View source for Chemistry:Magnesium battery

'''Magnesium batteries''' are batteries that utilize [[Chemistry:Magnesium|magnesium]] cations as the active charge transporting agents in solution and often as the elemental anode of an [[Chemistry:Electrochemical cell|electrochemical cell]]. Both non-rechargeable [[Physics:Primary cell|primary cell]] and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries.
Magnesium secondary cell batteries are an active topic of research, specifically as a possible replacement or improvement over [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion–based battery chemistries]] in certain applications. A significant advantage of magnesium cells is their use of a solid magnesium anode, allowing a higher [[Physics:Energy density|energy density]] cell design than that made with lithium, which in many instances requires an [[Chemistry:Intercalation|intercalated]] lithium anode. Insertion-type anodes ('magnesium ion') have also been researched.

==Primary cells==
Primary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century. In the reactive anode, they take advantage of the low stability and high energy of magnesium metal, whose [[Physics:Enthalpy of sublimation|bonding]] is weaker by more than 250 kJ/mol compared to iron and most other transition metals, which bond strongly via their partially filled d-orbitals. A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been researched, with cathode materials including [[Chemistry:Silver chloride|silver chloride]], [[Chemistry:Copper(I) chloride|copper(I) chloride]], [[Chemistry:Palladium(II) chloride|palladium(II) chloride]], [[Chemistry:Copper(I) iodide|copper(I) iodide]], [[Chemistry:Copper(I) thiocyanate|copper(I) thiocyanate]], [[Chemistry:Manganese dioxide|manganese dioxide]] and air (oxygen).{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§3}} For example, a water-activated silver chloride/magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943.<ref name="agcl"/>

The magnesium dry battery type BA-4386 was fully commercialised, with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries – in comparison to equivalent zinc-carbon cells the batteries had greater capacity by volume, and longer shelf life. The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until ca.1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery.<ref name="army1"/><ref name="army2"/>

A magnesium–air battery has a theoretical operating voltage of 3.1 V and energy density of 6.8 kWh/kg. [[Company:General Electric|General Electric]] produced a magnesium–air battery operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s. The magnesium–air battery is a primary cell, but has the potential to be 'refuelable' by replacement of the anode and electrolyte. Some primary magnesium batteries have been commercialized and find use as land-based backup systems as well as undersea power sources, using seawater as the electrolyte.<ref name="air1"/>  The Mark 44 torpedo uses a water-activated magnesium battery.

==Secondary cells==
===Overview===
Secondary magnesium ion batteries, involving the reversible insertion and removal of Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions in anodes and cathodes during charging and discharging, have been the subject of intensive research as a possible replacement or improvement on [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion battery]] technologies in certain applications: In comparison to metallic [[Chemistry:Lithium|lithium]] as an anode material, magnesium has a (theoretical) energy density per unit mass under half that of lithium (18.8 MJ/kg (~2205 mAh/g) vs. 42.3 MJ/kg), but a volumetric energy density around 50% higher (32.731 GJ/m<sup>3</sup> (3833 mAh/mL) vs. 22.569 GJ/m<sup>3</sup> (2046 mAh/mL).<ref>[https://www.mdpi.com/2313-0105/8/9/116/htm Rechargeable Magnesium Ion Batteries Based on Nanostructured Tungsten Disulfide Cathodes] Batteries 2022</ref> In comparison to metallic lithium anodes, magnesium anodes do not exhibit [[Engineering:Dendrite (metal)|dendrite]] formation, albeit only in certain nonaqueous solvents and at current densities below ca. 1 mA/cm<sup>2</sup>.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=p.1292, col.2}} Such dendrite-free Mg deposition allows for magnesium metal to be used without an [[Chemistry:Intercalation|intercalation]] compound at the anode,{{refn|group="note"|The requirement to intercalate the 'metallic' lithium greatly reduces the energy density of a lithium-ion battery compared to a metallic lithium battery i.e. 372 mAh/g vs. 3862 mAh/g (or 837 mAh/cm3 vs. 2061 mAh/cm3) for lithium/graphite (as LiC<sub>6</sub>) vs. Li metal.<ref name="Odysseyreview"/>{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=p.1292, col.1}} }} thus raising the theoretical maximum relative volumetric energy density to around 5 times that of a lithium graphite electrode.{{sfn|Orikasa et al|2014|loc = Introduction}} Additionally, modeling and cell analysis have indicated that magnesium-based batteries may have a cost advantage over lithium due to the abundance of magnesium on earth and the relative scarcity of lithium deposits.<ref name="Odysseyreview"/>{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=p.1292, col.2}}

