]s and some [[Earth:Pegmatite|pegmatite]]s.<ref>[https://www.mindat.org/min-4380.html mindat.org]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}} Wilkinson

==External links==
* [https://www.drugs.com/pro/lithium-carbonate.html Official FDA information] published by Drugs.com
{{Mood stabilizers}}
{{Lithium compounds}}
{{Carbonates}}

[[Category:Carbonates]]
[[Category:Orphan drugs]]

{{Sourceattribution|Lithium carbonate}}