View source for Company:Digital Equipment Corporation

{{Short description|U.S. computer manufacturer 1957–1998}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Digital Equipment Corporation
| logo = Digital Equipment Corporation 1993 logo.svg
| image = Assabet Woolen Mill - Maynard, Massachusetts - DSC04913.jpg
| image_caption = Assabet Woolen Mill, former headquarters of Digital Equipment Corporation from 1957 to 1992
| fate = Acquired by [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]], after the divestiture of major assets.
| successor = [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]]<br />(1998–2002)<br />[[Company:Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]]<br />(2002–2015)<br />[[Company:HP Inc.|HP Inc.]] and [[Company:Hewlett Packard Enterprise|Hewlett Packard Enterprise]]<br />(2015–present)
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1957}}
| founder = Ken Olsen<br />[[Biography:Harlan Anderson|Harlan Anderson]]
| defunct = {{End date and age|1998}}
| location = Maynard, Massachusetts, United States
| industry = [[Computer hardware]]<br />Computer software<br />Computer services
| key_people = Ken Olsen (founder, president, and chairman)<br />C. Gordon Bell (VP Engineering, 1972–83)
| products = [[Engineering:Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] minicomputers<br />[[VAX]] minicomputers<br />[[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] servers and workstations<br />[[DECnet]]<br />[[Engineering:VT100|VT100]] terminal<br />[[Local Area Transport|LAT]] and [[Terminal server]]<br />[[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]] microprocessors<br />[[Digital Linear Tape]]<br />[[Engineering:Flip-Chip module|Flip-Chip modules]]<br />[[Engineering:System Module|System Modules]]
| num_employees = over 140,000 (1987)
| parent = 
| subsid = 
}}
'''Digital Equipment Corporation''' ('''DEC''' {{IPAc-en|d|ɛ|k}}), using the [[Social:Trademark|trademark]] '''Digital''', was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s. The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and [[Biography:Harlan Anderson|Harlan Anderson]] in 1957. Olsen was president until he was forced to resign in 1992, after the company had gone into precipitous decline.

The company produced many different product lines over its history. It is best known for the work in the [[Minicomputer|minicomputer]] market starting in the mid-1960s. The company produced a series of machines known as the [[Engineering:Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] line, with the [[Engineering:PDP-8|PDP-8]] and [[Engineering:PDP-11|PDP-11]] being among the most successful minis in history. Their success was only surpassed by another DEC product, the late-1970s [[VAX]] "supermini" systems that were designed to replace the PDP-11. Although a number of competitors had successfully competed with Digital through the 1970s, the VAX cemented the company's place as a leading vendor in the computer space.

As [[Microcomputer|microcomputer]]s improved in the late 1980s, especially with the introduction of RISC-based [[Workstation|workstation]] machines, the performance niche of the minicomputer was rapidly eroded. By the early 1990s, the company was in turmoil as their mini sales collapsed and their attempts to address this by entering the high-end market with machines like the [[Engineering:VAX 9000|VAX 9000]] were market failures. After several attempts to enter the workstation and [[File server|file server]] market, the [[DEC Alpha]] product line began to make successful inroads in the mid-1990s, but was too late to save the company.

DEC was acquired in June 1998 by [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] in what was at that time the largest [[Social:Mergers and acquisitions|merger]] in the history of the computer industry. During the purchase, some parts of DEC were sold to other companies; the compiler business and the Hudson Fab were sold to [[Company:Intel|Intel]]. At the time, Compaq was focused on the [[Software:Enterprise software|enterprise market]] and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence. However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dell topples Compaq in U.S. market share|first=Stephen|last=Shankland|date=January 2, 2002|website=CNET|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/dell-topples-compaq-in-u-s-market-share}}</ref><ref>"What was left was a stalled engine with a very expensive head count." "Buying Digital played into Eckhard's fantasy, but it's turning out to be a beast that's consuming the company," said one former executive who left before the acquisition.{{cite web
|title=Compaq Message Board - Msg: 9675868 |url=http://www.siliconinvestor.com/readmsg.aspx?msgid=9675868}}</ref> and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. Compaq subsequently merged with [[Company:Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) in May 2002.

==History==
=== Origins (1944–1958) ===
[[File:Digital Equipment Corporation 1987 logo.svg|thumb|Original Digital Equipment Corporation logo designed by Elliot Hendrickson in 1957,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nedbatchelder.com/blog/200712/ancient_history_the_digital_logo.html|title=Ancient history: the Digital logo|last=Batchelder|first=Ned|date=December 16, 2007}}</ref> used from 1957 to 1993]]
[[File:Digital Equipment Corporation stacked logo.svg|thumb|upright=0.25|Alternate logo, briefly used concurrently]]
[[File:Maynard MA Clock Tower Place.jpg|thumb|upright|DEC was headquartered at a former wool mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, from 1957 until 1992]]
Ken Olsen and [[Biography:Harlan Anderson|Harlan Anderson]] were two engineers who had been working at [[Organization:MIT Lincoln Laboratory|MIT Lincoln Laboratory]]<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 8, 2011
|title=Ken Olsen, Founder of DEC, Dies at 84
|first=Glenn|last=Rifkin
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/08/technology/business-computing/08olsen.html
|quote=Ken Olsen ... M.I.T.'s new Lincoln Laboratory ..  recruited ..colleague, Harlan Anderson, ...}}</ref> on the lab's various computer projects. The Lab is best known for their work on what would today be known as "interactivity", and their machines were among the first where operators had direct control over programs running in real-time. These had started in 1944 with the famed Whirlwind, which was originally developed to make a [[Flight simulator|flight simulator]] for the US Navy, although this was never completed.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.mitre.org/news/releases/09/whirlwind_07_01_2009.html|title=MITRE's Project Whirlwind Computer Collection Transferred to MIT|publisher=MITRE|date=July 1, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620113119/http://www.mitre.org/news/releases/09/whirlwind_07_01_2009.html|archive-date=June 20, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Instead, this effort evolved into the SAGE system for the {{wipe|US Air Force}}, which used large screens and [[Engineering:Light gun|light gun]]s to allow operators to interact with [[Engineering:Radar|radar]] data stored in the computer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitre.org/about/sage.html|title=Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513053849/http://www.mitre.org/about/sage.html|archive-date=May 13, 2009|url-status=dead|website=MITRE|date=January 25, 2005}}</ref>

When the Air Force project wound down, the Lab turned their attention to an effort to build a version of the Whirlwind using [[Engineering:Transistor|transistor]]s in place of [[Physics:Vacuum tube|vacuum tube]]s. In order to test their new circuitry, they first built a small [[18-bit computing|18-bit]] machine known as [[Engineering:TX-0|TX-0]], which first ran in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/4132/1/RLE-TR-627-42827671.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629111143/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/4132/1/RLE-TR-627-42827671.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-29 |url-status=live|title=TX-0 Computer History|first=John A.|last=McKenzie|date=October 1, 1974}}</ref> When the TX-0 successfully proved the basic concepts, attention turned to a much larger system, the 36-bit [[Engineering:TX-2|TX-2]] with a then-enormous 64 kWords of [[Core memory|core memory]]. Core was so expensive that parts of TX-0's memory were stripped for the TX-2, and what remained of the TX-0 was then given to MIT on permanent loan.<ref name="cm">{{cite web|url=http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/TheCompMusRep/TCMR-V08.html|title=Highlights from ''The Computer Museum Report'' Volume 8 Spring 1984|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615180503/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/TheCompMusRep/TCMR-V08.html|archive-date=June 15, 2006|url-status=dead|publisher=The Computer Museum, Boston, MA|via=ed-thelen.org|access-date=February 19, 2010}}</ref>

At MIT, Ken Olsen and [[Biography:Harlan Anderson|Harlan Anderson]] noticed something odd: students would line up for hours to get a turn to use the stripped-down TX-0, while largely ignoring a faster [[Company:IBM|IBM]] machine that was also available. The two decided that the draw of [[Interactive computing|interactive computing]] was so strong that they felt there was a market for a small machine dedicated to this role, essentially a commercialized TX-0. They could sell this to users where the graphical output or real-time operation would be more important than outright performance. Additionally, as the machine would cost much less than the larger systems then available, it would also be able to serve users that needed a lower-cost solution dedicated to a specific task, where a larger 36-bit machine would not be needed.<ref name=companyhistory/>{{dead link|date=February 2020}}{{better source needed|date=February 2020}}

In 1957, when the pair and Ken's brother Stan sought capital, they found that the American business community was hostile to investing in computer companies. Many smaller computer companies had come and gone in the 1950s, wiped out when new technical developments rendered their platforms obsolete, and even large companies like [[Company:RCA|RCA]] and [[Company:General Electric|General Electric]] were failing to make a profit in the market. The only serious expression of interest came from Georges Doriot and his American Research and Development Corporation (AR&D). Worried that a new computer company would find it difficult to arrange further financing, Doriot suggested the fledgling company change its business plan to focus less on computers, and even change their name from "Digital Computer Corporation".<ref name=companyhistory/>{{dead link|date=February 2020}}{{better source needed|date=February 2020}}

The pair returned with an updated [[Social:Business plan|business plan]] that outlined two phases for the company's development. They would start by selling [[Engineering:Computer module|computer module]]s as stand-alone devices that could be purchased separately and wired together to produce a number of different digital systems for lab use. Then, if these "digital modules" were able to build a self-sustaining business, the company would be free to use them to develop a complete computer in their Phase II.<ref name="proposal">{{cite web|url=http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/dec/pdp-1/DEC.pdp_1.1957.102664472.pdf|title=A Proposal to American Research and Development Corporation 27 May 1957|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416092909/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/dec/pdp-1/DEC.pdp_1.1957.102664472.pdf|archive-date=April 16, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The newly christened "Digital Equipment Corporation" received $70,000 from AR&D for a 70% share of the company,<ref name=companyhistory/>{{dead link|date=February 2020}}{{better source needed|date=February 2020}} and began operations in a Civil War-era textile mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, where plenty of inexpensive manufacturing space was available.

