View source for Earth:Dead Sea

{{short description|Salt lake bordering Palestine, Jordan and Israel}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Dead Sea
| native_name        = {{native name list |tag1=ar|name1=البحر الميت|tag2=he|name2=ים המלח}}
| image              = File:Dead Sea beach 00.JPG
| caption            = A view of the sea from the Jordanian shore with the hills of the Israeli-occupied West Bank in the background
| image_bathymetry   = 
| caption_bathymetry = 
| coords             = {{Coord|31|30|N|35|30|E|type:waterbody|display=inline}}
| lake_type          = [[Earth:Endorheic basin|Endorheic]]<br/>[[Earth:Hypersaline lake|Hypersaline]]
| inflow             = Jordan River
| outflow            = ''None''
| catchment          = {{convert|41650|km2|abbr=on}}
| basin_countries    = Jordan, [[Place:State of Palestine|Palestine]] (Israeli--occupied West Bank), [[Place:Israel|Israel]]
| length             = {{convert|50|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="JVL">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vie/Deadsea.html|title=Virtual Israel Experience: The Dead Sea|encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library|access-date=21 January 2013|archive-date=15 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115133409/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vie/Deadsea.html|url-status=live}}</ref> (northern basin only)
| width              = {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| area               = {{convert|605|km2|abbr=on}} (2016)<ref name="HRTZ">{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/1.746258 |title=The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast: Is It Too Late to Save It, or Was It Always a Lost Cause? |newspaper=Haaretz |date=7 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222185808/http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/1.746258 |archive-date=22 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| depth              = {{convert|188.4|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=ilec/>
| max-depth          = {{convert|298|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (elevation of deepest point, {{cvt|728|m}} BSL [below sea level], minus current surface elevation)
| volume             = {{convert|114|km3|cumi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=ilec/>
| shore              = {{convert|135|km|abbr=on}}
| elevation          = {{convert|-430.5|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (2016)<ref name="ISRAMAR">{{cite web|url= http://isramar.ocean.org.il/isramar2009/DeadSea/LongTerm.aspx|title= Long-Term changes in the Dead Sea|publisher= Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research - Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR)|access-date= 2014-05-31|archive-date= 2018-11-06|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181106233009/https://isramar.ocean.org.il/isramar2009/DeadSea/LongTerm.aspx|url-status= live}}</ref>
| reference          = <ref name=ilec>[http://www.eingedi.co.il/viewpage.asp?pagesCatID=13214&siteName=eingedi Dead Sea Data Summary 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20150221101030/http://www.eingedi.co.il/viewpage.asp?pagesCatID=13214&siteName=eingedi |date=2015-02-21 }}.''Water Authority of Israel''.<br />{{cite web |title=Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program |date=2013 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTREDSEADEADSEA/0,,contentMDK:21827416~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:5174617,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915013427/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTREDSEADEADSEA/0,,contentMDK:21827416~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:5174617,00.html |archive-date=2013-09-15 |url-status=dead |publisher=The World Bank Group }}</ref><ref name="ISRAMAR"/>
| location           = [[Place:Western Asia|Western Asia]]
<!--      Map      -->| pushpin_map        = Israel
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt    = Location of the Dead Sea
| pushpin_map_caption = <!--   Below       -->
| website            = 
}}
[[File:Channel2 - Dead Sea.webm|right|Short video about the Dead Sea from the Israeli News Company|thumb]]

The '''Dead Sea''' ({{lang-ar|اَلْبَحْرُ الْمَيْتُ}}, ''Āl-Baḥrū l-Maytū''; {{lang-he|יַם הַמֶּלַח}}, ''Yam hamMelaḥ''), also known by other names, is a landlocked [[Chemistry:Salt lake|salt lake]] bordered by Jordan to the east and the [[Place:Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli-occupied]] West Bank and [[Place:Israel|Israel]] to the west.<ref name="DSC1"/><ref name="DSC2"/> It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main [[Earth:Tributary|tributary]] is the Jordan River.

