View source for Earth:2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference

{{Short description|Diplomatic summit resulting in the Paris Agreement}}
{{Infobox event
| title         = 2015 United Nations {{nowrap|Climate Change Conference}}
| image         = 2015 Climate Conference.svg
| image_size    = 220px
| date          = {{start date|2015|11|30|df=y}}–<br />{{end date|2015|12|12|df=y}}
| place         = Le Bourget in the suburbs of [[Place:Paris|Paris]], {{wipe|France}}
| coordinates   = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|region:XXXX_type:event|display=inline,title}} -->
| also known as = COP21 (UNFCCC)<br />CMP11 ([[Chemistry:Kyoto Protocol|Kyoto Protocol]])
| participants  = Parties to the UNFCCC
| blank1_label  = Previous event
| blank1_data   = [[Earth:2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference|← Lima 2014]]
| blank2_label  = Next event
| blank2_data   = [[Earth:2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Marrakech 2016 →]]
| website       = [http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en Venue site] <br />[http://unfccc.int/meetings/paris_nov_2015/meeting/8926.php UNFCCC site]
}}

The '''2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference''', '''COP 21''' or '''CMP 11''' was held in [[Place:Paris|Paris]], France, from 30 November to 12 December 2015. It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 11th session of the Meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the 1997 [[Chemistry:Kyoto Protocol|Kyoto Protocol]].<ref>{{cite web|title=19th Session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC|url=http://climate-l.iisd.org/events/conference-of-the-parties-to-the-unfccc/|publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development|access-date=20 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213135550/http://climate-l.iisd.org/events/conference-of-the-parties-to-the-unfccc/|archive-date=13 February 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on the reduction of [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]], the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 attending parties.<ref name=CNN>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/ |title=Final draft of climate deal formally accepted in Paris |last1=Sutter |first1=John D. |last2=Berlinger |first2=Joshua |date=12 December 2015 |website=CNN |publisher=Cable News Network, Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212145741/http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/ |archive-date=12 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The agreement was due to enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represented at least 55 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.,<ref name="FCCC_CP_2015_L9_Rev1"/><ref name="NYT-20151128">{{cite news |author=The Editorial Board |title=What the Paris Climate Meeting Must Do |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/opinion/sunday/what-the-paris-climate-meeting-must-do.html |date=28 November 2015 |work={{wipe|The New York Times}} |access-date=28 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129034132/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/opinion/sunday/what-the-paris-climate-meeting-must-do.html |archive-date=29 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Earth is a wilder, warmer place since last climate deal made |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151129/eu-climate-countdown-since-1997-edf9d62e51.html |date=29 November 2015 |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202040332/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151129/eu-climate-countdown-since-1997-edf9d62e51.html |archive-date=2 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> a target reached on 4 November 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Yeo|first=Sophie|date=6 October 2016|title=Explainer: Paris Agreement on climate change to 'enter into force'|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-paris-agreement-to-enter-into-force|access-date=8 May 2021|website=Carbon Brief|language=en}}</ref> On 22 April 2016 ([[Biology:Earth Day|Earth Day]]), 174 countries signed the agreement in New York,
<ref>{{cite web|author1=Pamela Falk|title=U.S. joins 174 nations to sign hard-won climate pact|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-climate-pact-un-signing-ceremony-paris-agreement-cop21/|website=CBSNEWS|access-date=9 November 2016|date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026133325/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-climate-pact-un-signing-ceremony-paris-agreement-cop21/|archive-date=26 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and began adopting it within their own legal systems (through ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession).

According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks,<ref>[http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/learn/what-is-cop21/ What is COP21?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210193406/http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/learn/what-is-cop21/ |date=10 December 2015 }} access date 30 November 2015</ref> the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting [[Earth:Global warming|global warming]] to "well below 2&nbsp;°C" [[Celsius]] compared to pre-industrial levels. The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic [[Earth:Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions]] to be reached during the second half of the 21st century. In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement,<ref name="FCCC_CP_2015_L9_Rev1"/> the parties will also "pursue efforts to" limit the temperature increase to 1.5&nbsp;°C.<ref name=CNN/> The 1.5&nbsp;°C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to some scientists.<ref name=CNN/>

Prior to the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented a draft of national climate contributions (called "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions", INDCs). These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7&nbsp;°C by 2100.<ref>[http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-press-release/ New UN Report Synthesizes National Climate Plans from 146 Countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121907/http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-press-release/ |date=8 December 2015 }}, UNFCCC 30 October 2015</ref> For example, the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990.<ref>[http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Latvia/1/LV-03-06-EU%20INDC.pdf Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the EU and its Member States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010232835/http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Latvia/1/LV-03-06-EU%20INDC.pdf |date=10 October 2015 }}, 6 March 2015</ref> The agreement establishes a "[[Earth:Global stocktake|global stocktake]]" which revisits the national goals to "update and enhance" them every five years beginning 2023.<ref name="FCCC_CP_2015_L9_Rev1"/> However, no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement – as opposed to the previous [[Chemistry:Kyoto Protocol|Kyoto Protocol]].