=== Digital modules (1958) ===
[[File:Dec SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS 1103.jpg|thumb|System Building Blocks (System Module) 1103 hex-inverter card (both sides)]]
[[File:PDP-1 System Building Block No. 4106.jpg|thumb|PDP-1 System Building Block #4106, circa 1963 - note that one transistor (yellow) has been replaced]]

In early 1958, DEC shipped its first products, the "Digital Laboratory Module" line. The Modules consisted of a number of individual electronic components and [[Engineering:Bipolar junction transistor#Germanium transistors|germanium transistors]] mounted to a circuit board, the actual circuits being based on those from the TX-2.<ref name="modules">{{cite book|first1=Richard|last1=Best|first2=Russell|last2=Doane|first3=John|last3=McNamara|chapter-url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/computer_engineering/00000125.htm|chapter=Digital Modules, The Basis for Computers|url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/_Books/Bell-ComputerEngineering.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312072729/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/_Books/Bell-ComputerEngineering.pdf |archive-date=2010-03-12 |url-status=live|title=Computer Engineering, A DEC view of hardware systems design|publisher=Digital Press|date=1978}}</ref>

The Laboratory Modules were packaged in an extruded aluminum housing,<ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102633142 "DEC Laboratory Module&nbsp;– FLIP-FLOP 201"], Computer History Museum</ref> intended to sit on an engineer's workbench, although a [[19-inch rack|rack-mount]] bay was sold that held nine laboratory modules.<ref name="BuildingBlock1960">{{cite book|url=http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/DECbuildingBlockLogic2ndEd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702192719/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/DECbuildingBlockLogic2ndEd.pdf |archive-date=2013-07-02 |url-status=live|title=DEC Building Block Logic|edition=Second|publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation|date=November 1960}}</ref> They were then connected together using banana plug patch cords inserted at the front of the modules. Three versions were offered, running at 5&nbsp;MHz (1957), 500&nbsp;kHz (1959), or 10&nbsp;MHz (1960).<ref name="modules" /> The Modules proved to be in high demand by other computer companies, who used them to build equipment to test their own systems. Despite the recession of the late 1950s, the company sold $94,000 worth of these modules during 1958 alone ({{Inflation|US|94000|1958|r=-2|fmt=eq}}), turning a profit at the end of its first year.<ref name=companyhistory/>{{dead link|date=February 2020}}{{better source needed|date=February 2020}}

The original Laboratory Modules were soon supplemented with the "Digital [[Engineering:System Module|System Module]]" line, which were identical internally but packaged differently. The Systems Modules were designed with all of the connections at the back of the module using 22-pin [[Company:Amphenol|Amphenol]] connectors, and were attached to each other by plugging them into a backplane that could be mounted in a [[19-inch rack|19-inch rack]]. The backplanes allowed 25 modules in a single 5-1/4&nbsp;inch section of rack, and allowed the high densities needed to build a computer.<ref name=modules/>

The original laboratory and system module lines were offered in 500 kilocycle, 5 megacycle and 10 megacycle versions.  In all cases, the supply voltages were -15 and +10 volts, with logic levels of -3 volts (passive pull-down) and 0 volts (active pull-up).<ref name="BuildingBlock1960" />

DEC used the System Modules to build their "Memory Test" machine for testing core memory systems, selling about 50 of these pre-packaged units over the next eight years.<ref name="present3">''Present'' 1978, pg. 3</ref>  The [[Engineering:PDP-1|PDP-1]] and [[Engineering:LINC|LINC]] computers were also built using System Modules (see below).

Modules were part of DEC's product line into the 1970s, although they went through several evolutions during this time as technology changed. The same circuits were then packaged as the first "R" (red) series "[[Engineering:Flip Chip (PDP module)|Flip-Chip]]" modules. Later, other Flip-Chip module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities.<ref name=present10/> DEC published extensive data about the modules in free catalogs that became very popular.

=== PDP-1 family (1960) ===
{{Main|Engineering:PDP-1}}
[[File:Steve Russell and PDP-1 - Vintage Computer Fair 2006.jpg|thumb|right|A PDP-1 system, with Steve Russell, developer of Spacewar! at the console. This is a canonical example of the PDP-1, with the console typewriter on the left, CPU and main control panel in the center, the Type 30 display on the right.]]

With the company established and a successful product on the market, DEC turned its attention to the computer market once again as part of its planned "Phase II".<ref name=proposal/> In August 1959, Ben Gurley started design of the company's first computer, the [[Engineering:PDP-1|PDP-1]]. In keeping with Doriot's instructions, the name was an initialism for "Programmable Data Processor", leaving off the term "computer". As Gurley put it, "We aren't building computers, we're building 'Programmable Data Processors'." The prototype was first shown publicly at the Joint Computer Conference in Boston in December 1959.<ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102634161 Eastern Joint Computer Conference and Exhibition], official program of 1959 meeting in Boston</ref> The first PDP-1 was delivered to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960,<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=1960 Timeline |url=https://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/Digital/timeline/1960.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> and formally accepted the next April.<ref>''Computers and Automation'', April 1961, pg. 8B</ref> The PDP-1 sold in basic form for $120,000 ({{Inflation|US|900000 |1960|r=0|fmt=eq}}).<ref>[http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm "Bureau of Labor Statistics Inflation Calculator, 1961–2011"]</ref> By the time production ended in 1969, 53 PDP-1s had been delivered.<ref name=present3/><ref>"History of Computing", Lexikon Services, {{ISBN|0-944601-78-2}}</ref>

The PDP-1 was supplied standard with 4096 words of [[Core memory|core memory]], [[18-bit computing|18-bit]]s per word, and ran at a basic speed of 100,000 operations per second. It was constructed using many System Building Blocks that were packaged into several [[19-inch rack|19-inch rack]]s. The racks were themselves packaged into a single large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches and lights mounted to lie at table-top height at one end of the mainframe. Above the control panel was the system's standard [[Input output|input/output]] solution, a [[Punched tape|punched tape]] reader and writer. Most systems were purchased with two peripherals, the Type 30 [[Vector graphics|vector graphics]] display, and a Soroban Engineering modified IBM Model B Electric typewriter that was used as a [[Engineering:Printer (computing)|printer]]. The Soroban system was notoriously unreliable, and often replaced with a modified [[Engineering:Friden Flexowriter|Friden Flexowriter]], which also contained its own punched tape system. A variety of more-expensive add-ons followed, including [[Physics:Magnetic tape|magnetic tape]] systems, [[Engineering:Punched card|punched card]] readers and punches, and faster punched tape and printer systems.

When DEC introduced the PDP-1, they also mentioned larger machines at 24, 30 and 36 bits, based on the same design.<ref>''Datamation'', Volume 5 Number 6 (November/December), pg. 24</ref> During construction of the prototype PDP-1, some design work was carried out on a 24-bit PDP-2, and the 36-bit PDP-3. Although the PDP-2 never proceeded beyond the initial design, the PDP-3 found some interest and was designed in full.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29461|title=Preliminary Specifications: Programmed Data Processor Model Three (PDP-3)|publisher=DEC|date=October 1960}}</ref> Only one PDP-3 appears to have been built, in 1960, by the CIA's Scientific Engineering Institute (SEI) in Waltham, Massachusetts. According to the limited information available, they used it to process radar cross section data for the [[Engineering:Lockheed A-12|Lockheed A-12]] reconnaissance aircraft. [[Biography:Gordon Bell|Gordon Bell]] remembered that it was being used in Oregon some time later, but could not recall who was using it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.decconnection.org/announcements.htm|title=Announcements from The DEC Connection|at=Anyone seen a PDP-3 lately?|website=The DEC Connection|date=January 14, 2007|access-date=March 8, 2010|archive-date=February 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225233751/http://www.decconnection.org/announcements.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In November 1962, DEC introduced the $65,000 [[Engineering:PDP-4|PDP-4]]. The PDP-4 was similar to the PDP-1 and used a similar instruction set, but used slower memory and different packaging to lower the price. Like the PDP-1, about 54 PDP-4s were eventually sold, most to a customer base similar to the original PDP-1.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=PDP-4 |url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/timeline/1962-1.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref>

In 1964, DEC introduced its new Flip Chip module design, and used it to re-implement the PDP-4 as the [[Engineering:PDP-7|PDP-7]]. The PDP-7 was introduced in December 1964, and about 120 were eventually produced.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=PDP-7 |url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/timeline/1964-3.htm |access-date=January 9, 2014 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> An upgrade to the Flip Chip led to the R series, which in turn led to the PDP-7A in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=PDP-7A |url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/timeline/1965-1.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> The PDP-7 is most famous as the machine for which the [[Software:Unix|Unix]] operating system was originally written.<ref>{{cite web|first=Eric Steven|last=Raymond|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/taoup/html/ch02s01.html|title=Origins and History of Unix, 1969–1995|date=September 19, 2003}}</ref> Unix ran only on DEC systems until the Interdata 8/32.<ref name="fiedler198310">{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-10/1983_10_BYTE_08-10_UNIX#page/n133/mode/2up | title=The Unix Tutorial / Part 3: Unix in the Microcomputer Marketplace | magazine=Byte |volume=8 |issue=10 | date=October 1983 | access-date=January 30, 2015 | last=Fiedler |first=Ryan | page=148}}</ref>

A more dramatic upgrade to the PDP-1 series was introduced in August 1966, the [[Engineering:PDP-9|PDP-9]].<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=PDP-9 |url=http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/timeline/1966-1.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> The PDP-9 was instruction-compatible with the PDP-4 and −7, but ran about twice as fast as the −7 and was intended to be used in larger deployments. At only $19,900 in 1968,<ref>DEC Advertisement, ''Chemical and Engineering News'', Volume 46 (1968), pg. 85</ref> the PDP-9 was a big seller, eventually selling 445 machines, more than all of the earlier models combined.<ref name="miller452">Miller 1997, pg. 452</ref>

Even while the PDP-9 was being introduced, its replacement was being designed, and was introduced as 1969's [[Engineering:PDP-15|PDP-15]], which re-implemented the PDP-9 using integrated circuits in place of modules. Much faster than the PDP-9 even in basic form, the PDP-15 also included a floating point unit and a separate [[Input output|input/output]] processor for further performance gains. Over 400 PDP-15's were ordered in the first eight months of production, and production eventually amounted to 790 examples in 12 basic models.<ref name=miller452/> However, by this time other machines in DEC's lineup could fill the same niche at even lower price points, and the PDP-15 would be the last of the 18-bit series.

=== PDP-8 family (1962) ===
{{Main|Engineering:PDP-8}}
[[File:PDP-8.jpg|thumb|upright|A PDP-8 on display at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. This example is from the first generation of PDP-8s, built with discrete transistors and later known as the ''Straight 8''.]]

In 1962, Lincoln Laboratory used a selection of System Building Blocks to implement a small 12-bit machine, and attached it to a variety of analog-to-digital (A to D) [[Input output|input/output]] (I/O) devices that made it easy to interface with various analog lab equipment. The [[Engineering:LINC|LINC]] proved to attract intense interest in the scientific community, and has since been referred to as the first real [[Minicomputer|minicomputer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=786|title=The Linc, Perhaps the First Mini-Computer|first=Jeremy|last=Norman|website=HistoryofInformation.com}}</ref> a machine that was small and inexpensive enough to be dedicated to a single task even in a small lab.

Seeing the success of the LINC, in 1963 DEC took the basic logic design but stripped away the extensive A to D systems to produce the [[Engineering:PDP-5|PDP-5]]. The new machine, the first outside the PDP-1 mould, was introduced at WESTCON on August 11, 1963. A 1964 ad expressed the main advantage of the PDP-5, "Now you can own the PDP-5 computer for what a core memory alone used to cost: $27,000".<ref name="faqpdp8" /> 116 PDP-5s were produced until the lines were shut down in early 1967. Like the PDP-1 before it, the PDP-5 inspired a series of newer models based on the same basic design that would go on to be more famous than its parent.

