View source for Earth:Acamarachi

{{short description|Mountain in Chile}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Acamarachi
| other_name = Pili<ref name="GVPN" />
| photo = Acamarachi Volcano.jpg
| photo_caption = Acamarachi viewed from the north
| elevation_m = 6046
| elevation_ref = <ref name="GVP" />
| parent_peak = [[Earth:San Pedro (Chile volcano)|San Pedro (Chile volcano)]]
| prominence_m = 1608
| prominence_ref = 
| listing = Ultra
| range = [[Place:Andes|Andes]]
| location = [[Place:Antofagasta Region|Antofagasta Region]], {{wipe|Chile}}
| map = Chile Antofagasta#Chile#Argentina
| map_caption = 
| map_size =
| label_position = left
| relief = 1
| range_coordinates = 
| coordinates = {{coord|23|18|S|67|37|W|type:mountain_region:CL-AN_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="GVP" />
| type = [[Earth:Stratovolcano|Stratovolcano]]
| age = 
| last_eruption = Unknown<ref name="GVP" />
| first_ascent = 14 March 1939 - Aldo Bonacossa and Remigio Gerard (Italy)<ref name="Meciani" /><ref name="Echevarria1963" />
| easiest_route = 
| embedded      = {{Infobox mapframe |wikidata=yes |zoom=8 |coord={{WikidataCoord|display=i}}}}
}}
__NOTOC__
'''Acamarachi''' (also known as ''Pili''<ref name="GVPN" />) is a {{convert|6046|m|adj=on}} high [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]] in northern {{wipe|Chile}}.<ref name="SiebertSimkin2011" /> In this part of Chile, it is the highest volcano.<ref name="GVP" /> Its name means "black moon".<ref name="Santander2000" /> It is a volcano in the Central Volcanic Zone of the [[Place:Andes|Andes]], a zone of strong volcanic activity during the last million years. Old volcanoes in the area are well-preserved, due to the dry climate.

Acamarachi itself is a cone-shaped volcano with steep upper flanks and a [[Earth:Lava dome|lava dome]] on its northern side. While there is no indication of historical activity and the flank lava flows are old, some lava flows around the summit crater and a lava coulee north of Acamarachi on the [[Earth:Saddle (landform)|saddle]] between Acamarachi and Colachi volcano may be postglacial in age. Acamarachi is formed by [[Earth:Andesite|andesitic]] and [[Earth:Dacite|dacitic]] rocks.

Acamarachi features an Inca mountain sanctuary on which several figurines have been found. One female figurine is made out of [[Chemistry:Silver|silver]], a male one is made out of thorny oyster. Both of these figurines were found with miniature clothing.

== Geological context ==
The volcano is located in the Central Volcanic Zone, an area of volcanism in the Andes. Volcanism in this area is dependent on the [[Earth:Subduction|subduction]] in the Peru-Chile Trench. 27 million years ago, in this area of the Andes large rhyolitic eruptions commenced and formed major [[Earth:Ignimbrite|ignimbrite]]s, dramatically increasing 10 million years ago. At the same time starting in the Miocene, andesitic to dacitic eruptive activity has formed large [[Earth:Stratovolcano|stratovolcano]]es. This activity in the late [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] and [[Earth:Holocene|Holocene]] has created the current [[Earth:Volcanic arc|volcanic arc]].<ref name="D.)Gibbons2007" />

The climate of the area is hyperarid. Thus, ignimbrites and individual volcanoes keep most of their original appearance. Most of these volcanoes are remote structures that are unlikely to affect significant population, although wind-driven transport of tephra can potentially cause economic and other damage at considerable distance.<ref name="D.)Gibbons2007" />

== Geology ==
Acamarachi is a {{convert|6046|m}} high<ref name="GVP" />{{efn|Other data from digital elevation models: SRTM yields {{convert|6024|m}},<ref name="USGS" /> [[Astronomy:Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer|ASTER]] {{convert|5971|m}},<ref name="ASTER"/> SRTM filled with [[Astronomy:Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer|ASTER]]{{convert|6024|m}},<ref name="ASTER" /> ALOS {{convert|5971|m}}<ref name="ALOS" /> and [[Engineering:TanDEM-X|TanDEM-X]] {{convert|6050|m}}.<ref name="TanDEM" />}}{{efn|The height of the nearest key col is {{convert|4438|m}},<ref name="Specialists" /> leading to a [[Earth:Topographic prominence|topographic prominence]] of {{convert|1608|m}} with a topographical dominance of 26.6%. Its parent peak is [[Earth:San Pedro (Chile volcano)|San Pedro]] and the [[Earth:Topographic isolation|Topographic isolation]] is {{convert|175.3|km}}.<ref name="Kausch" />}} steep-sided conical volcano, like several other volcanoes in the region. Such a shape is due to the relatively high viscosity of the lavas forming them. In the case of Acamarachi, the upper slopes reach a slope angle of 45°. On the volcano's northern flank there is a large lava dome<ref name="GVP" /> while the rest of the edifice is symmetrical.<ref name="OSU" /> A {{convert|10|-|15|m}} deep [[Earth:Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] lies in the summit crater and may be kept ice-free by magmatic heat.<ref name="AmigoOrozco2012" /> {{As of|2021}}, it is considered the world's highest site of an underwater dive.<ref name="Robins2022" />