As of 2019, the lake's surface is {{convert|430.5|m|ft|0}} below [[Sea level|sea level]],<ref name="ISRAMAR"/><ref name="Hshah">{{cite web |url=http://www.newsweek.com/israel-and-jordan-sign-historic-900-million-deal-save-dead-sea-310084 |title=Israel and Jordan Sign 'Historic' $900 Million Deal to Save the Dead Sea |work=Newsweek |date=2015-02-27 |access-date=2015-03-18 |archive-date=2020-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124001401/https://www.newsweek.com/israel-and-jordan-sign-historic-900-million-deal-save-dead-sea-310084 |url-status=live }}</ref> making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth. It is {{convert|304|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} deep, the deepest [[Earth:Hypersaline lake|hypersaline lake]] in the world. With a [[Earth:Salinity|salinity]] of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the [[Earth:List of bodies of water by salinity|world's saltiest bodies of water]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Dead Sea  |editor=Goetz, P. W. |encyclopedia=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=15th |volume=3 |page=937 |place=Chicago |year=1986}}</ref> – 9.6 times as [[Earth:Seawater#Salinity|salty as the ocean]] – and has a [[Physics:Density|density]] of 1.24&nbsp;kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to [[Physics:Buoyancy|floating]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of world geography|year=2005|publisher=Facts on File|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&q=Dead+sea+has+a+density++++swimming&pg=PA237|editor=R W McColl|page=237|isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3|access-date=2020-11-10|archive-date=2023-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075941/https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&q=Dead+sea+has+a+density++++swimming&pg=PA237#v=snippet&q=Dead%20sea%20has%20a%20density%20%20%20%20swimming&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dspimport.com/about_the_dead_sea.html |title=Dead Sea - Composition of Dead Sea Water |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104055037/http://www.dspimport.com/about_the_dead_sea.html |archive-date=2013-11-04 }}</ref> This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} long and {{convert|15|km|mi|0}} wide at its widest point.<ref name="JVL"/>

The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the [[Place:Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Basin]] for thousands of years. It was one of the world's first health resorts, and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from [[Chemistry:Bitumen|asphalt]] for Egyptian mummification to [[Chemistry:Potash|potash]] for fertilisers. Today, tourists visit the sea on its Israeli, Jordanian and West Bank coastlines.

The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is {{convert|605|km2|abbr=on}}, having been {{convert|1050|km2|abbr=on}} in 1930. Multiple canal and pipeline proposals, such as the scrapped Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project,<ref name="JT">{{cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/5-alliances-shortlisted-execute-red-dead%E2%80%99s-phase-i|title=5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red-Dead's phase I|access-date=3 December 2016|date=27 November 2016|work=The Jordan Times|archive-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129214035/http://jordantimes.com/news/local/5-alliances-shortlisted-execute-red-dead%E2%80%99s-phase-i|url-status=live}}</ref> have been made to reduce its recession.
{{anchor|Etymology|Toponymy|Etymology and toponymy|Name}}