On March 22, 1965, DEC introduced the [[Engineering:PDP-8|PDP-8]], which replaced the PDP-5's modules with the new R-series modules using Flip Chips. The machine was re-packaged into a small tabletop case, which remains distinctive for its use of smoked plastic over the CPU which allowed one to easily see the logic modules plugged into the wire-wrapped backplane of the CPU. Sold standard with 4 kWords of 12-bit core memory and a [[Engineering:Teletype Model 33|Teletype Model 33]] ASR for basic input/output, the machine listed for only $18,000. The PDP-8 is referred to as the first ''real'' [[Minicomputer|minicomputer]] because of its sub-$25,000 price.<ref>[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/computing_and_data_processing/1982-960.aspx "DEC PDP-8 minicomputer, 1965"], ''The Science Museum''</ref><ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/internet_history/ "Internet History:1965"], Computer History Museum</ref> Sales were, unsurprisingly, very strong, and helped by the fact that several competitors had just entered the market with machines aimed directly at the PDP-5's market space, which the PDP-8 trounced. This gave the company two years of unrestricted leadership,<ref>''Present'' 1978, pg. 7</ref> and eventually 1450 "straight eight" machines were produced before it was replaced by newer implementations of the same basic design.<ref name=faqpdp8>[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/pdp-5.html "DEC FAQ: What is a PDP-8?"]{{better source needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

DEC hit an even lower price-point with the PDP-8/S, the S for "serial". As the name implies the /S used a serial arithmetic unit, which was much slower but reduced costs so much that the system sold for under $10,000.<ref>''Present'' 1978, pg. 8</ref> DEC then used the new PDP-8 design as the basis for a new LINC, the two-processor [[Engineering:LINC-8|LINC-8]]. The LINC-8 used one PDP-8 CPU and a separate LINC CPU, and included instructions to switch from one to the other. This allowed customers to run their existing LINC programs, or "upgrade" to the PDP-8, all in software. Although not a huge seller, 142 LINC-8s were sold starting at $38,500.<ref name=faqpdp8/> Like the original LINC to PDP-5 evolution, the LINC-8 was then modified into the single-processor [[Engineering:PDP-12|PDP-12]], adding another 1000 machines to the 12-bit family.<ref name=faqpdp8/><ref name="miller456">Miller 1997, pg. 456</ref> Newer circuitry designs led to the PDP-8/I and PDP-8/L in 1968.<ref name="present10">''Present'' 1978, pg. 10</ref> In 1975, one year after an agreement between DEC and Intersil, the [[Engineering:Intersil 6100|Intersil 6100]] chip was launched, effectively a PDP-8 on a chip. This was a way to allow PDP-8 software to be run even after the official end-of-life announcement for the DEC PDP-8 product line.

=== PDP-6 and PDP-10 families (1963 and 1968) ===
{{Main|Engineering:PDP-6|Engineering:PDP-10}}
[[File:KA10 mod end.jpg|thumb|right|A "B" (blue) series Flip Chip module containing nine transistors, 1971]]

While the PDP-5 introduced a lower-cost line, 1963's [[Engineering:PDP-6|PDP-6]] was intended to take DEC into the [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]] market with a [[36-bit computing|36-bit]] machine. However, the PDP-6 proved to be a "hard sell" with customers, as it offered few obvious advantages over similar machines from the better-established vendors like [[Company:IBM|IBM]] or [[Company:Honeywell|Honeywell]], in spite of its low cost around $300,000. Only 23 were sold,<ref name="miller457">Miller 1997, pg. 457</ref> or 26 depending on the source,<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=PDP-6 |url=http://research.microsoft.com/~gbell/Digital/timeline/1964-1.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> and unlike other models the low sales meant the PDP-6 was not improved with successor versions. However, the PDP-6 is historically important as the platform that introduced "Monitor", an early [[Time-sharing|time-sharing]] operating system that would evolve into the widely used [[Software:TOPS-10|TOPS-10]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp6/PDP-6_TimsharingBroch.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040827060926/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/pdp6/PDP-6_TimsharingBroch.pdf |archive-date=2004-08-27 |url-status=live|title=PDP-6 Timesharing Software|id=DEC Publication F-61B}}</ref>

When newer Flip Chip packaging allowed the PDP-6 to be re-implemented at a much lower cost, DEC took the opportunity to refine their 36-bit design, introducing the [[Engineering:PDP-10|PDP-10]] in 1968. The PDP-10 was as much a success as the PDP-6 was a commercial failure; about 700 mainframe PDP-10s were sold before production ended in 1984.<ref name=miller457/> The PDP-10 was widely used in university settings, and thus was the basis of many advances in computing and [[Operating system|operating system]] design during the 1970s. DEC later re-branded all of the models in the 36-bit series as the "DECsystem-10", and PDP-10s are generally referred to by the model of their CPU, starting with the "KA10", soon upgraded to the "KI10" (I:Integrated circuit); then to "KL10" (L:Large-scale integration [[Emitter-coupled logic|ECL logic]]); also the "KS10" (S: Small form factor). Unified product line upgrades produced the compatible [[Engineering:DECSYSTEM-20|DECSYSTEM-20]], along with a [[Software:TOPS-20|TOPS-20]] operating system that included [[Virtual memory|virtual memory]] support.

The Jupiter Project was supposed to continue the mainframe product line into the future by using [[Gate array|gate array]]s with an innovative Air Mover Cooling System, coupled with a built-in floating point processing engine called "FBOX". The design was intended for a top tier scientific computing niche, yet the critical performance measurement was based upon COBOL compilation which did not fully utilize the primary design features of Jupiter technology.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} When the Jupiter Project was cancelled in 1983, some of the engineers adapted aspects of the 36-bit design into a forthcoming 32-bit design, releasing the high-end VAX8600 in 1985.

=== PDP-11 (1970) ===
{{Main|Engineering:PDP-11}}
[[File:Digital PDP11-IMG 1498 cropped.jpg|thumb|PDP-11/20, the first model of PDP-11 on display at [[Organization:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] ]]

DEC's successful entry into the computer market took place during a fundamental shift in the underlying organization of the machines from [[Word (computer architecture)|word]] lengths based on 6-bit characters to those based on 8-bit words needed to support [[ASCII]].{{efn|Although ASCII is a 7-bit standard, units-of-8-bits are typically used for machines that support it.}} DEC began studies of such a machine, the PDP-X, but Ken Olsen did not support it as he could not see how it offered anything their existing 12-bit or 18-bit machines didn't.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://simh.trailing-edge.com/docs/pdpx.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210092501/http://simh.trailing-edge.com/docs/pdpx.pdf |archive-date=2004-12-10 |url-status=live |title=What Was The PDP-X? |first=Bob |last=Supnik |date=January 10, 2004}}</ref> This led the leaders of the PDP-X project to leave DEC and start [[Company:Data General|Data General]], whose 16-bit [[Engineering:Data General Nova|Data General Nova]] was released in 1969 and was a huge success.<ref>{{cite interview |interviewer=Gardner Hendrie |first=Edson |last=de Castro |title=Oral History of Edson (Ed) D. de Castro |date=November 22, 2002 |url=http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2012/07/102702207-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227091345/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2012/07/102702207-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-27 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The success of the Nova finally prompted DEC to take the switch seriously, and they began a crash program to introduce a 16-bit machine of their own. The new system was designed primarily by Harold McFarland, [[Biography:Gordon Bell|Gordon Bell]], Roger Cady, and others.<ref name="birth">{{cite web|first=Larry|last=McGowan|url=http://hampage.hu/pdp-11/birth.html|title=How the PDP-11 Was Born, according to Larry McGowan|date=August 19, 1998}}</ref> The project was able to leap forward in design with the arrival of Harold McFarland, who had been researching 16-bit designs at [[Organization:Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon University]]. One of his simpler designs became the basis for the new design, although when they first viewed the proposal, management was not impressed and almost cancelled it.<ref name=birth/>

The result was the [[Engineering:PDP-11|PDP-11]], released in 1970. It differed from earlier designs considerably. In particular, the new design did not include many of the [[Addressing mode|addressing mode]]s that were intended to make programs smaller in memory, a technique that was widely used on other DEC machines and CISC designs in general. This would mean the machine would spend more time accessing memory, which would slow it down. However, the machine also extended the idea of multiple "General Purpose Registers" (GPRs), which gave the programmer flexibility to use these high-speed memory caches as they needed, potentially addressing the performance issues.

[[File:PDP-11-34 unibus slots.jpg|thumb|PDP-11/34 top view, showing the Unibus slots with the CPU, DK drive controller and other options]]
A major advance in the PDP-11 design was DEC's [[Engineering:Unibus|Unibus]], which supported all peripherals through memory mapping. This allowed a new device to be added easily, generally only requiring plugging a hardware interface board into the backplane and possibly adding a jumper to the [[Engineering:Wire wrap|wire wrap]]ped backplane, and then installing software that read and wrote to the mapped memory to control it. The relative ease of interfacing spawned a huge market of third party add-ons for the PDP-11, which made the machine even more useful.

The combination of architectural innovations proved superior to competitors and the "11" architecture was soon the industry leader, propelling DEC back to a strong market position. The design was later expanded to allow [[Paging|paged physical memory]] and [[Memory protection|memory protection]] features, useful for [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] and [[Time-sharing|time-sharing]]. Some models supported separate instruction and data spaces for an effective virtual address size of 128 kB within a physical address size of up to 4 MB. Smaller PDP-11s, implemented as single-chip CPUs, continued to be produced until 1996, by which time over 600,000 had been sold.<ref name=miller452/>

[[File:RT-11 help.jpg|thumb|The RT-11 interactive help screen displayed on a VT100 display terminal]]

The PDP-11 supported several operating systems, including [[Organization:Bell Labs|Bell Labs]]' new [[Software:Unix|Unix]] operating system as well as DEC's DOS-11, [[Software:RSX-11|RSX-11]], IAS, [[Software:RT-11|RT-11]], DSM-11, and RSTS/E. Many early PDP-11 applications were developed using standalone paper-tape utilities. DOS-11 was the PDP-11's first disk operating system, but was soon supplanted by more capable systems. RSX provided a general-purpose [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] environment and supported a wide variety of [[Programming language|programming language]]s. IAS was a [[Time-sharing|time-sharing]] version of RSX-11D. Both RSTS and Unix were time-sharing systems available to educational institutions at little or no cost, and these PDP-11 systems were destined to be the "sandbox" for a rising generation of engineers and computer scientists. Large numbers of PDP-11/70s were deployed in telecommunications and industrial control applications. AT&T Corporation became DEC's largest customer.

RT-11 provided a practical real-time operating system in minimal memory, allowing the PDP-11 to continue DEC's critical role as a computer supplier for [[Embedded system|embedded system]]s. Historically, RT-11 also served as the inspiration for many microcomputer OS's, as these were generally being written by programmers who cut their teeth on one of the many PDP-11 models. For example, CP/M used a command syntax similar to RT-11's, and even retained the awkward PIP program used to copy data from one computer device to another. As another historical footnote, DEC's use of "/" for "switches" (command-line options) would lead to the adoption of "\" for pathnames in [[Software:MS-DOS|MS-DOS]] and [[Software:Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] as opposed to "/" in [[Software:Unix|Unix]].<ref name="afu-faq">{{cite web|url=http://www.netwhatever.com/faq/inicio.html#queIII15|title=III.15 - Why does MS-DOS use '\' as the path separator, while Unix uses '/'?|work=alt.folklore.computers List of Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref>

The evolution of the PDP-11 followed earlier systems, eventually including a single-user deskside personal computer form, the MicroPDP-11. In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold, and a wide variety of third-party peripheral vendors had also entered the computer product ecosystem. It was even sold in kit form as the [[Engineering:Heathkit H11|Heathkit H11]], although it proved too expensive for [[Company:Heathkit|Heathkit]]'s traditional hobbyist market.