Potential use of a Mg-based battery had been recognised as early as the 1990s based on V<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, TiS<sub>2</sub>, or Ti<sub>2</sub>S<sub>4</sub> cathode materials and magnesium metal anodes. However, observation of instabilities in the discharge state and uncertainties on the role of water in the electrolyte limited progress was reported.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Novak|first1=Petr|last2=Shklover|first2=V.|last3=Nesper|first3=R.|title=Magnesium Insertion in Vanadium Oxides: A Structural Study| journal=Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie|language=en| doi= 10.1524/zpch.1994.185.part_1.051|volume=185| year=1994| pages=51–68|s2cid=101615877|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A31610}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bruce|first1=Peter|last2=Krok|first2=F.|last3=Nowinski|first3=Jan|last4=Gibson|first4 =Vernon|last5=Tavvakoli|first5 =K|title=Chemical intercalation of magnesium into solid hosts| journal =Journal of Materials Chemistry |language=en| doi= 10.1039/JM9910100705|volume=1|issue=4| year=1991| pages=705–706}}</ref> In 2000, Israeli researchers reported dendrite-free Mg plating in AlCl<sub>3</sub>-ether electrolytes that show a fairy high (>2 V vs. Mg/Mg<sup>2+</sup>) anodic voltage stability limit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Aurbach|first1= Doron|last2=Lu|first2=Z.|last3= Schecter|first3=A.|last4=Gizbar|first4=H|last5=Turgeman|first5=R.|last6=Cohen|first6=Y.|last7=Moskovich|first7=M.|last8=Levi|first8=E.|title=Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries|journal =Nature|language=en| doi= 10.1038/35037553|pmid= 11048714|volume=407|issue= 6805|year=2000| pages=724–727|bibcode= 2000Natur.407..724A|s2cid= 4394214}}</ref> In that work, however, a low voltage (and somewhat expensive) posode material (chevrel-type Mo<sub>6</sub>S<sub>8</sub>) was used for Mg<sup>2+</sup> intercalation. Despite the decade-plus of research following that discovery, all attempts to develop a high-voltage Mg<sup>2+</sup> intercalation posode for the chloroaluminate (and related, less corrosive, see below) electrolytes have failed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bella, Federico|display-authors=0|title=An overview on anodes for magnesium batteries: challenges towards a promising storage solution for renewables|journal=Nanomaterials|volume= 11|number=3|date=2021|page= 810|doi=10.3390/nano11030810|pmid=33809914|pmc=8004101|doi-access=free}}</ref>
It is worth noting, that electrochemical Mg<sup>2+</sup> intercalation into many solid materials is well known, for example from aqueous electrolytes. The problem is to find posode materials that show intercalation from the same solutions, which display reversible Mg metal plating.

In contrast to the Mg-metal batteries, discussed in the previous paragraph, Mg-ion batteries do not use Mg-metal on the anode, but rather a solid material capable of intercalating Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions. Such batteries usually use an aqueous or other polar electrolyte.<ref>Bella, Federico, Stefano De Luca, Lucia Fagiolari, Daniele Versaci, Julia Amici, Carlotta Francia, and Silvia Bodoardo. 2021. "An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables" Nanomaterials 11, no. 3: 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030810</ref> It is not clear if there is a commercially viable/competitive market niche for Mg-ion batteries.