==Names==
The [[Social:English language|English]] name "Dead Sea" is a [[Social:Calque|calque]] of the [[Social:Arabic language|Arabic]] name {{lang|ar-Latn|Bahr}} or {{Audio|ArDeadSea.ogg|{{lang|ar-Latn|al-Bahr al-Mayyit|nocat=y}}|help=no}} ({{wikt-lang|ar|البحر الميت}}),<ref name="ReferenceA">The first article {{lang|ar-Latn|al-}} is unnecessary and usually not used.</ref> itself a calque of earlier Greek ({{lang|grc|Νεκρά Θάλασσα}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Nekrá Thálassa}}) and [[Social:Latin language|Latin]] names ({{lang|la|Mare Mortuum}}) in reference to the scarcity of aquatic life caused by the lake's extreme salinity. The name also occasionally appears in Hebrew literature as {{lang|he-Latn|Yām HaMāvet}} ({{lang|he|{{linktext|ים}} {{linktext|ה}}{{linktext|מוות}}}}), 'Sea of Death'.<ref>{{cite book |author1=David Bridger |author2=Samuel Wolk |title=The New Jewish Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZqpCrG3qw0C&pg=PA109 |access-date=July 25, 2011 |date=September 1976 |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |isbn=978-0-87441-120-1 |page=109 |quote=It was named the "Dead Sea" because of the fact that no living thing can exist there, since the water is extremely salty and bitter. |archive-date=October 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075941/https://books.google.com/books?id=hZqpCrG3qw0C&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The usual [[Social:Biblical Hebrew|biblical]]<ref>{{bibleref|Gen|14|3|KJV}}</ref> and modern Hebrew name for the lake is the {{nowrap|Sea of Salt}} ({{wikt-lang|he|ים המלח}}, {{Audio|He-Dead Sea.ogg|{{lang|he-Latn|Yām HaMelaḥ|nocat=y}} |help=no}}). Other Hebrew names for the lake also mentioned in the [[Religion:Bible|Bible]] are the {{nowrap|Sea of Arabah}} ({{lang|he|{{linktext|ים|&nbsp;|ה|ערבה}}}}, {{lang|he-Latn|Yām Ha‘Ărāvâ}}) and the {{nowrap|Eastern Sea}} ({{lang|he|{{linktext|ה|ים|&nbsp;|ה|קדמוני}}}}, {{lang|he-Latn|HaYām HaKadmoni}}). In Arabic, it is also known as the {{nowrap|Sea of Lot}} ({{wikt-lang|ar|بحر لوط}}, {{lang|ar-Latn|Buhayrat}},<ref name="Sharon">{{cite book |author=Moshe Sharon |title=Bani Na'im: Maqam an-Nabi Lut |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae (CIAP) |volume=Two: B–C |page=15 (of pp.12–21) |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, Boston, Cologne |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-04-11083-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPFDU8POrXIC&q=Brekke |access-date=30 December 2019 |archive-date=30 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075942/https://books.google.com/books?id=EPFDU8POrXIC&q=Brekke#v=onepage&q=Brekke&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> {{lang|ar-Latn|Bahret}}, or {{lang|ar-Latn|Birket Lut}})<ref name="LOC">{{cite book |title= Dead Sea: Israel and Jordan |work= Library of Congress: Subject Headings |edition= 14th |volume= 1: A-E |page= 1163 |publisher= Cataloging Distribution Service, Library of Congress |location= Washington, D.C. |year= 1991 |issn= 1048-9711 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eCzC6pfXfJIC&pg=PA1163 |access-date= 30 December 2019 |archive-date= 30 October 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075942/https://books.google.com/books?id=eCzC6pfXfJIC&pg=PA1163#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }}</ref> from the nephew of [[Biography:Abraham|Abraham]] whose wife was said to have turned into a pillar of salt during the destruction of [[Religion:Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom and Gomorrah]].<ref name="sodom">{{bibleref|Gen|19|KJV}}</ref> Less often, it has been known in Arabic as the Sea of Zo'ar from a formerly important city along its shores.

Historical English names include the {{nowrap|'''Salt Sea'''}},<ref name="natgeo">{{citation |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fHI9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA458 458] |last=Morse |first=Jedidiah |title=The American Universal Geography... |volume=2 |edition=7th |location=Boston |publisher=Lincoln & Edmands |date=1819 }}</ref> {{nowrap|'''Lake of [[Religion:Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom]]'''}}<ref name="natgeo"/> from the biblical account of its destruction<ref name="sodom"/> and {{nowrap|'''Lake Asphaltites'''}}<ref name="natgeo"/> from Greek and [[Social:Latin language|Latin]]. Because of the large volume of ancient trade in the lake's naturally occurring free-floating [[Chemistry:Bitumen|bitumen]], its usual names in ancient Greek and Roman geography were some form of {{nowrap|[[Chemistry:Bitumen|Asphalt]] Lake}} ({{lang-grc-gre|Ἀσφαλτίτης}} or {{lang|grc|Ἀσφαλτίτις Λίμνη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Asphaltítēs}} or {{lang|grc-Latn|Asphaltítis Límnē}}; {{lang-la|Lacus Asphaltites}}) or Sea ({{lang|grc|Ἀσφαλτίτης Θάλασσα}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Asphaltítēs Thálassa}}).

==Geography==
[[File:Dead Sea Galilee.jpg|thumb|upright|Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean Sea]]
The Dead Sea is an [[Earth:Endorheic basin|endorheic lake]] located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the [[Earth:Dead Sea Transform|Dead Sea Transform]] (DST). This left lateral-moving [[Earth:Transform fault|transform fault]] lies along the [[Earth:Tectonics|tectonic]] [[Earth:Plate tectonics|plate boundary]] between the [[Earth:African Plate|African Plate]] and the [[Earth:Arabian Plate|Arabian Plate]]. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]] and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of [[Place:Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end.

The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools and [[Earth:Quicksand|quicksand]] pits along the edges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tommyimages.com/Stock_Photos/Middle_East/Israel/Dead_Sea/index.html|title=Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea|access-date=August 27, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122023153/http://www.tommyimages.com/Stock_Photos/Middle_East/Israel/Dead_Sea/index.html|archive-date=November 22, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are no outlet streams.