=== VAX (1977) ===
[[File:LCM - DEC VAX 11-780-5 - 01.jpg|thumb|DEC VAX 11/780-5 at Living Computers: Museum + Labs ]]
{{Main|VAX}}

The introduction of [[Engineering:Semiconductor memory|semiconductor memory]] in the early 1970s, and especially dynamic RAM shortly thereafter, led to dramatic reductions in the price of memory as the effects of Moore's Law were felt. Within years, it was common to equip a machine with all the memory it could address, typically 64&nbsp;kB on 16-bit machines. This led vendors to introduce new designs with the ability to address more memory, often by extending the address format to 18 or 24-bits in machines were otherwise similar to their earlier 16-bit designs.{{efn|An example is the DG Nova 840, which used a 17-bit format, up from the previous 15-bits.}}

In contrast, DEC decided to make a more radical departure. In 1976, they began the design of a machine whose entire architecture was expanded from the 16-bit PDP-11 to a new 32-bit basis. This would allow the addressing of very large memories, which were to be controlled by a new [[Virtual memory|virtual memory]] system, and would also improve performance by processing twice as much data at a time. The system would, however, maintain compatibility with the PDP-11, by operating in a second mode that sent its 16-bit words into the 32-bit internals, while mapping the PDP-11's 16-bit memory space into the larger virtual 32-bit space.<ref name=VAX/>

The result was the [[VAX]] architecture, where VAX stands for Virtual Address eXtension (from 16 to 32 bits). The first computer to use a VAX CPU was the VAX-11/780, announced in October 1977, which DEC referred to as a ''[[Superminicomputer|superminicomputer]]''. Although it was not the first 32-bit minicomputer, the VAX-11/780's combination of features, price, and marketing almost immediately propelled it to a leadership position in the market after it was released in 1978. VAX systems were so successful that in 1983, DEC canceled its [[Engineering:Jupiter project|Jupiter project]], which had been intended to build a successor to the PDP-10 mainframe, and instead focused on promoting the VAX as the single computer architecture for the company.<ref name=VAX>{{cite book| title = Electronic Business| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=W7skAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76| year = 1984| publisher = Cahners| page = 76 }}</ref>

Supporting the VAX's success was the [[Engineering:VT52|VT52]], one of the most successful [[Computer terminal|smart terminals]]. Building on earlier less successful models, the [[Engineering:VT05|VT05]] and VT50, the VT52 was the first terminal that did everything one might want in a single inexpensive chassis. The VT52 was followed by the even more successful [[Engineering:VT100|VT100]] and its follow-ons, making DEC one of the largest terminal vendors in the industry. This was supported by a line of inexpensive computer printers, the [[Engineering:DECwriter|DECwriter]] line. With the VT and DECwriter series, DEC could now offer a complete top-to-bottom system from computer to all peripherals, which formerly required collecting the required devices from different suppliers.

The VAX processor architecture and family of systems evolved and expanded through several generations during the 1980s, culminating in the [[Engineering:NVAX|NVAX]] [[Engineering:Microprocessor|microprocessor]] implementation and VAX 7000/10000 series in the early 1990s.<ref name="nvax">{{cite web|url=http://simh.trailing-edge.com/semi/nvax.html|title=DEC Microprocessors: NVAX (1991)}}</ref>

=== Early microcomputers (1982–1986) ===
When a DEC research group demonstrated two prototype [[Microcomputer|microcomputer]]s in 1974—before the debut of the MITS Altair—Olsen chose to not proceed with the project. The company similarly rejected another personal computer proposal in 1977.<ref name="ahl198403">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/creativecomputing-1984-03/Creative_Computing_v10_n03_1984_Mar#page/n39/mode/2up | title=Digital | work=Creative Computing | date=March 1984 | access-date=February 6, 2015 | author=Ahl, David H. | pages=38–41 | authorlink=David H. Ahl}}</ref> At the time these systems were of limited utility, and Olsen famously derided them in 1977, stating "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home."{{efn|Olsen later claimed he was referring to [[Engineering:Home automation|home automation]], see [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/kenolsen.asp "Ken Olsen"]}} Unsurprisingly, DEC did not put much effort into the microcomputer area in the early days of the market. In 1977, the [[Engineering:Heathkit H11|Heathkit H11]] was announced; a PDP-11 in kit form. At the beginning of the 1980s, DEC built the [[Engineering:VT180|VT180]] (codenamed "Robin"), which was a [[Engineering:VT100|VT100]] terminal with an added Z80-based microcomputer running CP/M, but this product was initially available only to DEC employees.<ref name="Croxton">{{cite web|last=Croxton|first=Greg|title=DEC Robin (VT-180) & documentation|url=http://www.digibarn.com/collections/systems/dec-robin/|work=DigiBarn Computer Museum|access-date=March 21, 2011}}</ref>

It was only after IBM had successfully launched the IBM PC in 1981 that DEC responded with their own systems. In 1982, DEC introduced not one, but three incompatible machines which were each tied to different [[Engineering:Proprietary hardware|proprietary]] architectures. The first, the [[Engineering:DEC Professional (computer)|DEC Professional]], was based on the PDP-11/23 (and later, the 11/73) running the [[Software:RSX-11|RSX-11M+]] derived, but menu-driven, P/OS ("Professional Operating System"). This DEC machine easily outperformed the PC, but was more expensive than, and completely incompatible with IBM PC hardware and software, offering far fewer options for customizing a system.

Unlike CP/M and DOS microcomputers, every copy of every program for the Professional had to be provided with a unique key for the particular machine and CPU for which it was bought. At that time this was mainstream policy, because most computer software was either bought from the company that built the computer or custom-constructed for one client. However, the emerging third-party software industry disregarded the PDP-11/Professional line and concentrated on other microcomputers where distribution was easier. At DEC itself, creating better programs for the Professional was not a priority, perhaps from fear of cannibalizing the PDP-11 line. As a result, the Professional was a superior machine, running inferior software.<ref>Katan, M.B., Scholte, B.A., 1984. Application of a Professional 350 in a university department&nbsp;— a consumer's report, in: Proceedings Digital Equipment Computer Users Society. Amsterdam, p. 368.</ref> In addition, a new user would have to learn an awkward, slow, and inflexible menu-based user interface which appeared to be radically different from [[Software:PC DOS|PC DOS]] or CP/M, which were more commonly used on the 8080- and 8088-based microcomputers of the time. A second offering, the [[Engineering:DECmate|DECmate II]] was the latest version of the PDP-8-based word processors, but not really suited to general computing, nor competitive with [[Organization:Wang Laboratories|Wang Laboratories]]' popular word processing equipment.

[[File:DEC Rainbow 100 floor model.JPG|thumb|right|upright|DEC Rainbow 100, floor-mounted]]
The most popular early DEC microcomputer was the dual-processor (Z80 and 8088) [[Engineering:Rainbow 100|Rainbow 100]],{{r|ahl198403}} which ran the 8-bit CP/M operating system on the Z80 and the 16-bit CP/M-86 operating system on the [[Engineering:Intel 8088|Intel 8088]] processor. It could also run a [[Software:UNIX System III|UNIX System III]] implementation called [[Software:Venix|VENIX]]. Applications from standard CP/M could be re-compiled for the Rainbow, but by this time users were expecting custom-built (pre-compiled binary) applications such as [[Software:Lotus 1-2-3|Lotus 1-2-3]], which was eventually ported along with [[Software:MS-DOS|MS-DOS]] 2.0 and introduced in late 1983. Although the Rainbow generated some press, it was unsuccessful due to its high price and lack of marketing and sales support.<ref name="rainbow-faq">{{cite web|title=Q: What is a Rainbow 100 anyway?|work=The Rainbow 100 Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://rainbow-100.com/faq/question/1/|publisher=Approximatrix, LLC|access-date=December 15, 2010|year=2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825144124/http://rainbow-100.com/faq/question/1/|archive-date=August 25, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> By late 1983 IBM was outselling DEC's personal computers by more than ten to one.{{r|ahl198403}}

A further system was introduced in 1986 as the [[Engineering:VAXmate|VAXmate]], which included Microsoft Windows 1.0 and used VAX/VMS-based file and print servers along with integration into DEC's own [[DECnet]]-family, providing LAN/WAN connection from PC to mainframe or supermini. The VAXmate replaced the Rainbow, and in its standard form was the first widely marketed diskless workstation.

=== Networking and clusters (1984) ===
In 1984, DEC launched its first 10 Mbit/s [[Ethernet]]. Ethernet allowed scalable networking, and VAXcluster allowed scalable computing. Combined with [[DECnet]] and Ethernet-based terminal servers ([[Local Area Transport|LAT]]), DEC had produced a networked storage architecture which allowed them to compete directly with IBM. Ethernet replaced [[Token Ring]], and went on to become the dominant networking model in use today.

In September 1985, DEC became the fifth company to register a .com [[Domain name|domain name]] (dec.com).

Along with the hardware and protocols, DEC also introduced the VAXcluster concept, which allowed several VAX machines to be tied together into a single larger storage system. VAXclusters allowed a DEC-based company to scale their services by adding new machines to the cluster at any time, as opposed to buying a faster machine and using that to replace a slower one. The flexibility this offered was compelling, and allowed DEC to attack high-end markets formerly out of their reach.

=== Late 1980s diversification ===
The PDP-11 and VAX lines continued to sell in record numbers. Better yet, DEC was competing very well against the market leader, IBM, taking an estimated $2&nbsp;billion away from them in the mid-1980s. In 1986, DEC's profits rose 38% when the rest of the computer industry experienced a downturn, and by 1987 the company was threatening IBM's number one position in the computer industry.<ref name="companyhistory">[http://www.answers.com/topic/digital-equipment-corporation "Digital Equipment Corporation"], ''International Directory of Company Histories'', Volume 6, St. James Press, 1992 [Note this link is to answers.com, not the International Directory of Company Histories]</ref> Not long thereafter came IBM's VAX Killer offerings,<ref>{{cite web  |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/03/24/business/company-news-ibm-to-ship-computers-early.html
 |title=I.B.M. to Ship Computers Early |date=March 24, 1987 |publisher=NY Times |access-date=September 21, 2023
 |quote=Two models of the new computers - known in the industry as 'VAX killers" ...}}</ref> at a time when DEC had twice the sales of IBM in the mid-range computer market.

At its peak, DEC was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was during this time that the company branched out development into a wide variety of projects that were far from its core business in computer equipment. The company invested heavily in custom software. In the 1970s and earlier most software was custom-written to serve a specific task, but by the 1980s the introduction of relational databases and similar systems allowed powerful software to be built in a modular fashion, potentially saving enormous amounts of development time. Software companies like [[Company:Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] became the new darlings of the industry, and DEC started their own efforts in every "hot" niche, in some cases several projects for the same niche. Some of these products competed with DEC's own partners, notably [[Software:Oracle Rdb|Rdb]] which competed with Oracle's products on the VAX, part of a major partnership only a few years earlier.

Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third-party products instead. This problem was further exacerbated by Olsen's aversion to traditional advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves. Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations using RISC microprocessors were starting to approach VAX CPUs in performance.

=== Early 1990s faltering and attempted turnaround ===
As microprocessors continued to improve in the 1980s, it soon became clear that the next generation would offer performance and features equal to the best of DECs low-end minicomputer lineup. Worse, the [[Berkeley RISC]] and [[Engineering:Stanford MIPS|Stanford MIPS]] designs were aiming to introduce 32-bit designs that would outperform the fastest members of the VAX family, DEC's [[Finance:Cash cow|cash cow]].<ref>{{cite book| author = John L. Hennessy|author2=David A. Patterson |author3=David Goldberg | title = Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach| url = https://archive.org/details/computerarchitec0003henn| url-access = registration| year = 2003| publisher = Morgan Kaufmann| isbn = 978-1-55860-596-1| page = [https://archive.org/details/computerarchitec0003henn/page/152 152] }}</ref>

Constrained by the huge success of their [[VAX]] and [[Software:OpenVMS|VMS]] products, which followed the proprietary model, the company was very late to respond to these threats. In the early 1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its first layoffs followed. The company that created the minicomputer, a dominant networking technology, and arguably the first computers for personal use, had abandoned the "low end" market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the company in a previous generation. Decisions about what to do about this threat led to infighting within the company that seriously delayed their responses.