===Research===

====Anodes and electrolytes====
A key drawback to using a metallic magnesium anode is the tendency to form a passivating (non-conducting) surface layer when recharging, blocking further charging (in contrast to lithium's behaviour).<ref name="con1"/> The passivating layer was thought to originate from decomposition of the electrolyte during magnesium ion reduction. Common counter ions such as [[Chemistry:Perchlorate|perchlorate]] and [[Chemistry:Tetrafluoroborate|tetrafluoroborate]] were found to contribute to passivation, as were some common [[Chemistry:Polar aprotic solvent|polar aprotic solvent]]s such as [[Chemistry:Carbonate ester|carbonates]] and [[Chemistry:Nitrile|nitrile]]s.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§ 1.1}} The formation of passivating layers on magnesium motivates the use of magnesium intermetallics as anode materials, as their lower reactivity with commonly used electrolytes makes them less prone to the formation of passivating layers. This is particularly true for the intermetallic compound Mg<sub>3</sub>Bi<sub>2</sub>, which constitutes a type of magnesium insertion electrode, based on reversible insertion of magnesium metal into a host compound.<ref>[https://imechanica.org/files/PostPrint-Mg3Bi2%20public%20record.pdf Computational study of Mg3Bi2 anodes] Chemical Physics Letters 2022</ref> In addition to bismuth, [[Chemistry:Tin|tin]] and [[Chemistry:Antimony|antimony]] have also been used in compound insertion electrodes for magnesium ion batteries.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§1.2}} These have been shown to be able to prevent anode surface passivation, but suffered from anode destruction due to volumetric changes on insertion, as well as slow kinetics of insertion. Examples of insertion anode types researched include cycling between elemental Sn and Mg<sub>2</sub>Sn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=N|last2=Arthur|first2=Timothy S.|last3=Ling|first3=C.|last4=Matsui|first4 =M.|last5=Mizuno|first5 =F.|s2cid=13471874|title=A high energy-density tin anode for rechargeable magnesium-ion batteries| journal =Chemical Communications|language=en| doi= 10.1039/c2cc34673g|pmid=23168386| volume=49|issue=2| year=2013| pages=149–151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=D.-T. |last2=Song|first2=S.-W. |title=Magnesium Storage Performance and Surface Film Formation Behavior of Tin Anode Material| journal =ChemElectroChem|language=en| doi= 10.1002/celc.201600400| volume=3|year=2016|issue=11 | pages=1813–1819}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=D.-T. |last2=Song|first2=S.-W. |title=Magnesium stannide as a high-capacity anode material for magnesium-ion batteries| journal =Journal of Power Sources|language=en| doi= 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.054| volume=368|year=2017| pages=11–17}}</ref>

[[Biography:Victor Grignard|Grignard]] based [[Chemistry:Ether|ether]]eal electrolytes have been shown not to passivate;{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc= §2; Fig.1, p.1293}} Magnesium organoborates also showed electroplating without passivation. The compound Mg(BPh<sub>2</sub>Bu<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub> was used in the first demonstrated rechargeable magnesium battery, but its usefulness was limited by electrochemical oxidation (i.e. a low anodic limit of the voltage window).{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§2}} Other electrolytes researched include [[Chemistry:Borohydride|borohydride]]s, phenolates, [[Chemistry:Alkoxide|alkoxide]]s,  amido based complexes (e.g. based on hexamethyldisilazane), [[Chemistry:Carborane|carborane]] salts, fluorinated alkoxyborates, a Mg(BH<sub>4</sub>)(NH<sub>2</sub>) solid state electrolyte, and gel polymers containing Mg(AlCl<sub>2</sub>EtBu)<sub>2</sub> in tetraglyme/PVDF.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=Table 1, p.1298}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao-Karger|first1=Zhirong|last2=Bardaji|first2=Maria Elisa Gil|last3=Fuhr|first3=Olaf|last4=Fichtner|first4=Maximilian |s2cid=99093669|title=A new class of non-corrosive, highly efficient electrolytes for rechargeable magnesium batteries| journal =Journal of Materials Chemistry A|language=en| doi= 10.1039/C7TA02237A|issn=2050-7496| volume=5|issue=22| year=2017| pages=10815–10820}}</ref>

The current wave of interest in magnesium-metal batteries started in 2000, when an Israeli group reported reversible magnesium plating from mixed solutions of [[Chemistry:Magnesium chloride|magnesium chloride]] and [[Chemistry:Aluminium chloride|aluminium chloride]] in ethers, such as THF.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aurbach |first1=D. |last2=Lu |first2=Z. |last3=Schechter |first3=A. |last4=Gofer |first4=Y. |last5=Gizbar |first5=H. |last6=Turgeman |first6=R. |last7=Cohen |first7=Y. |last8=Moshkovich |first8=M. |last9=Levi |first9=E. |date=2000 |title=Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries |journal=Nature |volume=407 |issue=6805 |pages=724–727 |doi=10.1038/35037553|pmid=11048714 |bibcode=2000Natur.407..724A |s2cid=4394214 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§2 ''"In the early 2000, Aurbach et al. reported a breakthrough which constituted preparing an electrolyte with higher oxidative stability (2.5 V vs Mg) than the organoborates (1.9 V vs Mg for Mg(BPh2Bu2)2) by combining a Grignard reagent with aluminum-based Lewis acids "''. p.1296, col.2 }} The primary advantage of this electrolyte is a significantly larger positive limit of the voltage window (and, thus, a higher battery voltage) than of the previously reported Mg plating electrolytes. Since then, several other Mg salts, less corrosive than chloride, have been reported.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§2.1 }}