The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one of the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan.<ref name="RSDSC"/> The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern part of the Jordan valley, is a [[Biology:Man and the Biosphere Programme#Biosphere reserves|biosphere reserve]], with an area of {{convert|212|km2|abbr=on|lk=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/arab-states/jordan/mujib/|title=Mujib|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=7 May 2016|archive-date=30 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930120313/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/arab-states/jordan/mujib/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh (Arabic)/Nahal Dragot (Hebrew), and {{ill|Nahal Arugot|de|Nachal Arugot}} that ends at Ein Gedi.<ref name="RSDSC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gsi.gov.il/_uploads/ftp/GsiReport/2010/Tahal-GSI-19-2010.pdf |title=Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study (RSDSC) Program: Dead Sea Study, July 2010, p. 64 |access-date=2016-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224200944/http://www.gsi.gov.il/_uploads/ftp/GsiReport/2010/Tahal-GSI-19-2010.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wadi Hasa (biblical Zered) is another [[Earth:Wadi|wadi]] flowing into the Dead Sea.

Rainfall is scarcely {{convert|100|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely {{convert|50|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} in the southern part.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exact-me.org/overview/p4144.htm |title=Dead Sea |publisher=Exact Me.org |access-date=January 21, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074227/http://exact-me.org/overview/p4144.htm |archive-date=January 20, 2013 }}</ref> The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the [[Earth:Rain shadow|rainshadow]] effect of the Judaean Mountains. The [[Earth:Highland|highland]]s east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.

To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a {{convert|210|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}} tall halite mineral formation called Mount Sodom.

The [[Chemistry:Salt lake|salt lake]] bordered by Jordan to the east and [[Place:State of Palestine|Palestine]]'s [[Place:Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli-occupied]] West Bank and [[Place:Israel|Israel]] to the west. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main [[Earth:Tributary|tributary]] is the Jordan River.<ref name="DSC1">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/10/world/middleeast/israel-jordan-and-palestinians-sign-water-project-deal.html|work=The New York Times|title=A Rare Middle East Agreement, on Water|date=9 December 2013|accessdate=4 December 2023|quote=About 25 miles of the Dead Sea’s shoreline lie in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and are claimed by the Palestinians as part of a future state.}}</ref><ref name="DSC2">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2022/12/11/1139524126/photos-dead-sea-water-level-dropping-sinkholes-erosion|work=NPR|title=The Dead Sea is dying. These beautiful, ominous photos show the impact|accessdate=4 December 2023|date=11 December 2022|quote=The Dead Sea is a landlocked lake that's partly in Jordan, Israel and the Israeli-occupied West Bank.}}</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Dead Sea, Jordanian Shore.jpg|thumb|The Jordanian shore of the Dead Sea, showing salt deposits left behind by falling water levels.]]

===Formation theories===
There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of [[Place:East Africa|eastern Africa]]. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

===Sedom Lagoon===
During the late Pliocene-early [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]],<ref name=Stein>{{cite web |url= http://www.gsi.gov.il/_Uploads/4739SteinF.pdf |title= The limnological history of late Pleistocene – Holocene water bodies in the Dead Sea basin |author= Mordechai Stein |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130513022228/http://www.gsi.gov.il/_Uploads/4739SteinF.pdf |archive-date= 2013-05-13 }}{{self-published inline|date=February 2021}}</ref> around 3.7 million years ago,{{citation needed|date=February 2011}} what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name=Stein/> The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} The floods of the valley came and went depending on long-scale changes in the tectonic and [[Earth:Climate variability and change|climatic conditions]].<ref name=Stein/>

The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around {{convert|50|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea, and the subsequent lakes never surpassed this expanse. The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin.<ref name="Kafri2010"/>