A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21, including the [[Place:Bonn|Bonn]] Climate Change Conference, 19 to 23 October 2015, which produced a draft agreement.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Bonn Climate Change Conference | date = October 2015 | url = http://unfccc.int/meetings/bonn_oct_2015/meeting/8924.php | website = unfccc.int | access-date = 15 December 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160123014706/https://unfccc.int/meetings/bonn_oct_2015/meeting/8924.php | archive-date = 23 January 2016 | url-status = live }}</ref>

==Background==
{{Pie chart
 | caption= Global [[Chemistry:List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|carbon dioxide emissions]] by country in 2015.
 | other = yes
 | label1 = China
 | value1 = 29.5 | color1=#E33
 | label2 = USA
 | value2 = 14.3 | color2=#1A9
 | label3 = EU
 | value3 = 9.6  | color3=#36A
 | label4 = India
 | value4 = 6.8  | color4=#CC5
 | label5 = Russia
 | value5 = 4.9  | color5=#E72
 | label6 = Japan
 | value6 = 3.5  | color6=#928
 }}
[[File:Co2-1990-2012.svg|thumb|350px|Shows the top 40 CO<sub>2</sub> emitting countries and related in the world in 1990 and 2012, including per capita figures. The data is taken from the [http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2ts1990-2013 EU Edgar database].]]

According to the organizing committee of the summit in Paris, the objective of the 2015 conference was to achieve, for the first time in over 20 years of UN negotiations, a binding and universal agreement on climate.<ref name=dipl>{{cite web | url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy-1/sustainable-development-1097/21st-conference-of-the-parties-on/article/issues-and-reasons-behind-the | title=Issues and reasons behind the French offer to host the 21st Conference of the Parties on Climate Change 2015 | publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs | date=22 May 2013 | access-date=31 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101206/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy-1/sustainable-development-1097/21st-conference-of-the-parties-on/article/issues-and-reasons-behind-the | archive-date=2 February 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Pope Francis published an encyclical letter called ''Laudato si''' intended, in part, to influence the conference. The encyclical calls for action against climate change: "Humanity is called to recognize the need for changes of lifestyle, production and consumption, in order to combat this warming or at least the human causes which produce or aggravate it."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html|title=Laudato Si, section 23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225922/http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The International Trade Union Confederation has called for the goal to be "zero carbon, zero poverty", and its general secretary Sharan Burrow has repeated that there are "no jobs on a dead planet".

==Location and participation==
[[File:JCH 6442 (22802505643).jpg|thumb|left|The heads of delegations from left to right: Enrique Peña Nieto, François Hollande, Angela Merkel, Michelle Bachelet]]

The location of UNFCCC talks is rotated by regions throughout {{wipe|United Nations}} countries. The 2015 conference was held at Le Bourget from 30 November<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy-1/sustainable-development-1097/21st-conference-of-the-parties-on/article/france-confirmed-as-host-of-2015 | title=France confirmed as host of 2015 Climate Conference | publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs | date=22 November 2013 | access-date=31 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101208/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy-1/sustainable-development-1097/21st-conference-of-the-parties-on/article/france-confirmed-as-host-of-2015 | archive-date=2 February 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> to 12 December 2015.

To some extent, France served as a model country for delegates attending COP21 because it is one of the few developed countries in the world to decarbonize electricity production and fossil fuel energy while still providing a high standard of living.<ref>Guivarch, Celine and Hallegatte, S., 2C or Not 2C? 19 January 2012. FEEM Working Paper No. 87.2011. {{DOI|10.2139/ssrn.1988201}}</ref> As of 2012, France generated over 90% of its electricity from zero carbon sources, including nuclear, hydroelectric, and wind.