Acamarachi is constructed by andesite and dacite.<ref name="Clapperton1993" /> Rocks are porphyritic and contain [[Chemistry:Hornblende|hornblende]] as well as [[Chemistry:Biotite|biotite]] or [[Chemistry:Pyroxene|pyroxene]]. [[Chemistry:Augite|Augite]], [[Chemistry:Hypersthene|hypersthene]] and [[Chemistry:Plagioclase|plagioclase]] are also present, with smaller contents of [[Chemistry:Olivine|olivine]] and [[Chemistry:Quartz|quartz]].<ref name="OSU" /> The composition of Acamarachi's rocks resembles that of Colachi's.<ref name="AmigoOrozco2012" />

A study of lava flows at the summit concluded that Acamarachi's last eruption may have occurred during the [[Earth:Holocene|Holocene]].<ref name="SiebertSimkin2011" /><ref name="GVP" /> There are no young lava flows on the flanks and the summit [[Earth:Volcanic crater|crater]] is degraded. Possibly after the [[Earth:Ice age|ice age]]s, north of Acamarachi a silicic coulee was erupted on the saddle between Acamarachi and Colachi. This coulee has well preserved flow structures and covers {{convert|7|km}}. No evidence exists for activity in historical times<ref name="OSU" /> and the lack of volcanic damage to archeological sites suggests that it was active during the last millennium. Renewed activity would most likely generate lava flows or lava domes; impact would be limited on the immediate surroundings of the volcano.<ref name="AmigoOrozco2012" />

The volcano is part of a northwest-bound alignment along with Rili, Colachi and Yalquis-Putas, which may be linked to [[Earth:Fault (geology)|fault]]s underground.<ref name="Zeil1964" /> However, Colachi and Acamarachi seem to have separate magmatic systems. They are both relatively low over the surrounding terrain which is about {{convert|4800|m}} high and is formed by raised ignimbrites.<ref name="OSU" />

Acamarachi does not have [[Earth:Glacier|glacier]]s or any perennial ice structures. Such lack of glaciation is also observed on other mountains in the neighbourhood such as [[Earth:Aucanquilcha|Aucanquilcha]] and is probably due to the arid climate.<ref name="KullGroshean2000" /> In the past however the mountain was probably extensively glaciated, with glacier lobes forming at its foot and [[Earth:Cirque|cirque]]s developing around the summit. [[Earth:Terminal moraine|Terminal moraine]]s lie in the Quebrada Ojos de Hécar and Quebrada Acamarachi,  with several individual moraines between {{convert|4500|-|5000|m}} elevation.<ref name="JennyKammer1996" />

== Archeology ==
Acamarachi is known as an Inca mountain sanctuary, among at a minimum 15 other mountain sanctuaries known to have been used by the Inca. Other known sanctuaries are Cerro Colorado, Cerro Lailay, Cerro del Leon, Cerro Mullay, Cerro Toco, Cerro Quimal, Curiquinca, [[Earth:Juriques|Juriques]], Laguna Verde, [[Earth:Licancabur|Licancabur]], Linzor, Paniri, Sairecabur, Tatio and [[Earth:Toconce (volcano)|Toconce]].<ref name="Besom1112" /> On its summit, four different ceremonial platforms are arranged in a cloverleaf conformation.<ref name="LePaige1978" />

Inca figurines representing individuals of various sexes have been found on Acamarachi.<ref name="LePaige1978" /> The figurines found at Acamarachi may represent mid-level imperial officials, considering the simple tunics they wore.<ref name="LePaige1978" /><ref name="Besom193" /> One figurine made out of ''[[Biology:Spondylus|Spondylus]]'' shell wore miniature clothing made out of camelid wool, the clothing having an imperial design with multicoloured decorations.<ref name="Besom134" /> The tunic itself is yellow.<ref name="Dransart9" /> The textiles found on Acamarachi belong to a style known as "Catarpe", which is associated with Inca presence.<ref name="Aguero10" /> Such clothing seems to be miniaturized versions of Inca clothing.<ref name="Aguero21" /> This figurine has no plaque, unlike some other Inca figurines.<ref name="Besom197" /> A feather and a shawl are other accessories that have been found on the figurine.<ref name="Dransart6" /> The function of such figurines is unknown, several theories have been proposed, such as representing deities.<ref name="Besom135" /> Another figurine representing a woman was also found there in 1971, in red miniature clothing with decorations too, as well as a red feather.<ref name="LePaige1978" /> This figure is made out of silver.<ref name="Dransart47" /> Such dressed figurines have been found on other Andean summits, such as [[Earth:Aconcagua|Aconcagua]], Cerro El Plomo, Cerro Mercedario, Cerro Las Tortolas, Cerro Gallan, Copiapo and Pichu Pichu.<ref name="Dransart5" /> Acamarachi's figurines are now exposed in the R. P. Gustavo Le Paige Archaeological Museum of San Pedro de Atacama.<ref name="Aguero21" />