===Salt deposits===
The Sedom Lagoon deposited evaporites mainly consisting of [[Chemistry:Halite|rock salt]], which eventually reached a thickness of {{convert|2.3|km|2|abbr=on}} on the old basin floor in the area of today's Mount Sedom.<ref name="BenAvrahamKatsman15">{{cite journal |first1= Zvi |surname1= Ben-Avraham |first2= Regina |surname2= Katsman |title= The formation of graben morphology in the Dead Sea Fault, and its implications |journal= Geophysical Research Letters |publisher= American Geophysical Union |volume= 42 |issue= 17 |year= 2015 |at= 2.2. Sedimentary Regime, p. 6991 (of 6989–6996) |doi-access=free |doi= 10.1002/2015GL065111 |bibcode= 2015GeoRL..42.6989B |quote= Estuarine-lagoonal series of syn-rift evaporites of the latest Miocene—Pliocene ages. Sedimentary regime and mineral composition indicate that .... the Sedom formation in the DSB [Dead Sea Basin] .... , consisting mainly of [[Chemistry:Halite|halite]], can be related to ingression of sea waters .... through the Yezreel Valley inland into the Jordan-Arava rift valley (from the Sea of Galilee to the present-day Dead Sea....) in the Late Neogene. After its disconnection from the open sea that could be associated with either eustatic changes in the sea, tectonic uplift of Judea-Samaria anticline, or other processes [Stein, 2014], the rift valley was occupied by a series of hypersaline terminal lakes. They occasionally evaporated and precipitated halite. .... Restoration of the Sedom diapir to its original uniform thickness covering the basin floor yields 2.3 km.}}</ref>

===Lake formation===
[[File:ISS-55 Nile River delta, Egypt.jpg|thumb|[[Organization:NASA|NASA]] photo showing depth of the Dead Sea basin]]
Approximately two million years ago,{{citation needed|date=February 2011}} the land between the Jordan Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake.<ref name="Kafri2010">{{cite book |author1= Uri Kafri |author2= Yoseph Yechieli |title= Groundwater Base Level Changes and Adjoining Hydrological Systems |year= 2010 |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media |isbn= 978-3-642-13944-4 |page= 123 |bibcode= 2010gblc.book.....K}}</ref>

The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named '''Lake Amora''' (which possibly appeared in the early Pleistocene; its sediments developed into the Amora (Samra) Formation, dated to over 200–80 [[Astronomy:Kyr|kyr]] [[Earth:Before Present|BP]]), followed by '''Lake Lisan''' (c. 70–14 kyr) and finally by the Dead Sea.<ref name=Stein/>

===Lake salinity===
The water levels and salinity of the successive lakes (Amora, Lisan, Dead Sea) have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom, and due to climate variation. As the climate became more arid, Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier, leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder.<ref name=Stein/><ref name="Kafri2010"/>

From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, Lake Lisan's level was {{convert|100|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} to {{convert|250|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} higher than its current level, possibly due to lower evaporation than in the present.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zech |first1=Roland |last2=Zech |first2=Michael |last3=Marković |first3=Slobodan |last4=Hambach |first4=Ulrich |last5=Huang |first5=Yongsong |date=1 October 2013 |title=Humid glacials, arid interglacials? Critical thoughts on pedogenesis and paleoclimate based on multi-proxy analyses of the loess–paleosol sequence Crvenka, Northern Serbia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018213003568 |journal=[[Earth:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=387 |pages=165–175 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.023 |bibcode=2013PPP...387..165Z |access-date=19 November 2022 |archive-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120071659/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018213003568 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorin |first1=Lisker |last2=Anton |first2=Vaks |last3=Miryam |first3=Bar-Matthews |last4=Roi |first4=Porat |last5=Amos |first5=Frumkin |date=May 2010 |title=Late Pleistocene palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Dead Sea area (Israel), based on speleothems and cave stromatolites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379110000302 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=29 |issue=9–10 |pages=1201–1211 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.01.018 |bibcode=2010QSRv...29.1201S |access-date=19 November 2022 |archive-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120071702/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379110000302 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its level fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the [[Place:Near East|Near East]].<ref name="SocietySociety1971">{{cite book |author1= Geochemical Society |author2= Meteoritical Society |title= Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3LccAQAAIAAJ |access-date= April 12, 2011 |year= 1971 |publisher= Pergamon Press |archive-date= October 30, 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075942/https://books.google.com/books?id=3LccAQAAIAAJ |url-status= live }}</ref> Around 10,000 years ago, the lake's level dropped dramatically, probably  even lower than today. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately {{convert|400|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}, with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out [[Earth:Volcano|volcanic activity]]; therefore, it may have been a seismic event.

===Salt mounts formation===
In [[History:Prehistory|prehistoric times]],{{dubious|Seems far too recent. Much rather: geologic times. Please check, specify which geological era(s).|date=October 2019}} great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see [[Earth:Salt dome|salt dome]]).