One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium's higher charge (+2) in solution, which tends to result in increased viscosity and reduced mobility in the electrolyte.<ref name="nat1"/> In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions/complexing agents – these often include singly charged species (e.g. MgCl<sup>+</sup> in the presence of chloride) – though dimers are often formed (e.g. Mg<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>).{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§2.1.5}} The movement of the magnesium ion into cathode host lattices is also (as of 2014) problematically slow.<ref name="toy2"/>

In 2018 a chloride free electrolyte together with a [[Chemistry:Quinone|quinone]] based polymer cathode demonstrated promising performance, with up to {{convert|243|Wh|abbr=on}} per kg [[Physics:Specific energy|specific energy]], up to 3.4&nbsp;kW/kg specific power, and up to 87% retention at 2,500 cycles. The absence of chloride in the electrolyte was claimed to improve ion kinetics and so reduce the amount of electrolyte used, increasing performance.<ref name="quin1"/>

A promising approach could be the combination of a Mg anode with a sulfur/carbon cathode.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao-Karger |first1=Zhirong |last2=Fichtner |first2=Maximilian |date=2019 |title=Beyond Intercalation Chemistry for Rechargeable Mg Batteries: A Short Review and Perspective |journal=Frontiers in Chemistry |language=en |volume=6 |page=656 |doi=10.3389/fchem.2018.00656 |pmid=30697538 |pmc=6341060 |issn=2296-2646 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Then, a non-nucleophilic electrolyte is necessary which does not convert the sulfur into sulfide just by its reducing properties. Such electrolytes have been developed on the basis of chlorine-containing <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Hee Soo |last2=Arthur |first2=Timothy S. |last3=Allred |first3=Gary D. |last4=Zajicek |first4=Jaroslav |last5=Newman |first5=John G. |last6=Rodnyansky |first6=Alexander E. |last7=Oliver |first7=Allen G. |last8=Boggess |first8=William C. |last9=Muldoon |first9=John |date=2011-08-09 |title=Structure and compatibility of a magnesium electrolyte with a sulphur cathode |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=427 |doi=10.1038/ncomms1435 |pmid=21829189 |pmc=3266610 |bibcode=2011NatCo...2..427K |issn=2041-1723 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao-Karger |first1=Zhirong |last2=Zhao |first2=Xiangyu |last3=Fuhr |first3=Olaf |last4=Fichtner |first4=Maximilian |date=2013-08-28 |title=Bisamide based non-nucleophilic electrolytes for rechargeable magnesium batteries |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2013/ra/c3ra43206h |journal=RSC Advances |language=en |volume=3 |issue=37 |pages=16330–16335 |doi=10.1039/C3RA43206H |bibcode=2013RSCAd...316330Z |issn=2046-2069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao‐Karger |first1=Zhirong |last2=Zhao |first2=Xiangyu |last3=Wang |first3=Di |last4=Diemant |first4=Thomas |last5=Behm |first5=R. Jürgen |last6=Fichtner |first6=Maximilian |date=2015 |title=Performance Improvement of Magnesium Sulfur Batteries with Modified Non-Nucleophilic Electrolytes |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=1401155 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201401155 |s2cid=96659406 |issn=1614-6840}}</ref> and chlorine-free complex salts.<ref name=":0" /> The electrolyte in <ref name=":0" /> is a Mg salt containing Mg cation and two boron-hexafluoroisoproplylate groups as anions. This system is easy to synthesize, it shows an ionic conductivity similar to that of Li ion cells, its electrochemical stability window is up to 4.5 V, it is stable in air and versatile towards different solvents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao-Karger |first1=Zhirong |last2=Liu |first2=Runyu |last3=Dai |first3=Wenxu |last4=Li |first4=Zhenyou |last5=Diemant |first5=Thomas |last6=Vinayan |first6=B. P. |last7=Bonatto Minella |first7=Christian |last8=Yu |first8=Xingwen |last9=Manthiram |first9=Arumugam |last10=Behm |first10=R. Jürgen |last11=Ruben |first11=Mario |date=2018-08-10 |title=Toward Highly Reversible Magnesium–Sulfur Batteries with Efficient and Practical Mg[B(hfip)4]2 Electrolyte |journal=ACS Energy Letters |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=2005–2013 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.8b01061 |s2cid=105109724}}</ref>