The region in which Acamarachi is located was a southern part of the Inca Empire.<ref name="Besom193" /> A major Inca road passed by the town of Toconao, not far from Acamarachi.<ref name="Varela1999" />

==See also==
* List of volcanoes in Chile
* [[Earth:List of stratovolcanoes|List of stratovolcanoes]]
* List of Ultras of South America
* List of Andean peaks with known pre-Columbian ascents

== Notes ==

{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|40em|refs=
<ref name="Robins2022">{{cite journal |last1=Robins |first1=Marc |last2=Murphy-Lavoie |first2=Heather M. |title=Diving At Altitude |journal=StatPearls |date=2022 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493150/ |publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=29630202 }}</ref>
<ref name="Meciani">{{Cite book|last=Pietro Meciani|title=Le Ande|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>
<ref name="Echevarria1963">{{Cite journal|last=Evelio Echevarría|date=1963|title=AAJ|url=|journal=AAJ|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
<ref name="AmigoOrozco2012">{{cite report|language=es|url=https://biblioteca.sernageomin.cl/opac/datafiles/CGCH_GAMB_17_TextoyMapa.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629145638/https://biblioteca.sernageomin.cl/opac/datafiles/CGCH_GAMB_17_TextoyMapa.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 29, 2021|access-date=20 August 2021|issn=0717-7305|publisher=SERVICIO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGÍA Y MINERÍA|title=Peligros volcánicos de la Zona Norte de Chile|first1=Álvaro R.|last1=Amigo|first2=Daniel U.|last2=Bertin|first3=Gabriel L.|last3=Orozco|year=2012|series=Carta geológica de Chile: Serie Geología Ambiental|volume=17|page=17}}</ref>
<ref name="Kausch">{{Cite web|title=Pili / Acamarachi|url=http://www.andes-specialists.com/pili-acamarachi-6046|access-date=12 April 2020|website=Andes Specialists|language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="TanDEM">{{cite web|last1=TanDEM-X|first1=TerraSAR-X|title=Copernicus Space Component Data Access|url=https://spacedata.copernicus.eu/web/cscda/missions/tandem-x|accessdate=12 April 2020|archive-date=12 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412222329/https://spacedata.copernicus.eu/web/cscda/missions/tandem-x|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="ALOS">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/aw3d30/index.htm|title=ALOS GDEM Project|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="ASTER">{{Cite web|url=https://ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp/ersdac/GDEM/E/|title=ASTER GDEM Project|website=ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="USGS">{{cite web|last1=USGS|first1=EROS Archive |title=USGS EROS Archive - Digital Elevation - SRTM Coverage Maps
|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/usgs-eros-archive-digital-elevation-srtm-coverage-maps?qt-science_center_objects=4#qt-science_center_objects|accessdate=12 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="Specialists">{{Cite web|url=http://www.andes-specialists.com/andean-mountains-5000/|title=Andean Mountains - All above 5000m|website=Andes Specialists|language=en|access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="JennyKammer1996">{{cite book |last1=Jenny |first1=Bettina |last2=Kammer |first2=Klaus |title=Climate Change in den trockenen Anden |date=1996 |publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Institutes der Universität Bern |isbn=3906151034 |page=59 |language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="GVPN">{{Cite GVP|name=Acamarachi|vn=355096}}, [http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=355096&vtab=Subfeatures Synonyms & Subfeatures]</ref>
<ref name="Santander2000">{{cite book|author=Roberto Lehnert Santander|title=Mitos y creencias del mundo atacameño|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5QTAQAAIAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Universidad de Antofagasta, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas|page=150|isbn=9789567143498|language=es}}</ref>
<ref name="OSU">{{cite web|title=Colachi & Acamarachi|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/CVZ/colaacam/index.html|website=volcano.oregonstate.edu|publisher=[[Organization:Oregon State University|Oregon State University]]|access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Aguero21">Agüero 2000, p. 21</ref>
<ref name="Aguero10">Agüero 2000, p. 10</ref>
<ref name="GVP">{{Cite GVP|name=Acamarachi|vn=355096}}</ref>
<ref name="Zeil1964">{{cite journal|last1=Zeil|first1=Werner|title=Die Verbreitung des jungen Vulkanismus in der Hochkordillere Nordchiles|journal=Geologische Rundschau|date=December 1964|volume=53|issue=2|page=750|doi=10.1007/BF02054561|bibcode=1964GeoRu..53..731Z|s2cid=128979648|language=de}}</ref>