The conference took place two weeks after a series of terrorist attacks in the 8th ward of Paris, Saint-Denis. Martial law was declared and national security was tightened accordingly, with 30,000 police officers and 285 security checkpoints deployed across the country until after the conference ended.<ref>{{citation |url=http://time.com/4113215/paris-attacks-climate-conference/ |title=Paris Climate Conference to Proceed with Heightened Security After Attacks |date=14 November 2015 |last=Worland |first=Justin |publisher=Time Inc. |access-date=4 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216005037/http://time.com/4113215/paris-attacks-climate-conference/ |archive-date=16 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The European Union and 195 nations (''see list in reference'')<ref name=unfcc>{{cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/status_of_ratification/items/2631.php|title=Status of Ratification of the Convention|access-date=15 December 2015|publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111035327/http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/status_of_ratification/items/2631.php|archive-date=11 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> were the participating parties.

==Negotiations==
[[File: GUSTAVO-CAMACHO-GONZALEZ-L1060274 (23430273715).jpg|thumb|COP 21: Heads of delegations]]

The overarching goal of the Convention is to reduce [[Earth:Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions]] to limit the global temperature increase. Since COP 17 this increase is set at {{convert|2|C-change}} above pre-industrial levels.<ref>{{cite web|title=Schedule of Events |url=http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/warsaw_nov_2013/application/pdf/cop19cmp9_overview_schedule.pdf |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |access-date=12 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112055835/http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/warsaw_nov_2013/application/pdf/cop19cmp9_overview_schedule.pdf |archive-date=12 November 2013 }}</ref> However, Christiana Figueres acknowledged in the closing briefing at the [[Earth:2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2012 Doha conference]]: "The current pledges under the second commitment period of the Kyoto protocol are clearly not enough to guarantee that the temperature will stay below 2&nbsp;°C and there is an ever increasing gap between the action of countries and what the science tells us."

During previous climate negotiations, countries agreed to outline actions they intended to take within a global agreement, by 1 October 2015. These commitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions or INDCs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wri.org/indc-definition |title=What is an INDC? &#124; World Resources Institute |publisher=Wri.org |date=10 November 2015 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063240/http://www.wri.org/indc-definition |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Together, the INDCs would reduce global warming from an estimated 4–5&nbsp;°C (by 2100) to 2.7&nbsp;°C, and reduce emissions per capita by 9% by 2030, while providing hope in the eyes of the conference organizers for further reductions in the future that would allow meeting a 2&nbsp;°C target.<ref>Nick Nuttall, [http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-press-release/ Global Response to Climate Change Keeps Door Open to 2 Degree C Temperature Limit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121907/http://newsroom.unfccc.int/unfccc-newsroom/indc-synthesis-report-press-release/ |date=8 December 2015 }}, UNFCCC press office, 30 October 2015.</ref>

Think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) argued that the keys to success lay in convincing officials in the U.S. and China, by far the two largest national emitters:
"As long as policy makers in Washington and Beijing didn't put all their political capital behind the adoption of ambitious carbon-emission capping targets, the laudable efforts of other G20 governments often remained in the realm of pious wishes. Things changed for the better on 12 November 2014 when President Obama and General Secretary Xi Jinping agreed to limit greenhouse gases emissions."<ref>{{cite news |first1=M. Nicolas J. |last1=Firzli |title=Climate: Renewed Sense of Urgency in Washington and Beijing |url=http://action.shareaction.org/page/-/ClimateCapitalStewardshipFosteringMorePensionEngagement.pdf |access-date=6 January 2016 |work=Analyse Financière |date=September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222161134/http://action.shareaction.org/page/-/ClimateCapitalStewardshipFosteringMorePensionEngagement.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

President Obama insisted on America's essential role in that regard: "We've led by example ... from Alaska to the Gulf Coast to the Great Plains ... we've seen the longest streak of private job creation in our history. We've driven our economic output to all time-highs while driving our carbon pollution down to its lowest level in nearly two decades. And then, with our historic joint announcement with China last year, we showed it was possible to bridge the old divide between developed and developing nations that had stymied global progress for so long ... That was the foundation for success in Paris."<ref>{{cite news |author1=President Obama |title=President Obama's Statement on Climate Change |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/climate-change |access-date=30 December 2015 |via=National Archives |work=whitehouse.gov |date=12 December 2015 }}</ref> Harvard University published a case study on one aspect of the negotiations, focussing on the protection of forests.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://case.hks.harvard.edu/negotiating-toward-the-paris-accords-wwf-the-role-of-forests-in-the-2015-climate-agreement/|title=Negotiating Toward the Paris Accords: WWF & the Role of Forests in the 2015 Climate Agreement}}</ref>