====Cathode materials====
For cathode materials a number of different compounds have been researched for suitability, including those used in magnesium primary batteries. New cathode materials investigated or proposed include [[Chemistry:Zirconium disulfide|zirconium disulfide]], [[Chemistry:Cobalt(II,III) oxide|cobalt(II,III) oxide]], [[Chemistry:Tungsten diselenide|tungsten diselenide]], [[Chemistry:Vanadium pentoxide|vanadium pentoxide]] and [[Chemistry:Vanadate|vanadate]] based cathodes. Cobalt based spinels showed inferior kinetics to magnesium insertion compared to their behaviour with lithium.<ref name="Odysseyreview"/>{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§3 }} In 2000 the chevrel phase form of Mo<sub>6</sub>S<sub>8</sub> was shown to have good suitability as a cathode, enduring 2000 cycles at 100% discharge with a 15% loss; drawbacks were poor low temperature performance (reduced Mg mobility, compensated by substituting selenium), as well as a low voltage, ca. 1.2 V, and low energy density (110 mAh/g).<ref name="Odysseyreview"/> A [[Chemistry:Molybdenum disulfide|molybdenum disulfide]] cathode showed improved voltage and energy density, 1.8 V and 170 mAh/g. Transition metal sulfides are considered promising candidates for magnesium ion battery cathodes.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§3.3 }} A hybrid magnesium cell using a mixed magnesium/sodium electrolyte with sodium insertion into a nanocrystalline iron(II) disulfide cathode was reported in 2015.<ref name="swiss1"/>

[[Chemistry:Manganese dioxide|Manganese dioxide]] based cathodes have shown good properties, but deteriorated on cycling due a conversion mechanism to form MgO.{{sfn|Mohtadi|Mizuno|2014|loc=§3.4 }}  Materials with the [[Chemistry:Spinel|spinel]] structure have been shown to be electrochemically active in a Mg-ion configuration using a carbon-based adsorption anode. High voltage Mg-ion materials, including MgMn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, MgV<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, and MgCr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> have been studied in detail to understand the Mg-ion diffusion pathways.<ref>{{citation |title=Probing Mg Migration in Spinel Oxides |first1=R.|last1=Bayliss |first2=Baris |last2=Key |first3=G.S. |last3=Gautam |first4=P. |last4=Canepa |first5=B.J. |last5=Kwon |first6=Saul |last6=Lapidus |first7=F. |last7=Dogan |first8=A.A. |last8=Adil |first9=A. |last9=Lipton |first10=P.J. |last10=Baker |first11=G. |last11=Ceder |first12=J. |last12=Vaughey |first13=J. |last13=Cabana |journal=Chemistry of Materials |year=2020 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=663–670 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b02450 |s2cid=214407047 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7t03t3w4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c01988 |title=High Voltage Mg-Ion Battery Cathode via a Solid Solution Cr–Mn Spinel Oxide |first1=Bob Jin |last1=Kwon |first2=Liang |last2=Yin |first3=Haesun |last3=Park |first4=Prakash |last4=Parajuli |first5=Khagesh |last5=Kumar |first6=Sanghyeon |last6=Kim |first7=Mengxi |last7=Yang |first8=Megan |last8=Murphy |first9=Peter |last9=Zapol |first10=Chen |last10=Liao |first11=Timothy T. |last11=Fister |first12=Robert F. |last12=Klie |first13=Jordi |last13=Cabana |first14=John T. |last14=Vaughey |first15=Saul H. |last15=Lapidus |first16=Baris |last16=Key |date=August 11, 2020 |journal=Chemistry of Materials |volume=32 |issue=15 |pages=6577–6587 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c01988 |osti=1756770 |s2cid=225363993}}</ref> Recent work has identified another framework structure type, termed ("post spinels", with the prototypical formula CaFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), as an active topic of research for magnesium-ion insertion cathodes.<ref>{{citation| title = Expanding the Ambient-Pressure Phase Space of CaFe2O4-Type Sodium Postspinel Host–Guest Compounds| first1 = J.|last1 = Hancock| first2= K.J. |last2= Griffith| first3 = Y.|last3 = Choi | first4 = C. | last4= Bartel|first5 = S.|last5 = Lapidus| first6 = J.|last6 = Vaughey | first7 = G. | last7= Ceder |author8-link=Kenneth Poeppelmeier | first8 = K.|last8 = Poeppelmeier| journal = ACS Org. Inorg. Au | year = 2022| volume = 8 |pages = 8–22 | doi = 10.1021/acsorginorgau.1c00019| s2cid = 239241672| doi-access = free| pmc = 9954301}}</ref>