One group suggested that every possible development in the industry be poured into the construction of a new VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the existing machines. This would limit the market erosion in the top-end segment, where [[Finance:Profit margin|profit margin]]s were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor. This line of thought led, eventually, to the [[Engineering:VAX 9000|VAX 9000]] series, which were plagued with problems when they were first introduced in October 1989, already two years late.<ref>{{cite news|first=John|last=Markoff|title=Market Place; Digital Finally Follows a Trend|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}|date=July 16, 1990|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/16/business/market-place-digital-finally-follows-a-trend.html}}</ref> The problems took so long to work out, and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was never able to make the line the success they hoped.

Others within the company felt that the proper response was to introduce their own RISC designs and use those to build new machines. However, there was little official support for these efforts, and no less than four separate small projects ran in parallel at various labs around the US. Eventually these were gathered into the [[DEC PRISM|PRISM]] project, which delivered a credible 32-bit design with some unique features allowing it to serve as the basis of a new VAX implementation.<ref>{{cite conference|first1=Dileep|last1=Bhandarkar|first2=D.|last2=Orbits|first3=Richard|last3=Witek|first4=W.|last4=Cardoza|first5=Dave|last5=Cutler|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/63667|title=High performance issue oriented architecture|book-title=Proceedings of Compcon Spring '90|pages=153–160}}</ref> Infighting with teams dedicated to DEC's [[Mainframe computer|big iron]] made funding difficult, and the design was not finalized until April 1988, and then cancelled shortly thereafter.<ref>{{cite web|first=Mark|last=Smotherman|url=http://www.cs.clemson.edu/~mark/prism.html|title=PRISM (Parallel Reduced Instruction Set Machine)|website=Clemson University School of Computing|date=October 2009}}</ref> The PRISM project was accompanied by the [[Software:DEC MICA|MICA]] project, which intended to consolidate VMS and ULTRIX into a single operating system.<ref name="mica-business-plan">{{cite web|url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/prism/mica/Mica_Software_Business_Plan_Mar87.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201133102/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/prism/mica/Mica_Software_Business_Plan_Mar87.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-01 |url-status=live|title=MICA Software Business Plan|author1=Catherine Richardson|author2=Terry Morris|author3=Rockie Morgan|author4=Reid Brown|author5=Donna Meikle|date=March 1987|access-date=January 4, 2021|website=bitsavers.org}}</ref>

Another group concluded that new [[Workstation|workstation]]s like those from [[Company:Sun Microsystems|Sun Microsystems]] and [[Company:Silicon Graphics|Silicon Graphics]] would take away a large part of DEC's existing customer base before the new VAX systems could address the issues, and that the company needed its own Unix workstation as soon as possible. Fed up with slow progress on both the RISC and VAX fronts, a group in Palo Alto started a [[Finance:Skunkworks project|skunkworks project]] to introduce their own systems. Selecting the MIPS processor, which was widely available, introducing the new [[DECstation]] series with the model 3100 on January 11, 1989.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Thomas C.|last1=Furlong|first2=Michael J. K.|last2=Nielsen|first3=Neil C.|last3=Wilhelm|url=http://www.dtjcd.vmsresource.org.uk/pdfs/dtj_v02-02_1990.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128164108/http://www.dtjcd.vmsresource.org.uk/pdfs/dtj_v02-02_1990.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-28 |url-status=live|title=Development of the DECstation 3100|journal=Digital Technical Journal|volume=2|issue=2|date=Spring 1990|pages=84–88}}</ref> These systems would see some success in the market, but were later displaced by similar models running the Alpha.

==== 32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha systems (1992) ====
[[File:AlphaServer-2100-guts.jpg|thumb|Inside view of AlphaServer 2100]]

Eventually, in 1992, DEC launched the [[Engineering:Alpha 21064|DECchip 21064]] processor, the first implementation of their [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] [[Instruction set architecture|instruction set architecture]], initially named Alpha&nbsp;AXP; the "AXP" was a "non-acronym" and was later dropped. This was a [[64-bit computing|64-bit]] RISC architecture as opposed to the 32-bit [[Complex instruction set computer|CISC]] architecture used in the VAX. It is one of the first "pure" 64-bit [[Engineering:Microprocessor|microprocessor]] architectures and implementations rather than an extension of an earlier 32-bit architecture. The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch and was used in the massively-parallel [[Cray T3D]].  Subsequent variants continued that performance trend into the 2000s, along with the Alpha-derived Pentium Pro, II, and III CPUs.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/1997/10/intel-dec-settle-alpha-chip-dispute/|title=Intel, DEC Settle Alpha Chip Dispute|magazine=Wired|last1=Levine|first1=Daniel S.|date=October 27, 1997}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hpcwire.com/1997/05/16/dec-sues-intel-alleges-architecture-patent-infringement/|title = Dec Sues Intel, Alleges Architecture Patent Infringement|date = May 16, 1997}}</ref> An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was still ranked No.&nbsp;6 in the world in November 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.top500.org/lists/2004/11|work=TOP500 Top 10 Supercomputing Sites|title=November 2004}}</ref> Alpha-based computers comprising the DEC AXP series, later the [[Engineering:AlphaStation|AlphaStation]], and [[Engineering:AlphaServer|AlphaServer]] series respectively superseded both the VAX and MIPS architecture in DEC's product lines. They supported [[Software:OpenVMS|OpenVMS]], DEC OSF/1 AXP (later known as [[Software:Tru64 UNIX|Digital Unix]] or Tru64 UNIX) and Microsoft's then-new operating system, [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]], an operating system made possible by ex-Digital Equipment Corporation engineers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itprotoday.com/compute-engines/windows-nt-and-vms-rest-story|title=Windows NT and VMS: The Rest of the Story|first=Mark|last=Russinovich|date=November 30, 1998|website=ITPro Today}}</ref>

In 1998, following the takeover by Compaq Computer Corporation, a decision was made that Microsoft would no longer support and develop Windows NT for the Alpha series computers, a decision that was seen as the beginning of the end for the Alpha series computers.

==== StrongARM (1995) ====
{{Main|Engineering:StrongARM}}

In the mid-1990s, Digital Semiconductor collaborated with ARM Limited to produce the [[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]] microprocessor. This was based in part on ARM7 and in part on DEC technologies like Alpha, and was targeted at [[Embedded system|embedded system]]s and portable devices. It was highly compatible with the ARMv4 architecture and was very successful, competing effectively against rivals such as the [[Engineering:SuperH|SuperH]] and [[MIPS architecture]]s in the portable digital assistant market. [[Company:Microsoft|Microsoft]] subsequently dropped support for these other architectures in their [[Engineering:Pocket PC|Pocket PC]] platform. In 1997, as part of a lawsuit settlement, the [[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]] intellectual property was sold to [[Company:Intel|Intel]]. They continued to produce [[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]], as well as developing it into the [[Engineering:XScale|XScale]] architecture. Intel subsequently sold this business to [[Company:Marvell Technology Group|Marvell Technology Group]] in 2006.

=== Palmer's reign (1992–1998) ===
[[File:Digital Equipment Corporation 1993 logo.svg|thumb|Redesigned logo introduced in 1993]]
At its peak in the late 1980s, DEC had $14 billion in sales and ranked among the most profitable companies in the US. With its strong staff of engineers, DEC was expected to usher in the age of personal computers, but the commonly misunderstood belief then argued by the board to its shareholders was that Mr. Olsen was openly skeptical of the desktop machines, stating "the personal computer will fall flat on its face in business", and regarding them as "toys" used for playing video games. This was made in 1977 about what could be more characterised as home automation devices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mikkelson |first=David |date=2004-09-21 |title=Ken Olsen |url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/ken-olsen/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Snopes |language=en}}</ref>

The board forced Olsen to resign as president in July 1992<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/08/technology/business-computing/08olsen.html?_r=0|title = Ken Olsen, Who Built DEC into a Power, Dies at 84|newspaper = The New York Times|date = February 8, 2011|last1 = Rifkin|first1 = Glenn}}</ref> after 2 years of losses in operating income.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Equipment Corporation |url=https://sutherla.tripod.com/infsoc/computers/dec_pl.html |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=sutherla.tripod.com}}</ref>  He was replaced by Robert Palmer as the company's president. DEC's board of directors also granted Palmer the title of chief executive officer ("CEO"), a title that had never been used during DEC's 35-year existence. Palmer had joined DEC in 1985 to run Semiconductor Engineering and Manufacturing. His relentless campaign to be CEO, and success with the Alpha microprocessor family, made him a candidate to succeed Olsen. At the same time a more modern logo was designed<ref>Ned Batchelder and [http://vt100.net/dec/logo Vt100.net].</ref>

Palmer restructured DEC into nine business units that reported directly to him. Nonetheless, DEC continued to suffer record losses, including a loss of $260.5 million for the quarter that ended on September 30, 1992. It reported $2.8 billion in losses for its fiscal year 1992. January 5, 1993, saw the retirement of John F. Smith as senior vice president of operations, the second in command at DEC, and his position was not filled. A 35-year company veteran, he had joined DEC in 1958 as the company's 12th employee, passing up a chance to work for Bell Laboratories in New Jersey to work for DEC. Smith rose to become one of the three senior vice presidents in 1987 and was widely considered among the potential successors to Ken Olsen, especially when Smith was appointed chief operating officer in 1991. Smith became a corporate spokesman on financial issues, and had filled in at trouble spots for which Olsen ordered more attention. Smith was passed over in favor of Palmer when Olsen was forced to resign in July 1992, though Smith stayed on for a time to help turn around the struggling company.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/06/business/company-news-no-2-officer-retires-at-digital-equipment.html|title=COMPANY NEWS; No. 2 Officer Retires at Digital Equipment|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}|date=January 6, 1993|access-date=April 12, 2014}}</ref>

In June 1993, Palmer and several of his top lieutenants presented their reorganization plans to applause from the board of directors, and several weeks later DEC reported its first profitable quarter in several years. However, on April 15, 1994, DEC reported a loss of $183 million—three to four times higher than the loss many people on Wall Street had predicted (compared with a loss of $30 million in the comparable period a year earlier), causing the stock price on the NYSE to plunge $5.875 to $23, a 20% drop. The losses at that point totaled $339 million for the current fiscal year. Sales of the VAX, long the company's biggest moneymaker, continued to decline, which in turn also hurt DEC's lucrative service and maintenance business (this made up more than a third of DEC's revenue of $14 billion in the 1993 fiscal year), which declined 11% year over year to $1.5 billion in the most recent quarter.