==Outcome==
On 12 December 2015, the participating 196 countries agreed, by consensus, to the final<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/12/459464621/final-draft-of-world-climate-agreement-goes-to-a-vote-in-paris-saturday |title=Nearly 200 Nations Adopt Climate Agreement At COP21 Talks In Paris |last1=Chappel |first1=Bill |date=12 December 2015 |website=NPR |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212185306/http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/12/459464621/final-draft-of-world-climate-agreement-goes-to-a-vote-in-paris-saturday |archive-date=12 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> global pact, the Paris Agreement, to reduce emissions as part of the method for reducing greenhouse gas. In the 12-page document,<ref name="FCCC_CP_2015_L9_Rev1"/> the members agreed to reduce their carbon output "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "to well below 2 degrees C".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cop21-climate-change-talks-saturday-announced-1.3362354 |title='Historic' Paris climate deal adopted |author=no byline |date=12 December 2015 |website=CBC News |publisher=CBC/Radio Canada |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212162432/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cop21-climate-change-talks-saturday-announced-1.3362354 |archive-date=12 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the course of the debates, island states of the Pacific, the Seychelles, but also the Philippines, their very existence threatened by sea level rise, had strongly voted for setting a goal of 1.5&nbsp;°C instead of only 2&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Pacific countries that need the Paris 1.5C temperature rise agreement to 'stay alive' |date=12 December 2015 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/cop21-the-marshall-islands-and-other-pacific-countries-paris-need-the-15c-temperature-rise-agreement-a6770766.html |newspaper=Independent |location=London, England |access-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404050552/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/cop21-the-marshall-islands-and-other-pacific-countries-paris-need-the-15c-temperature-rise-agreement-a6770766.html |archive-date=4 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Will '1.5 to stay alive' deal be enough to save Seychelles?|date=12 December 2015|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/climate-change-seychelles-cop21-economy-collapse|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London, England|access-date=6 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416133835/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/climate-change-seychelles-cop21-economy-collapse|archive-date=16 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
France's Foreign Minister, Laurent Fabius, said this "ambitious and balanced" plan was an "historic turning point" in the goal of reducing global warming.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-summit-idUSKBN0TV04L20151212#gVKudBATCD0EGdxL.97 |title=World seals landmark climate accord, marking turn from fossil fuels |last1=Doyle |first1=Allister |last2=Lewis |first2=Barbara |date=12 December 2015 |website=Reuters |publisher=Thomson Reuters |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212070457/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-summit-idUSKBN0TV04L20151212#gVKudBATCD0EGdxL.97 |archive-date=12 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some others criticized the fact that significant sections are "promises" or aims and not firm commitments by the countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Milman |first=Oliver |date=12 December 2015 |title=James Hansen, father of climate change awareness, calls Paris talks 'a fraud' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/james-hansen-climate-change-paris-talks-fraud |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London, England |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214001649/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/12/james-hansen-climate-change-paris-talks-fraud |archive-date=14 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Non-binding commitments, lack of enforcement mechanisms===
The Agreement will not become binding on its member states until 55 parties who produce over 55% of the world's greenhouse gas have ratified the Agreement. There is doubt whether some countries, especially the United States,<ref>{{cite news |last=Pengelly |first=Martin |date=12 December 2015 |title=Obama praises Paris climate deal as 'tribute to American leadership' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/12/obama-speech-paris-climate-change-talks-deal-american-leadership |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London, England |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126030842/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/12/obama-speech-paris-climate-change-talks-deal-american-leadership |archive-date=26 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> will agree to do so, though the United States publicly committed, in a joint Presidential Statement with China, to joining the Agreement in 2016.<ref name=CNN/>