In 2014 a rechargeable magnesium battery (conversion-type) was reported utilizing an [[Chemistry:Ion exchange|ion exchange]]d, [[Chemistry:Olivine|olivine]] type MgFeSiO<sub>4</sub> cathode with a bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide/triglyme electrolyte – the cell showed a capacity of 300 mAh/g with a voltage of 2.4 V.{{sfn|Orikasa et al|2014|}} MgMnSiO<sub>4</sub> has also been investigated as a potential Mg<sup>2+</sup> insertion cathode.<ref>{{citation| title = Electrochemical Intercalation of Mg2+ in Magnesium Manganese Silicate and Its Application as High-Energy Rechargeable Magnesium Battery Cathode| first1 = Yanna|last1 = NuLi| first2= Jun |last2= Yang| first3 = Jiulin|last3 = Wang | first4 = Yun | last4= Li| journal = J. Phys. Chem. C | year = 2009 | volume = 113 |number = 28|pages = 12594–12597 | doi = 10.1021/jp903188b }}</ref>

Cathodic materials other than non-inorganic metal oxide/sulfide types have also been investigated : in 2015 a cathode based on a polymer incorporating anthraquinone was reported;<ref>{{citation| title = Anthraquinone-Based Polymer as Cathode in Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries| first1=  Jan | last1 = Bitenc| first2=Klemen | last2 =Pirnat| first3=Tanja | last3 = Bančič| first4= Miran | last4 =Gaberšček| first5=Boštjan | last5 =Genorio| first6=Anna | last6 =Randon-Vitanova| first7=Robert | last7 =Dominko|doi= 10.1002/cssc.201500910 |pmid = 26610185|journal = ChemSusChem|volume = 8| issue = 24| date = 21 Dec 2015| pages = 4128–4132}}</ref> and other organic, and organo-polymer cathode materials capable of undergoing redox reactions have also been investigated, such as poly-2,2'-dithiodianiline.<ref>{{citation| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5LH-CQAAQBAJ| title = Rechargeable Batteries: Materials, Technologies and New Trends| editor-first = Zhengcheng |editor-last = Zhang | editor-first2= Sheng Shui | editor-last2 = Zhang|page = 629| doi=10.1007/978-3-319-15458-9 | year = 2015 | journal=Green Energy and Technology| isbn = 978-3-319-15457-2}}</ref> Quinone-based cathodes also formed the cathode a high energy density magnesium battery reported by researchers in 2019.<ref name="quin1"/>

In 2016 a porous carbon/iodine combination cathode was reported as a potential alternative to Mg<sup>2+</sup> insertion cathodes - the chemistry was reported as being potentially suitable for a rechargeable [[Chemistry:Flow battery|flow battery]].<ref>{{citation| title = High power rechargeable magnesium/iodine battery chemistry| first1 = Huajun|last1= Tian|first2= Tao|last2= Gao| first3= Xiaogang|last3= Li| first4= Xiwen|last4= Wang| first5 = Chao|last5= Luo|first6= Xiulin|last6= Fan|first7 = Chongyin |last7 = Yang | first8= Liumin |last8= Suo| first9= Zhaohui |last9 = Ma| first10= Weiqiang|last10 = Han |first11= Chunsheng|last11= Wang|journal = Nature Communications |volume = 8| number= 14083 (2017)| doi = 10.1038/ncomms14083| pmid = 28071666| pmc = 5234091|date = 10 January 2017 | page=14083| bibcode = 2017NatCo...814083T}}</ref>