Market acceptance of DEC Alpha computers and chips had been slower than the company had hoped, even though Alpha's sales for the quarter estimated at $275 million were up significantly from $165 million in the December quarter. DEC had also made a strong push into personal computers and workstations, which had even lower margins than Alpha computers and chips. Also, DEC was playing catchup with its own Unix offerings for client-server networks, as it long emphasized its own VMS software, while corporate computer users based their client-server networks on the industry-standard Unix software (of which Hewlett Packard was one of the market leaders). DEC's problems were similar to that of larger rival IBM, due to the fundamental shift in the computer industry that made it unlikely that DEC could ever again operate profitably at its former size of 120,000 employees, and while its workforce had been reduced to 92,000 people many analysts expected that they would have to cut another 20,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/16/business/company-reports-a-deepening-of-losses-at-digital-equipment.html|title=COMPANY REPORTS; A Deepening of Losses at Digital Equipment|first=Glenn|last=Rifkin|date=April 16, 1994|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}|access-date=April 12, 2014}}</ref>

==== Selloffs ====
[[File:DECpc 425SE Color.JPG|thumb|DECpc 425SE Color: a notebook computer released by Digital in 1993]]
During the profitable years up until the early 1990s, DEC was a company that boasted that it never had a general layoff.<ref>Schein, ''et al'', pp. 67, 109.</ref> Following the [[Finance:Early 1990s recession|1992 economic downturn]], layoffs became regular events as the company continually downsized to try to stay afloat.<ref>Schein, ''et al'', p. 233.</ref> Palmer was tasked with the goal of bringing DEC back to profitability, which he attempted to do by changing the established DEC business culture, hiring new executives from outside the company, and selling off various non-core business units:<ref>Schein, ''et al'', pp. 128, 144, 234.</ref>
* Worldwide training was spun off to form an independent/new company called Global Knowledge Network.
* [[Software:Oracle Rdb|Rdb]], DEC's database product, was sold to [[Company:Oracle Corporation|Oracle]].
* Rights to the [[Engineering:PDP-11|PDP-11]] line and several PDP-11 operating systems were sold to [[Company:Mentec|Mentec]] in 1994, though DEC continued to produce some PDP-11 hardware for a few years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mentec-inc.com/|title=PDP-11 RSX RT RSTS Emulator Osprey Charon|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813131029/http://www.mentec-inc.com/|archive-date=August 13, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Disk and [[Digital Linear Tape|DLT]] technologies was sold to [[Company:Quantum Corporation|Quantum Corporation]] in 1994.
* Text terminal business ([[Engineering:VT100|VT100]] and its successors) was sold in August 1995 to Boundless Technologies.
* CORBA-based product, ObjectBroker, and its messaging software, MessageQ, were sold to [[Company:BEA Systems|BEA Systems, Inc]] in March 1997.
* Printer business was sold in 1997 to [[Company:GENICOM|GENICOM]] (now TallyGenicom), which then produced models bearing the Digital logo.
* Networking business was sold c.1997 to [[Company:Cabletron Systems|Cabletron Systems]], and subsequently spun off as Digital Network Products Group.
* [[Engineering:DECtalk|DECtalk]] and DECvoice voice products were spun off, and eventually arrived at Fonix Speech Group.

=== Acquisition by Compaq (1998) ===
Through 1997, DEC began discussions with [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] on a possible merger. Several years earlier, Compaq had considered a bid for DEC but became seriously interested only after DEC's major divestments and refocusing on the Internet in 1997. At that time, Compaq was making strong moves into the enterprise market, and DEC's multivendor global services organization and customer support centers offered a real opportunity to expand their support and sales worldwide. Compaq was not interested in a number of DEC's product lines, which led to the series of sell-offs. Notable among these was DEC's Hudson Fab, which made most of their custom chips, a market that made little sense to Compaq's "industry standard" marketing. DEC had previously sold its semiconductor plant in South Queensferry to Motorola in 1995, with an understanding that Motorola would continue to produce Alpha processors at the facility, along with continuing a two-year foundry agreement with AMD to continue producing the Am486 processor.<ref name="electronicnews19950109_motorola">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1995-01-09_41_2047/mode/1up | title=Motorola To Take Over Digital's Scottish Plant | magazine=Electronic News | volume=41 | issue=2047 | date=January 9, 1995 | access-date=June 10, 2022 | last1=DeTar | first1=Jim | pages=1, 4 | issn=1061-6624}}</ref>

This led to an interesting solution to the problem of selling off the division for a reasonable profit. In May 1997, DEC sued [[Company:Intel|Intel]] for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original Pentium, [[Engineering:Pentium Pro|Pentium Pro]], and [[Engineering:Pentium II|Pentium II]] chips.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=DEC, Cyrix sue Intel|first1=Gale|last1=Bradley|first2=Jim|last2=DeTar|magazine=Electronic News|volume=43|issue=2168|pages=1, 60|date=May 19, 1997|issn=1061-6624|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1997-05-19_43_2168/mode/1up}}</ref> As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel. This included DEC's [[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]] implementation of the [[ARM architecture|ARM computer architecture]], which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in [[Engineering:Pocket PC|Pocket PC]]s. The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab.<ref>{{cite interview |first=Allan |last=Baum |interviewer= David Brock |title=Oral History of Allen Baum |date=July 18, 2018 |url=https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2018/06/102717165-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207063355/https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2018/06/102717165-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-date=2021-02-07 |url-status=live |page=60}}</ref>

On January 26, 1998, what remained of the company was sold to Compaq in what was the largest merger up to that time in the computer industry. At the time of Compaq's acquisition announcement, DEC had a total of 53,500 employees, down from a peak of 130,000 in the 1980s, but it still employed about 65% more people than Compaq to produce about half the volume of sales revenues. After the merger closed, Compaq moved aggressively to reduce DEC's high selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) costs (equal to 24% of total 1997 revenues) and bring them more in line with Compaq's SG&A expense ratio of 12% of revenues.<ref name="mhhe.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mhhe.com/business/management/updates/thompson12e/case/dell10.html|work=Dell Computer Corporation Online Case|title=Profiles of Selected Competitors in the PC Industry|publisher=McGraw Hill Education|access-date=April 12, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331022052/http://www.mhhe.com/business/management/updates/thompson12e/case/dell10.html|archive-date=March 31, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Compaq used the acquisition to move into enterprise services and compete with IBM, and by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the DEC employees inherited from the merger.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/economics/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/digital-equipment-corp|title=Digital Equipment Corp|at=Takeover By Compaq Computer Corp.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com|access-date=September 7, 2022}}</ref> DEC's own PC manufacturing was discontinued after the merger closed. As Compaq did not wish to compete with one of its key partner suppliers, the remainder of Digital Semiconductor (the Alpha microprocessor group) was sold to Intel, which placed those employees back in their Hudson (Massachusetts) office, which they had vacated when the site was sold to Intel in 1997.

Compaq struggled as a result of the merger with DEC,<ref name="mhhe.com"/> and was acquired by [[Company:Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]] in 2002. Compaq, and later HP, continued to sell many of the former DEC products but re-branded with their own logos. For example, HP now sells what were formerly DEC's StorageWorks disk/tape products,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://h18006.www1.hp.com/storage/|title=HP StorageWorks&nbsp;– Data and Network Storage Products and Solutions|access-date=March 8, 2006|archive-date=March 2, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060302053928/http://h18006.www1.hp.com/storage/|url-status=dead}}</ref> as a result of the Compaq acquisition.

The Digital logo was used up until 2004, even after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of Compaq). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed "HP GlobalSoft" (also known as the "HP Global Delivery India Center" or HP GDIC), and no longer uses the Digital logo.

==Research and people==
DEC's Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they were commonly known) conducted DEC's corporate research. Some of them were continued in operation by [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] and are still operated by [[Company:Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]]. The laboratories were:

* Cambridge Research Laboratory (CRL) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
* MetroWest Technology Campus (MTC) in Maynard, Massachusetts, US
* Network Systems Laboratory (NSL) in Palo Alto, California, US
* [[Organization:DEC Systems Research Center|Systems Research Center]] (SRC) in Palo Alto, California, US
* Paris Research Laboratory (PRL) in [[Place:Paris|Paris]], {{wipe|France}}
* Western Research Laboratory (WRL) in Palo Alto, California, US
* Western Software Laboratory (WSL) in Palo Alto, California, US

Some of the former employees of DEC's Research Labs or DEC's R&D in general include:
* [[Biography:Gordon Bell|Gordon Bell]]: technical visionary, VP Engineering 1972–1983; later moved to [[Organization:Microsoft Research|Microsoft Research]]
* Leonard Bosack: a co-founder of [[Company:Cisco Systems|Cisco Systems]]
* [[Biography:Michael Burrows|Mike Burrows]]: an author of the [[Burrows–Wheeler transform]]
* [[Biography:Luca Cardelli|Luca Cardelli]]: co-designer of the [[Modula-3]] language 
* [[Biography:Dave Cutler|Dave Cutler]]: led RSX-11M, [[Software:OpenVMS|VAX/VMS]], [[Software:VAXELN|VAXELN]] and [[Software:DEC MICA|MICA]] operating systems development; then led [[Software:Windows NT|Windows NT]] development at [[Company:Microsoft|Microsoft]]{{discuss|unsourced/exaggerated synopses of notable people}}
* Ed deCastro: became co-founder of [[Company:Data General|Data General Corporation]]
* [[Biography:Alan Eustace|Alan Eustace]]: co-author of early profiling tools; a Senior Vice President of Engineering at Google; a world-record breaker in the stratosphere jump (2014)
* Jim Gettys: early developer of [[Software:X Window System|X Window System]]{{discuss|unsourced/exaggerated synopses of notable people}}
* [[Biography:Henri Gouraud (computer scientist)|Henri Gouraud]]: inventor of the [[Gouraud shading]]
* [[Biography:Jim Gray (computer scientist)|Jim Gray]]: a Turing Award winner for database research; went missing on a ship trip
* [[Biography:Alan Kotok|Alan Kotok]]: chief architect of the [[Engineering:PDP-10|PDP-10]] series and prolific member of [[Organization:World Wide Web Consortium|World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C)
* [[Biography:Leslie Lamport|Leslie Lamport]]: a Turing Award recipient; first creator of [[Software:LaTeX|LaTeX]] macros;
* [[Biography:Butler Lampson|Butler Lampson]]: a contributor to a wide range of personal computing concepts like [[WYSIWYG]] text formatting program
* Scott A. McGregor: co-author of the [[Software:X Window System|X Window System]], version 11<ref name="The X Window System">{{cite web|last1=Gettys|first1=James|last2=Karlton|first2=Philip L.|last3=McGregor|first3=Scott|author-link3=Scott A. McGregor|date=December 10, 1990|title=The X Window System, Version 11|url=https://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/Compaq-DEC/CRL-90-8.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030901030254/http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/Compaq-DEC/CRL-90-8.pdf |archive-date=2003-09-01 |url-status=live|access-date=September 7, 2022|publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation and [[Company:Silicon Graphics|Silicon Graphics Computer Systems]]|page=36}}</ref>
* [[Biography:Louis Monier|Louis Monier]]: an Internet and software [[Social:Entrepreneurship|entrepreneur]]
* Isaac Nassi: contributor to [[Ada (programming language)|Ada programming language]]; co-author of the [[Nassi–Shneiderman diagram]] 
* [[Biography:Radia Perlman|Radia Perlman]]: a pioneer in [[Computer network|computer networking]] standartization; author of [[Spanning Tree Protocol]]
* Marcus Ranum: a computer and network security developer credited with a number innovations in [[Firewall (computing)|firewalls]]
* [[Biography:Brian Reid (computer scientist)|Brian Reid]]: an inventor of [[Scribe (markup language)|Scribe markup language]]; pioneer in networking and firewalls
* [[Biography:Paul Vixie|Paul Vixie]]: a co-author of the [[Software:BIND|BIND]] DNS server software
* [[Biography:Sanjay Ghemawat|Sanjay Ghemawat]]
* [[Biography:Jeff Dean (computer scientist)|Jeff Dean]]
* [[Biography:Patrick O'Neil|Patrick O'Neil]]: a computer scientist well known for his works on [[Database|database]]s

Some of the former employees of Digital Equipment Corp were responsible for developing [[DEC Alpha]] and [[Engineering:StrongARM|StrongARM]]:
* Daniel W. Dobberpuhl
* [[Biography:Jim Keller (engineer)|Jim Keller]]
* Rich Witek

[[Biography:Grace Hopper|Grace Hopper]] worked for Digital Equipment Corporation as a consultant after her retirement from the United States Navy