Each country that ratifies the agreement will be required to set a target for emission reduction or limitation, called a "nationally determined contribution", or NDC, but the amount will be voluntary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/index.html?eref=rss_topstories |title=Obama: Climate agreement 'best chance we have' to save the planet |last1=Sutter |first1=John D. |last2=Berlinger |first2=Joshua |date=12 December 2015 |website=CNN |publisher=CNN Network, Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213082201/http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/12/world/global-climate-change-conference-vote/index.html?eref=rss_topstories |archive-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20151214"/> There will be neither a mechanism to force<ref>{{cite news |last=Reguly |first=Eric |date=14 December 2015 |title=Paris climate accord marks shift toward low-carbon economy |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/optimism-in-paris-as-final-draft-of-global-climate-deal-tabled/article27739122/ |newspaper=Globe and Mail |location=Toronto, Canada |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213170301/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/optimism-in-paris-as-final-draft-of-global-climate-deal-tabled/article27739122/ |archive-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> a country to set a target by a specific date nor enforcement measures if a set target is not met.<ref name="BBC-20151214">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35092127 |title=COP21: What does the Paris climate agreement mean for me? |first=Mark |last=Kinver |date=14 December 2015 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214130942/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35092127 |archive-date=14 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html |title=Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris |last=Davenport |first=Coral |date=12 December 2015 |website=New York Times|access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214090225/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html |archive-date=14 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> There will be only a "name and shame" system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/paris-climate-deal-what-the-agreement-means-for-india-and-the-world/story-U7TWH8dusBqRV8pzmqDG8M.html|title=Paris climate deal: What the agreement means for India and the world|access-date=14 December 2015|date=14 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214182821/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/paris-climate-deal-what-the-agreement-means-for-india-and-the-world/story-U7TWH8dusBqRV8pzmqDG8M.html|archive-date=14 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> or, as János Pásztor, the U.N. assistant secretary-general on climate change, told CBS News, a "name and encourage" plan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/cop21-climate-change-conference-final-draft-historic-plan/ |title=Climate negotiators strike deal to slow global warming |author=no byline |date=12 December 2015 |website=CBS News |publisher=CBS Interactive Inc. |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213054835/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/cop21-climate-change-conference-final-draft-historic-plan/ |archive-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some analysts have also observed that the stated objectives of the Paris Agreement are implicitly "predicated upon an assumption – that member states of the United Nations, including high polluters such as China, US, India, Canada, Russia, Indonesia and Australia, which generate more than half the world's greenhouse gas emissions, will somehow drive down their carbon pollution voluntarily and assiduously without any binding enforcement mechanism to measure and control CO<sub>2</sub> emissions at any level from factory to state, and without any specific penalty gradation or fiscal pressure (for example a [[Earth:Carbon tax|carbon tax]]) to discourage bad behaviour."<ref>{{cite news|author1=M. Nicolas J. Firzli|title=Investment Governance: The Real Fight against Emissions is Being Waged by Markets|url=http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2016-01-25/un-climate-conference-cop21-laurent-fabius-carbon-emissions-calpers-calstrs|work=Dow Jones Financial News|date=25 January 2016|access-date=2 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126084755/http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2016-01-25/un-climate-conference-cop21-laurent-fabius-carbon-emissions-calpers-calstrs|archive-date=26 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Institutional investors' contribution to limiting fossil fuels===
Speaking at the 5th annual World Pensions Forum held on the sidelines of the COP21 Summit, Earth Institute Director Jeffrey Sachs argued that [[Finance:Institutional investor|institutional investor]]s would eventually divest from carbon-reliant firms if they could not react to political and regulatory efforts to halt climate change: "Every energy company in a pension fund's portfolio needs to be scrutinized from purely a financial view about its future, 'Why is this [a company] we would want to hold over a five- to 20-year period?'... If we continue to hold major energy companies that don't have an answer to a basic financial test, we are just gambling. We have to take a [[Social:Fiduciary|fiduciary]] responsibility – these are not good bets."<ref>{{cite news|author1=Andrew Pearce|title=Jeffrey Sachs: Fund Managers Have a Duty to Dump Fossil Fuels|url=http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2015-12-07/sachs222|access-date=16 December 2015|work=Financial News|date=6 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223001425/http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2015-12-07/sachs222|archive-date=23 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some US policy makers concurred, notably [[Biography:Al Gore|Al Gore]], insisting that "no agreement is perfect, and this one must be strengthened over time, but groups across every sector of society will now begin to reduce dangerous carbon pollution through the framework of this agreement."<ref>{{cite news|author1=John Vidal|title=Paris Climate Agreement 'May Signal End of Fossil Fuel Era'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/13/paris-climate-agreement-signal-end-of-fossil-fuel-era|access-date=16 December 2015|work=The Guardian|date=13 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104044338/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/13/paris-climate-agreement-signal-end-of-fossil-fuel-era|archive-date=4 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Declarations of non-state parties==
[[File:-1heart1tree - Tour Eiffel à -Paris - Eiffel Tower - COP 21 (22779585433).jpg|thumb|Eiffel Tower illuminated in green in response to the ''One heart, One tree'' campaign]]
As is usual before such major conferences, major NGOs and groups of governments have drafted and published a wide variety of declarations they intend to seek a consensus on, at the Paris conference itself. These include at least the following major efforts:
*ICLEI at its World Congress, launched the new '''Transformative Actions Program (TAP)''' intended to progress local and subnational action ahead of COP21<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transport2020.org/newsitem/3286/iclei-world-congress-2015-sees-mayors-commit-ahead-of-paris-cop-21 |title=ICLEI World Congress 2015 sees Mayors commit ahead of Paris COP 21 - Bridging the Gap |publisher=Transport2020.org |date=15 April 2015 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117030537/http://www.transport2020.org/newsitem/3286/iclei-world-congress-2015-sees-mayors-commit-ahead-of-paris-cop-21 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> to build on its 2005 COP11 (Montreal summit) commitments,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.iclei.org/documents/events/montreal_summit/declaration/World_Mayors_and_Municipal_Leaders_Declaration_on_Climate_Change_English.pdf |title=World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change |publisher=Archive.iclei.org |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024152/http://archive.iclei.org/documents/events/montreal_summit/declaration/World_Mayors_and_Municipal_Leaders_Declaration_on_Climate_Change_English.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Triple Bottom Line framework arising from that, and other local efforts.
**''European capital and large cities for climate action en route to COP 21 Declaration'', adopted 26 March 2015 by "representatives of EU capitals and large cities of 28 EU Member States at the Mayors Meeting organized by Anne Hidalgo, Mayor of Paris, and Ignazio Marino, Mayor of Rome, who argue that "urban areas exposed to climate change are also essential innovation testing zones",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/service/gesetzestexte/de/download/beschaffung/2015_03_declaration_en.pdf |title=European capital and large cities for climate action en route to COP 21 |publisher=Stadtentwicklung.berlin.de |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022949/http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/service/gesetzestexte/de/download/beschaffung/2015_03_declaration_en.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> which is the focus of the ICLEI mechanisms, metrics and 2005 declaration.
*Private, corporate and private-public partnerships
