View source for Earth:Climate resilience

{{short description|Form of adaptive capacity for a socio-ecological system}}
 '''Climate resilience''' is defined as the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a [[Hazard|hazard]]ous event or trend or disturbance".<ref name=":3">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.</ref>{{rp|7}} This is done by "responding or reorganising in ways that maintain their essential function, identity and structure (as well as [[Biology:Biodiversity|biodiversity]] in case of ecosystems) while also maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning and transformation".<ref name=":3" />{{rp|7}} The key focus of increasing climate resilience is to reduce the [[Climate change vulnerability|climate vulnerability]] that communities, states, and countries currently have with regards to the many [[Biology:Effects of climate change|effects of climate change]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Building a Climate-Resilient City: The built environment |url=https://www.iisd.org/publications/brief/building-climate-resilient-city-built-environment |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=International Institute for Sustainable Development |language=en}}</ref> Efforts to build climate resilience encompass social, economic, technological, and political strategies that are being implemented at all scales of society. From local community action to global treaties, addressing climate resilience is becoming a priority, although it could be argued that a significant amount of the theory has yet to be translated into practice.<ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref>

Climate resilience is related to [[Earth:Climate change adaptation|climate change adaptation]] efforts. It aims to reduce climate change vulnerability and includes considerations of [[Earth:Climate justice|climate justice]] and equity. Practical implementations include climate resilient infrastructure, climate resilient agriculture and climate resilient development. Most objective approaches to measuring climate resilience use fixed and transparent definitions of resilience, and allow for different groups of people to be compared through standardised metrics.


==Definition==
Climate resilience is generally considered to be the ability to recover from, or to mitigate vulnerability to, climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Grasham |first1=Catherine Fallon |last2=Calow |first2=Roger |last3=Casey |first3=Vincent |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina J. |last5=de Wit |first5=Sara |last6=Dyer |first6=Ellen |last7=Fullwood-Thomas |first7=Jess |last8=Hirons |first8=Mark |last9=Hope |first9=Robert |last10=Hoque |first10=Sonia Ferdous |last11=Jepson |first11=Wendy |last12=Korzenevica |first12=Marina |last13=Murphy |first13=Rebecca |last14=Plastow |first14=John |last15=Ross |first15=Ian |date=2021 |title=Engaging with the politics of climate resilience towards clean water and sanitation for all |journal=npj Clean Water |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42 |doi=10.1038/s41545-021-00133-2 |issn=2059-7037|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021npjCW...4...42G }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> It is a political process that strengthens the ability of all to mitigate vulnerability to risks from, and adapt to changing patterns in, climate hazards and variability.<ref name=":2" />

The [[Earth:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] defines climate resilience as follows: "Resilience [...] is defined as the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance, responding or reorganising in ways that maintain their essential function, identity and structure as well as biodiversity in case of ecosystems while also maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning and transformation."<ref name=":3" />{{rp|7}}

Resilience is a useful concept because it speaks across sectors and disciplines but this also makes it open to interpretation resulting in differing, and at times competing, definitions.<ref name=":2" /> The definition of climate resilience is heavily debated, in both conceptual and practical terms.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|7}}

== Components ==
[[File:Delhi Aerial View, Satellite Image, India September 2003.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of Delhi, India where urban forests are being developed to improve the weather resistance and climate resilience of the city]]
Currently, the majority of work regarding climate resilience has focused on actions taken to maintain existing systems and structures. This largely relates to the capacity of social-ecological systems to sustain shocks and maintain the integrity of functional relationships in the face of external forces. However, there is a growing consensus in the academic literature that actions taken to induce structural changes must also be recognized within the definition of resilience. The three basic capacities that are understood<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender Justice in Resilience: Enabling the full performance of the system |url=https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620376/gd-gender-inequality-resilience-071117-en.pdf;jsessionid=0304DD8B8A18F60DF75DC9516E52FA78?sequence=1 |website=Oxfam}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=An Introduction to Assessing Climate Resilience in Smallholder Supply Chains |url=https://thecosa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Introduction-to-Assessing-Climate-Resilience.pdf |website=The COSA}}</ref> under the common definition are absorptive, adaptive, and transformative, each of which contributes different factors to the efforts of resilience work. This includes the capacity of social-ecological systems to renew and develop, and to utilize disturbances as opportunities for innovation and evolution of new pathways that improve the system's ability to adapt to macroscopic changes.<ref name="folk">{{cite journal |last1=Folke |first1=C |year=2006 |title=Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=253–267 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002}}</ref>
<ref name="Tomkins">Tompkins, Emma L., and W. Neil Adger. 2004. "Does Adaptive Management of Natural Resources Enhance Resilience to Climate Change?" Ecology and Society. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/202863/</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharifi |first1=Ayyoob |date=October 2016 |title=A critical review of selected tools for assessing community resilience |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=69 |pages=629–647 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.05.023 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Key aspects include: how resilience relates to [[Earth:Climate change adaptation|climate change adaptation]]. The extent to which it should encompass actor-based versus systems-based approaches to improving stability; and its relationship with the [[Philosophy:Balance of nature|balance of nature]] theory or homeostatic equilibrium view of ecological systems.<ref name="folk" />