Some of the work of the Research Labs was published in the ''Digital Technical Journal'',<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/dtj/past.htm| title = Digital Technical Journal&nbsp;– Online Issues}}</ref> which was in published from 1985 until 1998.  At least some of the research reports are available online.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hpl.hp.com/hplabs/index/Compaq-DEC |title=HP Labs Technical Reports |access-date=September 7, 2022}}</ref>

==Legacy and accomplishments==
{{As of|2012}}, decades-old hardware (including PDP-11, VAX, and [[Engineering:AlphaServer|AlphaServer]]) is being [[Virtual machine|emulated]] to allow legacy software to run on modern hardware; funding for this is planned to last at least until 2030.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=PC World |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/249951/if-it-aint-broke-dont-fix-it-ancient-computers-in-use-today.html?page=2 |title=If it aint broke don't fix it: Ancient Computers in Use Today |author=Benj Edwards |date=February 19, 2012}}</ref>

DEC supported the ANSI standards, especially the [[ASCII]] character set, which survives in [[Unicode]] and the ISO 8859 character set family. DEC's own [[Multinational Character Set]] also had a large influence on ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode.
[[File:DEC VAXstation 4000 96 OpenVMS 6.1.jpeg|thumb|right|DEC VAXstation]]
Beyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, DEC was known for its work in communication subsystem designs, such as [[Ethernet]], DNA (DIGITAL Network Architecture: predominantly DECnet products), DSA (Digital Storage Architecture: disks/tapes/controllers), and its "dumb terminal" subsystems including VT100 and DECserver products.<ref>For in-depth articles regarding DEC technologies, refer to the archived [https://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/dtj/past.htm Digital Technical Journal]</ref>

===Software===
* The first versions of the [[C (programming language)|C]] language and the [[Software:Unix|Unix]] operating system ran on DEC's [[Engineering:Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the [[Engineering:PDP-11|PDP-11]]), which were among the first commercially viable [[Minicomputer|minicomputer]]s, although for several years DEC itself did not encourage the use of Unix.
* DEC produced widely used and influential interactive operating systems, including OS-8, [[Software:TOPS-10|TOPS-10]], [[Software:TOPS-20|TOPS-20]], RSTS/E, [[Software:RSX-11|RSX-11]], [[Software:RT-11|RT-11]], and [[Software:OpenVMS|OpenVMS]]. PDP computers, in particular the PDP-11 model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants. DEC was an early champion of [[Time-sharing|time-sharing]] systems.
* The [[Command-line interface|command-line interface]]s found in DEC's systems, eventually codified as [[DIGITAL Command Language|DCL]], would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLIs; those used in earlier systems, such as [[Software:Compatible Time-Sharing System|CTSS]], [[Company:IBM|IBM]]'s [[Job Control Language|JCL]], or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to DEC's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the "name-dot-extension" file naming conventions.
* Notes-11 and its follow-on product, {{vanchor|VAX Notes}}, were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as [[Collaborative software|groupware]]. Len Kawell, one of the original Notes-11 developers, later joined Lotus Development Corporation and contributed to their Lotus Notes product.
* The [[MUMPS]] programming language, with its built-in database, was developed on the PDP-7, 9, and 15 series machines. MUMPS is still widely used in [[Medicine:Health informatics|medical information systems]], such as those provide by [[Company:Meditech|Meditech]] and [[Company:Epic Systems|Epic Systems]].
* The [[Software:Babel Fish (website)|Babel Fish]] machine translation service was developed by DEC researchers, and was one of the first machine translators to achieve broad success using natural language processing techniques.
* [[Software:ALL-IN-1|ALL-IN-1]] was an office automation system developed by Skip Walter and others in Central Engineering under Gordon Bell. They developed a customizable list of application invocations and the robust DECMail product that provided one of the first commercially available electronic mail systems.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=1982 Timeline |url=https://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/Digital/timeline/1982.htm |access-date=January 9, 2014 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=ALL-IN-1 |url=https://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/Digital/timeline/1982-4.htm |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref>

===Hardware===
==== DECtape ====
{{Main|Engineering:DECtape}}

One of the most unusual peripherals produced for the PDP-10 was the [[Engineering:DECtape|DECtape]]. The DECtape was a length of special 3/4-inch wide magnetic tape wound on 5-inch reels. The recording format was a highly reliable redundant 10-track design using fixed-length numbered data "blocks" organized into a standard file structure, including a directory. Files could be written, read, changed, and deleted on a DECtape as though it were a disk drive. For greater efficiency, the DECtape drive could read and write to a DECtape in both directions.

In fact, some PDP-10 systems had no disks at all, using DECtapes alone for their primary data storage.  The DECtape was also widely used on other PDP models, since it was much easier to use than hand-loading multiple paper tapes.  Primitive early time-sharing systems could use DECtapes as system devices and swapping devices.  Although superior to paper tape, DECtapes were relatively slow, and were supplanted once reliable disk drives became affordable.

==== Magnetic disk storage ====
[[File:DEC Scratch Pack.jpg|thumb|DEC disk platters]]
DEC was both a manufacturer and a buyer of magnetic disk storage, offering more than 100 different models of [[Engineering:Hard disk drive|hard disk drive]] (HDD) and floppy disk drive (FDD) during its existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimate.com/phil/pdp10/dec.disks|title=DEC disk histor|first=Phil|last=Budne}}</ref>  In the 1970s, it was the single largest OEM purchaser of HDDs, procuring from [[Company:Diablo Data Systems|Diablo]], [[Company:Control Data Corporation#Magnetic Peripherals Inc.|Control Data Corporation]], Information Storage Systems, and [[Company:Memorex|Memorex]], among others.

DEC's first internally developed HDD was the RS08, a 256 kWord fixed-head contact-start-stop drive using plated media; it shipped in 1969.

Beginning in the 1970s, DEC moved first its HDD manufacturing and then its mass storage development labs to Colorado Springs.<ref name="SaviersOH">{{cite interview|url=http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2012/08/102746014-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227091643/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2012/08/102746014-05-01-acc.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-27 |url-status=live|title=Oral History of Grant Saviers|first=Grant|last=Saviers|interviewer=Tom Gardner|website=Computer History Museum|date=May 17, 2011}}</ref>

DEC pioneered a number of HDD technologies, including sampled data servos (RL01, 1977) and serial HDD interfaces ([[Engineering:Standard Disk Interconnect|Standard Disk Interconnect]], 1983). The last internally developed disk drive family (RA9x series) used plated media, departing from the HDD industry trend to carbon overcoated sputtered media.  DEC designated a $400 million investment to bring this product line into production.<ref name="SaviersOH"/> The RA92 (1.5 GB) was introduced in 1992, using a 14-inch platter.

DEC purchased its FDDs from OEMs such as [[Company:Shugart Associates|Shugart Associates]], Toshiba, and Sony.

==== RX50 ====
The way the 400 KB<ref name=DEC.prof>{{cite magazine  |magazine=DEC Professional Magazine
|title=The VMS/MicroVMS merge  |author=Kathleen D. Morse
|pages=74–84}}</ref> DEC standard{{efn|vs. 360KB IBM-compatible/industry standard}} RX50<ref name="Stravers">{{cite web|last=Stravers|first=Kees|title=The RX50 FAQ|url=http://users.bart.nl/users/pb0aia/vax/rx50.html|work=Kees's VAX page|access-date=March 21, 2011}}</ref> floppy disk drive supported DEC's initial offerings seemed to encapsulate their approach to the personal computer market. Although the mechanical drive hardware was nearly identical to other 5 {{frac|1|4}}" floppy disk drives available on competing systems,<ref name="GeekHist">{{cite web|title=RX50 Field Maintenance Print Set|url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/disc/rx50/MP01482_RX50_schem_Jul82.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314203007/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/disc/rx50/MP01482_RX50_schem_Jul82.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-14 |url-status=live|publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation|date=July 13, 1982|id=MP-01482|access-date=October 15, 2022}}</ref> DEC sought to differentiate their product by using a proprietary disk format for the data written on the disk. The DEC format had a higher capacity for data, but the RX50 drives were incompatible with other PC floppy drives. This required DEC owners to buy higher-priced, specially formatted floppy media, which was harder to obtain through standard distribution channels. DEC attempted to enforce exclusive control over its floppy media sales by [[Copyright|copyright]]ing its proprietary disk format, and requiring a negotiated license agreement and royalty payments from anybody selling compatible media. The proprietary data format meant that RX50 floppies were not interchangeable with other PC floppies, further isolating DEC products from the developing de facto standard PC market. Hardware hackers and DEC enthusiasts eventually reverse-engineered the RX50 format,<ref name=Stravers /><ref>{{cite web|last=Wilson|first=John|title=PUTR.COM V2.01|url=http://www.dbit.com/pub/putr/|access-date=March 21, 2011}} This relatively recent work is a well-developed example of programs to enhance interchange of data between DEC formatted media and standard PC systems</ref> but the damage had already been done, in terms of market confusion and isolation.

==== Video and Interactive Information Server ====
The Video-on-Demand project at DEC started in 1992, following Ken Olsen's retirement. At the time the company was rapidly downsizing under Robert Palmer, and it was difficult to gain funding for any new project. DEC's Interactive Video Information Server architecture gained traction and excelled over those of other companies, in that it was highly scalable, using a gateway to set up interactive video delivery sessions on large numbers of video and information servers. Initially high-end VAXes were used, then Alphas.<ref>{{cite press release|title= Digital Equipment Corporation Enters Video-on-demand Market|date=October 19, 1993|publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/1993-10-19/digital-equipment-corporation-enters-video-on-demand-market}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book|publisher=IGI Consulting, Inc|title=Video Dialtone & Video-on-Demand, Market & Technology Assessment Study|date=1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bPlY3VCWdyUC}}</ref>

The scalability feature allowed it to win contracts for many of the video-on-demand trials in the 1993–95 timeframe, since the system could theoretically accommodate unlimited interactive video streams and other non-video content.<ref>{{cite book|first=Daniel|last=Minoli|title=Video Dialtone Technology : Digital Video over ADSL, HFC, FTTC, and ATM|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=May 1, 1995|isbn=978-0070427242}}</ref>

The design was proposed and incorporated into the [[MPEG-2]] international standard.<ref>{{cite ISO standard|csnumber=25039|title=ISO/IEC 13818-6:1998 Information technology — Generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information — Part 6: Extensions for DSM-CC}}</ref> Its object-oriented interface became the mandatory user-to user core interface in DSM-CC, widely used in video stream and file delivery for MPEG-2 compliant systems.