**At the World Summit of Regions for Climate (WSRC) in Paris 2014, Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Founder of [[Organization:R20 Regions of Climate Action|R20]], invited a coalition of governments, businesses and investors to sign a draft "Paris Declaration" at World Climate Summit in Lima 2014, World Green Economy Summit 2015 in Dubai and COP21.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://regions-climate.org/declaration/ |title=World Summit of Regions for Climate |publisher=Regions-climate.org |date=11 October 2014 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025629/http://regions-climate.org/declaration/ |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>
**'''[[Organization:The Shift Project|The Shift Project]]''' by French business organizations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theshiftproject.org/this-article/the-shift-project-signs-a-declaration-in-preparation-for-the-cop-21 |title=signs a declaration in preparation for the COP 21 |publisher=The Shift Project |date=17 July 2014 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020950/http://theshiftproject.org/this-article/the-shift-project-signs-a-declaration-in-preparation-for-the-cop-21 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Indigenous peoples efforts include:
**'''Asian indigenous peoples declaration'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aippnet.org/index.php/statements/1565-asia-indigenous-peoples-declaration-on-the-21st-session-of-the-unfccc-conference-of-parties-cop21 |title=Asia Indigenous Peoples' Declaration on the 21st Session of the UNFCCC-Conference of Parties (COP21) |publisher=Aippnet.org |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022057/http://www.aippnet.org/index.php/statements/1565-asia-indigenous-peoples-declaration-on-the-21st-session-of-the-unfccc-conference-of-parties-cop21 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>
**IPACC acting for African indigenous peoples<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipacc.org.za/eng/default.asp |title=Indigenous Peoples of Africa Co-ordinating Committee |publisher=IPACC |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023807/http://www.ipacc.org.za/eng/default.asp |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> in particular but also worldwide<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipcca.info/ipcca-note-looking-ahead-cop21-state-of-negotiations-on-the-indigenous-peoples-agenda |title=Looking ahead COP21: State of negotiations on the Indigenous Peoples' agenda |publisher=Ipcca.info |date=11 September 2015 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063957/http://ipcca.info/ipcca-note-looking-ahead-cop21-state-of-negotiations-on-the-indigenous-peoples-agenda |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
**A vast range of groups and peoples "seeking presence in post-2015" development, e.g. the Centre for Autonomy and Development of Indigenous People in Nicaragua<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/09/indigenous-peoples-seek-presence-in-post-2015-development-agenda/ |title=Indigenous Peoples Seek Presence in Post-2015 Development Agenda &#124; Inter Press Service |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=4 September 2014 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063245/http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/09/indigenous-peoples-seek-presence-in-post-2015-development-agenda/ |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
**Many indigenous polities and sovereignties seeking recognition under the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf |title=United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples |publisher=Un.org |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106082402/http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> who demanded recognition and change also in 2014 at the [[Earth:2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Lima.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/un-framework-convention-climate-change-unfccc/news/2014/12/summary-indigenous-people-s-demand |title=Summary of Indigenous People's Demands for UNFCCC CoP20, Lima, Peru &#124; Forest Peoples Programme |publisher=Forestpeoples.org |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032817/http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/un-framework-convention-climate-change-unfccc/news/2014/12/summary-indigenous-people-s-demand |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015 this will include those with specific grievances, e.g. the [[Place:Wabanaki Confederacy|Wabanaki Confederacy]] in its opposition to hydraulic fracturing and Energy East, has announced it will send a diplomatic representative regarding events in 2013 in New Brunswick that highlighted the relative imbalance of power to resist fossil fuel corporations even on unceded lands:
***"Canada is the home to 75% of the worlds {{sic}} mining corporations, and they have tended to have relative impunity in the Canadian Courts" - Winona LaDuke<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthfirstjournal.org/newswire/2013/07/02/when-drones-guard-the-pipeline-militarizing-fossil-fuels-in-the-east/ |title=When Drones Guard the Pipeline: Militarizing Fossil Fuels in the East &#124; Earth First! Newswire |publisher=Earthfirstjournal.org |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024817/http://earthfirstjournal.org/newswire/2013/07/02/when-drones-guard-the-pipeline-militarizing-fossil-fuels-in-the-east/ |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'''Women's Earth and Climate Action Network''' seeking "powerful submissions by worldwide women" sharing "stories, struggles, solutions and action plans ... [a] women's [[Earth:Climate justice|climate justice]] mobilization"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wecaninternational.org/pages/global-womens-climate-justice-mobilization |title=Global Women's Climate Justice Day of Action - Sept. 29, 2015 &#124; WECAN |publisher=Wecaninternational.org |date=29 September 2015 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024619/http://wecaninternational.org/pages/global-womens-climate-justice-mobilization |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*'''Countries of the Mediterranean Sea.''' Dam Bridge, Strait of Gibraltar, S.A. (PPEGSA). The first draft [http://www.presapuente.com PresaPuente] adapting to climate change is designed to protect the Mediterranean from the imminent rising waters caused by the polar thaw. More than 24 countries, over 500 million people, more than 15,000 islands and thousands of kilometres of coast which can be saved from flooding.
*'''Solar alliance''': Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced at the 2015 G-20 Summit that he, along with French President François Hollande, intends to propose creating an alliance of solar-rich countries similar to the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.firstpost.com/world/g20-summit-modi-pushes-for-100-bn-finances-to-pursue-clean-energy-proposes-grand-global-solar-alliance-2507518.html |title=G20 summit: Modi pushes for $100 bn finances to pursue clean energy, proposes grand global solar alliance |publisher=Firstpost |date=15 November 2015 |access-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119090808/http://www.firstpost.com/world/g20-summit-modi-pushes-for-100-bn-finances-to-pursue-clean-energy-proposes-grand-global-solar-alliance-2507518.html |archive-date=19 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/india-should-take-initiatives-to-form-league-like-opec-modi-281550.html |title=India should take initiatives to form league like OPEC: Modi |agency=Charanka |date=19 April 2012 |access-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026195729/http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/india-should-take-initiatives-to-form-league-like-opec-modi-281550.html |archive-date=26 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ahead of the climate summit, the two leaders sent written invitations to over 100 countries to join the coalition proposed to be called the International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (InSPA).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/narendra-modi-francois-hollande-invite-over-100-countries-for-solar-alliance/articleshow/49925633.cms |title=Narendra Modi, Francois Hollande invite over 100 countries for solar alliance |newspaper=The Economic Times |publisher=Economictimes.indiatimes.com |date=25 November 2015 |access-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128034122/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/narendra-modi-francois-hollande-invite-over-100-countries-for-solar-alliance/articleshow/49925633.cms |archive-date=28 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*A vast range of other activities<ref>{{cite web |last=Bisiaux |first=Alice |url=http://climate-l.iisd.org/events/unfccc-cop-21/ |title=Event: UNFCCC COP 21 &#124; Climate Change Policy & Practice &#124; IISD Reporting Services |publisher=Climate-l.iisd.org |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114092003/http://climate-l.iisd.org/events/unfccc-cop-21/ |archive-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> in preparation to influence the major decisions at the conference.