===Commercialisation===

In 2009-2016, an MIT spin-off, Pellion Technology, after receiving several million dollars from ARPA-E, unsuccessfully attempted to develop batteries based on Mg and other multivalent metals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1717201/khosla-ventures-pulled-the-plug-on-pellion-technologies/#:~:text=The%20Massachusetts%2Dbased%20startup%20had,Khosla%20Ventures%2C%20pulled%20the%20plug|title = The death of a promising battery startup exposes harsh market realities| date=27 September 2019 }}</ref>

In October 2016, [[Company:Honda|Honda]] and Saitec (Saitama Industrial Technology Center) claimed to have a commercialisable Mg battery, based on a xerogel cathode of [[Chemistry:Vanadium pentoxide|vanadium pentoxide]]/[[Chemistry:Sulfur|sulfur]].<ref name="honda1"/><ref>{{citation| title = Electrode Performance of Sulfur-Doped Vanadium Pentoxide Gel Prepared by Microwave Irradiation for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries| first1 = Masashi |last1 = Inamoto | first2= Hideki|last2= Kurihara| first3 = Tatsuhiko |last3 = Yajima| volume = 4| issue =3| year = 2014| pages = 238–243| doi = 10.2174/1877946805666150311234806 | journal=Current Physical Chemistry}}</ref> A commercialisation date of 2018 was also claimed.<ref name="honda1">{{Cite web|url=https://chargedevs.com/newswire/honda-and-saitec-develop-magnesium-ion-battery-with-vanadium-oxide-cathode/|title=Charged EVs {{!}} Honda and Saitec develop magnesium ion battery with vanadium oxide cathode|website=chargedevs.com|date=25 October 2016|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref>{{update inline|date=November 2019}}

In February 2023, Tokyo University of Science (TUS), published an update on research related to using [https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/mediarelations/archive/20230206_7710.html a Vanadium composite cathode with Manganese].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Idemoto |first=Yasushi |last2=Ichiyama |first2=Mai |last3=Ishida |first3=Naoya |last4=Kitamura |first4=Naoto |date=January 2021 |title=Structural and electronic properties of spinel type Mg1+yCo2-x-yMnxO4 for cathode applications in magnesium rechargeable batteries |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228920 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=482 |pages=228920 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228920 |issn=0378-7753|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Idemoto |first=Yasushi |last2=Takamatsu |first2=Mina |last3=Ishibashi |first3=Chiaki |last4=Ishida |first4=Naoya |last5=Mandai |first5=Toshihiko |last6=Kitamura |first6=Naoto |date=2023-01-01 |title=Electrochemical properties and crystal and electronic structure changes during charge/discharge of spinel type cathode-materials Mg1.33V1.67-xMnxO4 for magnesium secondary batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S157266572201058X |journal=Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry |volume=928 |pages=117064 |doi=10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.117064 |issn=1572-6657}}</ref>

In 2021, a design called ''Wonderlight'' won a prize at the Cannes innovation festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wundermanthompson.com/work/waterlight|title=The Clean Energy Revolution Is Here|website=Wunderman Thompson}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Physics:List of battery types|List of battery types]]
* Magnesium-sulfur battery

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"|refs=

<!--<ref name="li">Li: Standard electrode potential −3.04; cationic charge +1; Faraday constant 96485.33289 C/mol; Energy per mole 293315.411986 J/mol; Atomic mass 6.94 g/mol; Energy density (mass) 42264.4685858 J/g; density 0.534 g/cm3; energy density (volumetric) 22569.2262248 J/cm3</ref> This advantage, however, decreases to ca. only 25% gain on the complete cell level (that includes cathode, electrolyte, separator and current collectors).

<ref name="mg">Mg: Standard electrode potential −2.372; cationic charge +2; Faraday constant 96485.33289 C/mol; Energy per mole 457726.41923 J/mol; Atomic mass 24.305 g/mol; Energy density (mass) 18832.6031364 J/g; density 1.738 g/cm3; energy density (volumetric) 32731.0642511 J/cm3</ref>-->

}}

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{{refend}}

[[Category:Rechargeable batteries]]
[[Category:Magnesium]]

{{Sourceattribution|Magnesium battery}}