The building of climate resilience is a highly comprehensive undertaking that involves of an eclectic array of actors and agents: individuals, community organizations, micropolitical bodies, corporations, governments at local, state, and national levels as well as international organizations. In essence, actions that bolster climate resilience are ones that will enhance the adaptive capacity of social, industrial, and environmental infrastructures that can mitigate the effects of climate change.<ref name="adger">{{cite journal | last1 = Adger | first1 = W. N. | last2 = Arnell | first2 = N. W. | last3 = Tompkins | first3 = E. L. | year = 2005 | title = Successful adaptation to climate change across scales | journal = Global Environmental Change | volume =  15| issue = 2| pages =  77–86| doi = 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005 }}</ref> Currently, research indicates that the strongest indicator of successful climate resilience efforts at all scales is a well developed, existing network of social, political, economic and [[Finance:Financial institution|financial institution]]s that is already positioned to effectively take on the work of identifying and addressing the risks posed by climate change. Cities, states, and nations that have already developed such networks are, as expected, to generally have far higher [[Finance:Net income|net income]]s and [[Finance:Gross domestic product|gross domestic product]] (GDP).<ref name="sather">{{cite journal | last1 = Satterthwaite | first1 = D | year = 2013 | title = The political underpinnings of cities' accumulated resilience to climate change | journal = Environment and Urbanization | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 381–391 | doi = 10.1177/0956247813500902 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013EnUrb..25..381S }}</ref>

== By sector ==

=== Development ===
"Climate resilient development" has become a new (albeit contested) paradigm for [[Sustainable development|sustainable development]], influencing theory and practice across all sectors globally.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Albert Sanghoon |date=2023 |title=Understanding resilience in sustainable development: Rallying call or siren song? |journal=Sustainable Development |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1002/sd.2645 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This is particularly true in the water sector, since [[Earth:Water security|water security]] is intimately connected to climate change. On every continent, governments are adopting policies for climate resilient economies, driven in part by international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref name=":2" />

Climate resilient development "integrates adaptation measures and their enabling conditions with [[Earth:Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] to advance [[Sustainable development|sustainable development]] for all".<ref name=":3" />{{rp|28}} It involves questions of equity and system transitions, and includes adaptations for human, ecosystem and planetary health.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|7}} Climate resilient development is facilitated by developing partnerships with traditionally marginalised groups, including women, youth, Indigenous Peoples, local communities and ethnic minorities.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|29}}

To achieve climate resilient development, the following actions are needed: increasing climate information, and financing and technical capacity for flexible and dynamic systems.<ref name=":2" /> This needs to be coupled with greater consideration of the socio-ecological resilience and context-specific values of marginalised communities and meaningful engagement with the most vulnerable in decision making.<ref name=":2" /> Consequently, resilience produces a range of challenges and opportunities when applied to sustainable development.<ref name=":4" />

=== Infrastructure ===
Infrastructure failures can have broad-reaching consequences extending away from the site of the original event, and for a considerable duration after the immediate failure. Furthermore, increasing reliance infrastructure system interdependence, in combination with the effects of climate change and population growth all contribute to increasing vulnerability and exposure, and greater probability of catastrophic failures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Stephanie E.|date=2016-10-26|title=Socioeconomic Impacts of Infrastructure Disruptions|url=http://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.001.0001/acrefore-9780199389407-e-66|journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.66|isbn=9780199389407}}</ref>  To reduce this vulnerability, and in recognition of limited resources and future uncertainty about climate projections, new and existing long-lasting infrastructure must undergo a risk-based engineering and economic analyses to properly allocate resources and design for climate resilience.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ayyub|first=Bilal|date=2014-03-20|title=Risk Analysis in Engineering and Economics, Second Edition|doi=10.1201/b16663|isbn=978-1-4665-1825-4}}</ref>