==Financing==
[[File:Greenpeace Climate March 2015 Madrid.jpg|thumb|Greenpeace activists, demanding 100% [[Engineering:Renewable energy|renewable energy]] at Climate March 2015 in Madrid]]
The conference was budgeted to cost €170m (US$186.87m at the time). The French government said that 20% of the cost would be borne by French firms such as EDF, [[Company:Engie|Engie]] (formerly known as GDF Suez), Air France, Renault-Nissan and [[Company:BNP Paribas|BNP Paribas]].<ref>{{cite news|author1=Arthur Neslen|title=France defends 'imperfect' fossil fuel sponsors for Paris climate summit|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/may/29/paris-climate-summit-sponsors-include-fossil-fuel-firms-and-big-carbon-emitters|access-date=23 September 2015|work=The Guardian|date=29 May 2015|quote=guard|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923060305/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/may/29/paris-climate-summit-sponsors-include-fossil-fuel-firms-and-big-carbon-emitters|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Sponsors were among others [[Company:BMW|BMW]], Avery Dennison, Carbon Trade Exchange, Cool Effect, [[Company:The Coca-Cola Company|The Coca-Cola Company]], the Climate Resources Exchange and Vattenfall.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sponsors and Partners of UNFCCC COP 21 side event|url=http://www.cop21paris.org/sponsors-and-partners/sponsors|access-date=2021-01-03|website=www.cop21paris.org}}</ref>