Commercially, DEC's Digital and Interactive Information System was used by Adlink to distribute advertising to over two million subscribers.<ref>{{cite press release|publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation|title=Adlink selects Digital to implement new video ad insertion system|date=January 11, 1995|url=http://www.digital.com/info/PR003R/PR003RSC.TXT|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961220125337/http://www.digital.com/info/PR003R/PR003RSC.TXT|archive-date=December 20, 1996|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first1=Borko |editor-last1=Furht |title=Multimedia Technologies and Applications for the 21st Century: Visions of World Experts|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|date=November 30, 1997|doi=10.1007/978-0-585-28767-6 |isbn=978-0-585-28767-6|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-585-28767-6}}</ref>

==== Other ====
* VAX and [[Engineering:MicroVAX|MicroVAX]] computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running [[Software:OpenVMS|VAX/VMS]] formed one of the most important proprietary networks, [[DECnet]], which linked business and research facilities. The DECnet protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards, with DECnet phase I being released in the mid-1970s. Email, file sharing, and distributed collaborative projects existed within the company long before their value was recognized in the market.
* The LA36 and LA120 [[Engineering:Dot matrix printer|dot matrix printer]]s became industry standards and may have hastened the demise of the [[Company:Teletype Corporation|Teletype Corporation]].
* The [[Engineering:VT100|VT100]] computer terminal became the industry standard, implementing a useful subset of the ANSI X3.64 standard, and even today [[Computer terminal|terminal]] emulators such as [[Software:HyperACCESS|HyperTerminal]], [[Software:PuTTY|PuTTY]] and [[Software:Xterm|Xterm]] still emulate a VT100 (or its more capable successor, the [[Engineering:VT220|VT220]]).
* DEC invented [[Digital Linear Tape]] (DLT), formerly known as CompacTape, which began as a compact backup medium for MicroVAX systems, and later grew to capacities of 800 gigabytes.
* Work on the first hard-disk-based MP3 player, the [[Engineering:Personal Jukebox|Personal Jukebox]], started at the [[Organization:DEC Systems Research Center|DEC Systems Research Center]]. (The project was started about a month before the merger into [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] was completed.)
* DEC's Western Research Lab created the [[Engineering:Itsy Pocket Computer|Itsy Pocket Computer]]. This was developed into the Compaq iPaq line of [[Social:Personal digital assistant|PDAs]], which replaced the Compaq Aero PDA.
* DEC also produced a proprietary personal computer known as the [[Engineering:Rainbow 100|Rainbow 100]]. It could run either MS-DOS or CP/M but from a hardware standpoint it was largely incompatible with the IBM PC.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=https://www.vintagecomputing.com/index.php/archives/639/retro-scan-of-the-week-dec-rainbow
 |title= <nowiki>[</nowiki>Retro Scan of the Week<nowiki>]</nowiki> The DEC Rainbow 100
 |last=Edwards  |first=Benji  |date=March 8, 2010 |website=Vintage Computing and Gaming  |access-date=October 23, 2021 }}</ref>

===Networking===
* DEC, [[Company:Intel|Intel]] and [[Company:Xerox|Xerox]], through their collaboration to create the DIX standard, were champions of [[Ethernet]], but DEC is the company that made Ethernet commercially successful. Initially, Ethernet-based DECnet and [[Local Area Transport|LAT]] protocols interconnected VAXes with [[DECserver]] [[Terminal server|terminal server]]s. Starting with the [[Engineering:Unibus|Unibus]] to Ethernet adapter, multiple generations of Ethernet hardware from DEC were the de facto standard. The CI "computer interconnect" adapter was the industry's first network interface controller to use separate transmit and receive "rings".
* DEC also invented [[Computer cluster|clustering]], an operating system technology that treated multiple machines as one logical entity. Clustering permitted sharing of pooled disk and tape storage via the HSC50/70/90 and later series of Hierarchical Storage Controllers (HSC). The HSCs delivered the first hardware RAID 0 and RAID 1 capabilities and the first serial interconnects of multiple storage technologies. This technology was the forerunner to architectures such as Network of Workstations, which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web searches and drug research.
* The [[Software:X Window System|X Window System]] is the network transparent window system used on [[Software:Unix|Unix]] and [[Software:Linux|Linux]] and available on other operating systems such as [[Software:MacOS|MacOS]]. It was developed at [[Organization:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] jointly between Project Athena and the Laboratory for Computer Science. DEC was the primary sponsor for the project, which was a contemporary of the [[GNU Project]] but not associated with it.
* In the period 1994–99 Linus Torvalds developed versions of Linux on early [[Engineering:AlphaServer|AlphaServer]] systems provided by the engineering department.{{Disputed inline|Linux_not_DEC-accomplishment|date=August 2014}} Compaq software engineers developed special Linux kernel modules.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.informatica.co.cr/linux/research/1999/0302-a.htm|title=Compaq Offers Linux-ready ProLiant Servers, AlphaServers and Professional Workstations|publisher=[[Company:Compaq|Compaq]]|date=March 2, 1999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812183609/http://www.informatica.co.cr/linux/research/1999/0302-a.htm|archive-date=August 12, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> A well-known [[Software:Linux distribution|Linux distribution]] that ran on AlphaServer systems was [[Company:Red Hat|Red Hat]] 7.2.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.informatica.co.cr/linux/research/2002/0108.htm|title=Red Hat and Compaq Announce Port of Red Hat Linux 7.2 to Compaq's Alpha Processors|publisher=[[Company:Red Hat|Red Hat]]|date=January 8, 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812183611/http://www.informatica.co.cr/linux/research/2002/0108.htm|archive-date=August 12, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another distribution that ran on Alpha was [[Software:Gentoo Linux|Gentoo Linux]].
* DEC was one of the first businesses connected to the Internet, with ''dec.com'', registered in 1985,<ref>{{cite web |date=January 30, 1998 |title=dec.com |url=https://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/Digital/timeline/1985-6.htm |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=DIGITAL Computing Timeline}}</ref> being one of the first of the now ubiquitous ''.com'' domains. DEC's ''gatekeeper.dec.com'' was a well-known [[Software repository|software repository]] during the pre-[[World Wide Web]] days, and DEC was also the first computer vendor to open a public website, on October 1, 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LISTSERV 16.5 - Archives - Error|url=https://listserv.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9402&L=dectei-l&T=0&P=200|access-date=February 18, 2021|website=listserv.buffalo.edu}} {{dead link|date=September 2022|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The popular AltaVista, created by DEC, was one of the first comprehensive Internet search engines. (Although [[Software:Lycos|Lycos]] was earlier, it was much more limited.)
* DEC once held the [[Classful network|Class A]] [[IP address]] block 16.0.0.0/8.

===Corporate===
* Digital Federal Credit Union (DCU) is a [[Social:Credit union|credit union]] which was chartered in 1979 for employees of DEC. Today its field of membership is open to existing family members, over 900 different sponsors, several communities in Massachusetts and several organizations. Many of the sponsors are companies that had acquired pieces of DEC.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}
* [[Social:Matrix management|Matrix management]]

==User organizations==
[[File:DECUS-logo.svg|thumb|170px|DECUS - Logo<br />Digital Equipment Corporation<br />Users Society]]
Originally the users' group was called DECUS (Digital Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to 1990s. When [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] acquired DEC in 1998, the users group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users' Organisation. When [[Company:Hewlett-Packard|HP]] acquired [[Company:Compaq|Compaq]] in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups in several countries. In the United States, the organization is represented by the Encompass organization; currently Connect.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

==Financial history==
{{Incomplete list|date=August 2022}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|+ Table of early sales growth
!data-sort-type="number"| Year
!data-sort-type="number"| Net sales<ref name=DEC57.PRES/>
!class="unsortable"|Notes 
|-
|data-sort-value="1962"| 1962
|data-sort-value="6535502" | $6,535,502
| 
|-
|data-sort-value="1963" |1963
|data-sort-value="9906968" |$9,906,968
|SALES +51.6% |+51.6% 
|-
|data-sort-value="1964"| 1964
|data-sort-value="10909565"| $10,909,565
| 
|-
|data-sort-value="1965"| 1965
|data-sort-value="14982920"| $14,982,920
|SALES +37.3%  |+37.3%
|-
|data-sort-value="1966"| 1966
|data-sort-value="22776434"| $22,776,434
| +209% of 1964
|-
|data-sort-value="1967"| 1967
|data-sort-value="38895782"| $38,895,782
| +260% of 1965
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
!data-sort-type="number"| Year
!data-sort-type="number"| #Employees{{efn|at year-end}}
!data-sort-type="number"| Net sales
!class="unsortable"|Notes 
|-
|data-sort-value="1968"| 1968
|data-sort-value="2,600" | 2,600
|data-sort-value="57339400"| $57,339,400
|SALES +47.4% (in Net sales) |+47.4% (in Net sales)
|-
|data-sort-value="1969"| 1969
|data-sort-value="4,360"| 4,360
|data-sort-value="87867000"| $87,867,000
|SALES +53.2% (compared to prior year)  |+53.2% (compared to prior year)
|-
|data-sort-value="1970"| 1970
|data-sort-value="5,800"| 5,800
|data-sort-value="135408000"| $135,408,000
|SALES +54.1%  |+54.1%
|-
|data-sort-value="1971"| 1971
|data-sort-value="6,200"| 6,200
|data-sort-value="146849000"| $146,849,000
| 
|-
|data-sort-value="1972"| 1972
|data-sort-value="7,800"| 7,800
|data-sort-value="166262000"| $166,262,000
| 
|}

== Footnotes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=DEC57.PRES>{{cite book   
|title=DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION - Nineteen Fifty-Seven To The Present
|url=http://s3data.computerhistory.org/pdp-1/dec.digital_1957_to_the_present_(1978).1957-1978.102630349.pdf
|date=1975 |publisher=Digital Equipment Corporation}}</ref>
}}

==Works cited==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* (''Present''), [http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/DEC%201957%20to%20Present%201978.pdf "Digital Equipment Corporation: Nineteen Fifty-Seven to the Present"], DEC Press, 1978
* {{cite book| author = David Donald Miller| title = OpenVMS Operating System Concepts | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FSX5qUthRL8C | year = 1997 | publisher = Elsevier | isbn = 978-1-55558-157-2 }}
* {{cite book | author = Alan R. Earls | title = Digital Equipment Corporation | date = June 30, 2004 | publisher = Arcadia Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7385-3587-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = Edgar H. Schein | author2= with P. DeLisi |author3= P. Kampas |author4= M. Sonduck |title = DEC is dead, long live DEC | date = July 1, 2003 | publisher = Berrett-Koehler Pub | isbn = 978-1-57675-225-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = Jamie Parker Pearson| title = Digital at work: snapshots from the first thirty-five years | date = September 1992 | publisher = Digital Press | isbn = 1-55558-092-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Glenn & George Harrar Rifkin | author2 = George Harrar | title = The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation | year = 1988 | publisher = McGraw-Hill/Contemporary| isbn = 978-0-8092-4559-8 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/ultimateentrepre00rifk}}
* {{cite book | author = C. Gordon Bell | author2 = J. Craig Mudge | author3 = John E. McNamara | author4 = Digital Equipment Corporation | title = Computer engineering: A DEC view of hardware systems design | year = 1978 | isbn = 0-932376-00-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/computerengineer00bell}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* [https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2790157/176138_Goodwin_complete_thesis_formatted_final.pdf "Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC): A Case Study of Indecision, Innovation and Company Failure"], David Thomas Goodwin, Ph.D. thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2016
*Several editions of the ''{{visible anchor|Small Computer Handbook}}'' were published by DEC, giving information about their PDP line of computers.  The editions were:
** ''Small Computer Handbook'' (1973)
** ''PDP8/e, PDP8/m & PDP8/f, Small Computer Handbook'' (1973)
** ''Small Computer Handbook'' (1970 edition)

==External links==
* [https://research.microsoft.com/users/gbell/Digital/DECMuseum.htm GBell's CyberMuseum for Digital Equipment Corp (DEC)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216082420/http://www.technikum29.de/en/devices/dec-history.shtm Rise and Fall of Digital (Equipment Corporation)], a company chronicle at a German computer museum
* [https://www.economicadventure.org/decision/olsen.pdf Ken Olsen], New England Economic Adventure
* {{Gutenberg author | id=33924| name=Digital Equipment Corporation}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Digital Equipment Corporation |sopt=t}}

{{DEC hardware}}
{{Hard disk drive manufacturers}}

[[Category:Defunct computer hardware companies]]

{{Sourceattribution|Digital Equipment Corporation}}