Incorporating climate projections into building and infrastructure design standards, investment and appraisal criteria, and model building codes is currently not common.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Maxwell|first1=Keely B.|last2=Julius|first2=Susan Herrod|last3=Grambsch|first3=Anne E.|last4=Kosmal|first4=Ann R.|last5=Larson|first5=Elisabeth|last6=Sonti|first6=Nancy|date=2018|chapter=Built Environment, Urban Systems, and Cities |title=The Fourth National Climate Assessment |volume=II |doi=10.7930/nca4.2018.ch11 |doi-access=free}}</ref>  Some resilience guidelines and risk-informed frameworks have been developed by public entities. Such manuals can offer guidance for adaptive design methods, characterization of extremes, development of flood design criteria, flood load calculation and the application of adaptive risk management principals account for more severe climate/weather extremes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Climate-Resilient Infrastructure |date=2018-10-04 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers |isbn=9780784415191 |editor1-last=Ayyub |editor1-first=Bilal M |location=Reston, VA |doi=10.1061/9780784415191|s2cid=219884545 }}</ref> One example is the "Climate Resiliency Design Guidelines" by New York City.<ref>New York City (2020) [https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/orr/pdf/NYC_Climate_Resiliency_Design_Guidelines_v4-0.pdf Climate Resiliency Design Guidelines]</ref>

=== Agriculture ===

{{excerpt|Climate-smart agriculture|paragraphs=1-4|file=no}}In addition to these efforts, CSA is increasingly embracing advanced internet technology to address future agricultural challenges. This digital shift aims to enhance the security and integration of agricultural information, thereby improving crop patterns and management techniques. The introduction of 'internet + weather' services and agricultural weather index-based insurance are examples of innovative tools being adopted to fine-tune the resilience and productivity of agricultural systems in the face of climate variability and water resource challenges. Such technological advancements are crucial for CSA's ongoing mission to ensure global food security in a changing climate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Junfang |last2=Liu |first2=Dongsheng |last3=Huang |first3=Ruixi |date=January 2023 |title=A Review of Climate-Smart Agriculture: Recent Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=3404 |doi=10.3390/su15043404 |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Water and sanitation ===
{{excerpt|WASH#Improving climate resilience|paragraphs=1-3}}

==Tools==
=== Climate resilience framework ===

A climate resilience framework can better equip governments and policymakers to develop sustainable solutions that combat the effects of climate change. To begin with, climate resilience establishes the idea of multi-stable socio-ecological systems (socio-ecological systems can actually stabilize around a multitude of possible states). Secondly, climate resilience has played a critical role in emphasizing the importance of [[Preventive action|preventive action]] when assessing the effects of climate change. Although adaptation is always going to be a key consideration, making changes after the fact has a limited capability to help communities and nations deal with climate change. By working to build climate resilience, policymakers and governments can take a more comprehensive stance that works to mitigate the harms of climate change impacts before they happen.<ref name="nelson2">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Donald R. |last2=Adger |first2=W. Neil |last3=Brown |first3=Katrina |year=2007 |title=Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=32 |pages=395–419 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.32.051807.090348 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="tschakert">{{cite journal |last1=Tschakert |first1=P |last2=Dietrich |first2=K A |year=2010 |title=Anticipatory Learning for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience |journal=Ecology and Society |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=11 |doi=10.5751/es-03335-150211 |doi-access=free|hdl=10535/6243 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Finally, a climate resilience perspective encourages greater cross-scale connectedness of systems. Creating mechanisms of adaptation that occur in isolation at local, state, or national levels may leave the overall social-ecological system vulnerable. A resilience-based framework would require far more cross-talk, and the creation of environmental protections that are more holistically generated and implemented.<ref name="nelson2" /><ref name="malhi">{{cite journal |last1=Malhi |first1=Yadvinder |last2=Roberts |first2=J Timmons |last3=Betts |first3=Richard A |last4=Killeen |first4=Timothy J |last5=Li |first5=Wenhong |last6=Nobre |first6=Carlos A |year=2008 |title=Climate Change, Deforestation, and the Fate of the Amazon |journal=Science |volume=319 |issue=5860 |pages=169–72 |bibcode=2008Sci...319..169M |citeseerx=10.1.1.389.7410 |doi=10.1126/science.1146961 |pmid=18048654 |s2cid=33966731}}</ref>

==== Disaster preparedness protocols ====
{{Main|Biology:Disaster risk reduction}}

At larger governmental levels, general programs to improve climate resiliency through greater disaster preparedness are being implemented. For example, in cases such as {{wipe|Norway}}, this includes the development of more sensitive and far-reaching early warning systems for extreme weather events, creation of emergency [[Physics:Electricity|electricity]] power sources, enhanced public transportation systems, and more.<ref name="obrien">{{cite journal |last1=O'Brien |first1=Karen |last2=Eriksen |first2=Siri |last3=Sygna |first3=Linda |last4=Otto Naess |first4=Lars |year=2006 |title=Questioning Complacency: Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation in Norway |journal=Ambio |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=50–56 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35[50:qccciv]2.0.co;2 |pmid=16722249 |s2cid=19749797}}</ref>