==Demonstrations==

Around the world, 600,000 took part in demonstrations in favour of a strong agreement, such as the Global Climate March organized by [[Organization:350.org|350.org]] (and other events such as Alternatiba, Village of Alternatives). Paris had a ban on public gatherings in the wake of recent terrorist attacks (state of emergency), but allowed thousands to demonstrate on 12 December against what they felt was a too-weak treaty.<ref>Organisers of events include [http://anv-cop21.org/ Non-violent action COP21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001164825/http://anv-cop21.org/ |date=1 October 2016 }}, see {{YouTube|hhxPRGp-5jo|Rassemblement Champ-de-Mars 12 décembre 2015 [Gathering at the Champ-de-Mars on 12 December 2015]}}. One of the slogan was "État d'urgence climatique" (state of [[Earth:Climate emergency declaration|climate emergency]]).</ref> There was also an illegal demonstration in Paris, including violent clashes between police and anarchists; ten policemen were injured and 317 people arrested.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/live/2015/nov/29/global-peoples-climate-change-march-2015-day-of-action-live Global climate march 2015: hundreds of thousands march around the world – as it happened] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126011051/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/live/2015/nov/29/global-peoples-climate-change-march-2015-day-of-action-live |date=26 November 2016 }}, 21:43, ''{{wipe|The Guardian}}''. Accessed 13 December 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-activists-gather-in-paris-to-protest-outcome-of-conference.html|title=Protesters Are in Agreement as Well: Pact Is Too Weak|last1=Rubin|first1=Alissa J.|date=12 December 2015|last2=Peltier|first2=Elian|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-07-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111141840/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-activists-gather-in-paris-to-protest-outcome-of-conference.html|archive-date=11 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 30 November, the first day of the conference, a "climate strike" was organised by students in over 100 countries; over 50,000 people participate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GjdVgGfcb8 |title=Climate Strike 2015: Students Skip School demanding Climate Actions |work=Climate Strike |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=14 March 2019 |publisher=[[Company:YouTube|YouTube]]}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Social:Environmental politics|Environmental politics]]
* [[Earth:IPCC Fifth Assessment Report|IPCC Fifth Assessment Report]]
* Paris Agreement
*[[Engineering:Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
* [[Earth:Politics of global warming|Politics of global warming]]
* [[Earth:Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions|Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions]]
* ''[[Social:The Standing March|The Standing March]]''
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="FCCC_CP_2015_L9_Rev1">{{cite web|title=Adoption of the Paris agreement – by the President – Draft decision -/CP.21 |publisher=UNFCCC |date=12 December 2015 |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf  |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212194411/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150227165317/http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en Official French website]
* [https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/past-conferences/paris-climate-change-conference-november-2015/paris-climate-change-conference-november-2015 Official UN website]
* [https://www.cop21paris.org/ Official Paris Climate Conference]
* {{cite news |last=Gillis |first=Justin |date=28 November 2015 |title=Short Answers to Hard; Questions About Climate Change |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/11/28/science/what-is-climate-change.html |newspaper=NYT |access-date=10 August 2016}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GQfe6r6w2I&list=PL717E307DE4DD6C6C&index=1 COP21 questions and answers. Video by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GICzLb1d0M Why COP21 matters, and how climate change impacts sustainable development. Video by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)]
* [http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/events/2015/december/COP21-paris-climate-conference.html Background on COP21 from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207034122/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/events/2015/december/COP21-paris-climate-conference.html |date=2020-12-07  }}
* [https://works.bepress.com/bryan_druzin/18/download/ A Plan to strengthen the Paris Agreement]
* [https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/ NOAA State of the Climate]

{{Global warming|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:United Nations Climate Change Conference}}
[[Category:Climate change policy]]

{{Sourceattribution|2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference|1}}