<ref name="Varela1999">{{cite journal|last1=Varela|first1=Varinia|title=El Camino del Inca en la cuenca superior del río Loa, desierto de Atacama, norte de Chile|journal=Estudios Atacameños |date=1999|issue=18|pages=89–106 |doi=10.22199/S07181043.1999.0018.00008 |url=http://revistas.ucn.cl/index.php/estudios-atacamenos/article/view/542|access-date=4 August 2016|language=es|issn=0718-1043|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Dransart5">Dransart 1995, p. 5</ref>
<ref name="Dransart6">Dransart 1995, p. 6</ref>
<ref name="Dransart9">Dransart 1995, p. 9</ref>
<ref name="Dransart47">Dransart 1995, p. 47</ref>
<ref name="KullGroshean2000">{{cite journal|last1=Kull|first1=Christoph|last2=Grosjean|first2=Martin|title=Late Pleistocene climate conditions in the north Chilean Andes drawn from a climate–glacier model|journal=Journal of Glaciology|date=1 December 2000|volume=46|issue=155|page=627|doi=10.3189/172756500781832611|bibcode=2000JGlac..46..622K|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="LePaige1978">{{cite journal|last1=Le Paige |first1=Gustavo |title=Vestigios arqueológicos incaicos en las cumbres de la zona atacameña |journal=Estudios Atacameños |date=1978 |issue=6 |page=40 |url=http://www.estudios-atacamenos.ucn.cl/revista/pdf/numero06/EA6-3.pdf |access-date=4 August 2016 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813150343/http://www.estudios-atacamenos.ucn.cl/revista/pdf/numero06/EA6-3.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="Clapperton1993">{{cite book|author=Chalmers Moyes Clapperton|title=Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of South America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbYTAQAAIAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-444-88247-9|page=126}}</ref>
<ref name="Besom197">Besom 2013, p. 197</ref>
<ref name="Besom1112">Besom 2013, pp. 11–12</ref>
<ref name="Besom135">Besom 2013, p. 135</ref>
<ref name="Besom134">Besom 2013, p. 134</ref>
<ref name="Besom193">Besom 2013, p. 193</ref>
<ref name="SiebertSimkin2011">{{cite book|author1=Lee Siebert|author2=Tom Simkin|author3=Paul Kimberly|title=Volcanoes of the World: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DZrfpL9_DMC&pg=PA188|date=9 February 2011|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-94793-1|page=188}}</ref>
<ref name="D.)Gibbons2007">{{cite book|author1=Teresa Moreno (Ph. D.)|author2=Wes Gibbons|title=The Geology of Chile|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4DBQR9jDsoC&pg=PA397|year=2007|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=978-1-86239-220-5|page=150}}</ref>
}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Agüero |first1=Carolina P. |title=Fragmentos para armar un territorio. La textiler í a en Atacama durante los per í odos Intermedio Tardío y Tardío |journal=Estudios Atacameños |date=2000 |issue=20 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.22199/S07181043.2000.0020.00002 |url=http://www.estudios-atacamenos.ucn.cl/revista/pdf/numero20/art%201%20Aguero.pdf |access-date=4 August 2016 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813152140/http://www.estudios-atacamenos.ucn.cl/revista/pdf/numero20/art%201%20Aguero.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2016 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|author=Thomas Besom|title=Inka Human Sacrifice and Mountain Worship: Strategies for Empire Unification|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6e24xXk7U4C&pg=PA11|date=15 April 2013|publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-8263-5308-5|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|author=Penny Dransart|title=Elemental Meanings: Symbolic Expression in Inka Miniature Figurines|url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4523/1/B22_-_Elemental_Meanings_Symbolic_Expression_in_Inka_Miniature_Figurines.pdf|year=1995|publisher=Institute of Latin American Studies|isbn=978-1-900039-00-0|ref=none}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | last = Biggar | first = John | title = The Andes: A Guide for Climbers and Skiers (5th ed.) | publisher = Andes Publishing (Scotland) | year = 2020 | pages= 207 pp |no-pp=yes | url=http://www.andes.org.uk/ | isbn = 978-0-9536087-6-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = González-Ferrán | first = Oscar | title = Volcanes de Chile | publisher = Santiago, Chile: Instituto Geográfico Militar | year = 1995 | pages=640 pp |no-pp=yes | isbn =956-202-054-1 }}
* [http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html The Highest Lakes in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818141925/http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html |date=2012-08-18 }}

{{Andean volcanoes}}

[[Category:Volcanic crater lakes]]

{{Sourceattribution|Acamarachi}}