== Measurements ==
Governments and development agencies are spending increasing amounts of finance to support resilience-building interventions. Resilience measurement can make valuable contributions in guiding resource allocations towards resilience-building. This includes targeted identification of vulnerability hotspots, a better understanding of the drivers of resilience, and tools to infer the impact and effectiveness of resilience-building interventions. In recent years, a large number of resilience measurement tools have emerged, offering ways to track and measure resilience at a range of scales - from individuals and households to communities and nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9754.pdf|title=A comparative overview of resilience measurement frameworks analyzing indicators and approaches|last=Schipper|first=Lisa|date=2015|publisher=Overseas Development Institute|access-date=2019-08-08|archive-date=2021-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130134444/https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9754.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Efforts to measure climate resilience currently face several technical challenges. Firstly, the definition of resilience is heavily contested, making it difficult to choose appropriate characteristics and indicators to track. Secondly, the resilience or households or communities cannot be measured using a single observable metric. Resilience is made up of a range of processes and characteristics, many of which are intangible and difficult to observe (such as [[Social:Social capital|social capital]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=Lindsey|date=2019|title=Resilience isn't the same for all: Comparing subjective and objective approaches to resilience measurement|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=e552|doi=10.1002/wcc.552|issn=1757-7799|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019WIRCC..10E.552J }}</ref> As a result, many resilience toolkits resort to using large lists of proxy indicators.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSIN_Paper2_WEB_1dic.pdf|title=A Common Analytical Model for Resilience Measurement|last=FSIN|date=2014|publisher=Food Security Information Network}}</ref>

Most of the recent initiatives to measure resilience in rural development contexts share two shortcomings: complexity and high cost.<ref>COSA. 2017. Elena Serfilippi and Daniele Giovannucci, [https://thecosa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/COSA-FORD-Simpler-Resilience-Measurement-Full-20180413.pdf Simpler Resilience Measurement: Tools to Diagnose and Improve How Households Fare in Difficult Circumstances from Conflict to Climate Change]. Philadelphia, PA: The Committee on SustainabilityAssessment © COSA 2017.</ref> USAID published a field guide for assessing climate resilience in smallholder supply chains.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018|title=An Introduction to Assessing Climate Resilience in Smallholder Supply Chains USAID Feed the Future Learning Community for Supply Chain Resilience|url=https://sustainablefoodlab.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IntroductiontoAssessingClimateResilience_static_-1.pdf|website=Sustainable Food Lab}}</ref>

Most objective approaches use fixed and transparent definitions of resilience and allow for different groups of people to be compared through standardized metrics. However, as many resilience processes and capacities are intangible, objective approaches are heavily reliant on crude proxies. Examples of commonly used objective measures include the Resilience Index Measurement and Analysis (RIMA) and the Livelihoods Change Over Time (LCOT).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5665e.pdf|title=Resilience Index Measurement and Analysis - II|last=FAO|date=2016}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Subjective approaches to resilience measurement take a contrasting view. They assume that people have a valid understanding of their resilience and seek to factor perceptions into the measurement process.<ref name=":1" /> They challenge the notion that experts are best placed to evaluate other people's lives. Subjective approaches use people's menu of what constitutes resilience and allow them to self-evaluate accordingly. An example is the Subjectively-Evaluated Resilience Score (SERS)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/working-paper-303-Jones-DErrico-June2019-1.pdf|title=Resilient, but from whose perspective? Like-for-like comparisons of objective and subjective measures of resilience|last1=Jones|first1=Lindsey|last2=D'Errico|date=2019|publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science}}</ref>

== Related concepts ==

=== Climate change adaptation ===
{{Excerpt|climate change adaptation|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}}

===Climate change vulnerability===

{{Excerpt|climate vulnerability|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}}

==See also==
*[[Biology:Ecological resilience|Ecological resilience]]
*[[Engineering:Resilience in the built environment|Resilience in the built environment]]

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}
“Hallegatte, Stephane; Anjum, Rubaina; Avner, Paolo; Shariq, Ammara; Winglee, Michelle; Knudsen, Camilla. 2021. Integrating Climate Change and Natural Disasters in the Economic Analysis of Projects: A Disaster and Climate Risk Stress Test Methodology. © World Bank, Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/35751 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.

[[Category:Ecology terminology]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]

{{Sourceattribution|Climate resilience}}