==Climate==
The Dead Sea has a hot desert climate ([[Earth:Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate classification]] BWh), with year-round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than {{convert|50|mm|in|0|}} mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between {{convert|32|and|39|C|F}}. Winter average temperatures range between {{convert|20|and|23|C|F}}. The region has weaker [[Physics:Ultraviolet|ultraviolet radiation]], particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higher [[Physics:Atmospheric pressure|atmospheric pressure]], the air has a slightly higher [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]] content (3.3% in summer to 4.8% in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level.<ref name=DSRC>{{cite web|title=Natural Resources|url=http://www.deadsea-health.org/new_html/general_main.html|work=Dead Sea Research Center|access-date=27 October 2013|archive-date=6 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006174640/http://deadsea-health.org/new_html/general_main.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extremescience.com/dead-sea.htm|title=Lowest Elevation: Dead Sea|access-date=May 22, 2007|work=Extreme Science|archive-date=October 7, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007161953/http://extremescience.com/dead-sea.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Mordechai R. |last2=Springer |first2=Chaim |last3=Berkman |first3=Neville |last4=Glazer |first4=Mendel |last5=Bublil |first5=Milli |last6=Bar-Yishay |first6=Ephraim |last7=Godfrey |first7=Simon |title=Rehabilitation of Hypoxemic Patients With COPD at Low Altitude at the Dead Sea, the Lowest Place on Earth |journal=Chest |date=March 1998 |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=571–575 |doi=10.1378/chest.113.3.571 |pmid=9515826 }}</ref> (This barometric measure is about 5% higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water's mass and [[Physics:Specific heat capacity|specific heat capacity]]. On average, there are 192 days above {{cvt|30|°C|||}} annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Climatological Averages for Dead Sea |url=http://www.ims.gov.il/IMS/CLIMATE |publisher=IMS |access-date=June 9, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607231313/http://ims.gov.il/IMS/CLIMATE |archive-date=June 7, 2011 }}</ref>

{{Weather box|location=Dead Sea, Sedom (390 m below sea level)|metric first=yes|single line=yes
|Jan humidity=41
|Feb humidity=38
|Mar humidity=33
|Apr humidity=27
|May humidity=24
|Jun humidity=23
|Jul humidity=24
|Aug humidity=27
|Sep humidity=31
|Oct humidity=33
|Nov humidity=36
|Dec humidity=41
|Jan record low C=5.4
|Feb record low C=6.0
|Mar record low C=8.0
|Apr record low C=11.5
|May record low C=19.0
|Jun record low C=23.0
|Jul record low C=26.0
|Aug record low C=26.8
|Sep record low C=24.2
|Oct record low C=17.0
|Nov record low C=9.8
|Dec record low C=6.0
|year record low C=5.4
|Jan record high C=26.4
|Feb record high C=30.4
|Mar record high C=33.8
|Apr record high C=42.5
|May record high C=45.0
|Jun record high C=46.4
|Jul record high C=47.0
|Aug record high C=44.5
|Sep record high C=43.6
|Oct record high C=40.0
|Nov record high C=35.0
|Dec record high C=28.5
|year record high C=47.0
|Jan high C=20.5
|Feb high C=21.7
|Mar high C=24.8
|Apr high C=29.9
|May high C=34.1
|Jun high C=37.6
|Jul high C=39.7
|Aug high C=39.0
|Sep high C=36.5
|Oct high C=32.4
|Nov high C=26.9
|Dec high C=21.7
|year high C=30.4
|Jan mean C= 16.6
|Feb mean C= 17.7
|Mar mean C= 20.8
|Apr mean C= 25.4
|May mean C= 29.4
|Jun mean C= 32.6
|Jul mean C= 34.7
|Aug mean C= 34.5
|Sep mean C= 32.4
|Oct mean C= 28.6
|Nov mean C= 23.1
|Dec mean C= 17.9
|year mean C= 26.1
|Jan low C=12.7
|Feb low C=13.7
|Mar low C=16.7
|Apr low C=20.9
|May low C=24.7
|Jun low C=27.6
|Jul low C=29.6
|Aug low C=29.9
|Sep low C=28.3
|Oct low C=24.7
|Nov low C=19.3
|Dec low C=14.1
|year low C=21.9
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm=7.8
|Feb precipitation mm=9.0
|Mar precipitation mm=7.6
|Apr precipitation mm=4.3
|May precipitation mm=0.2
|Jun precipitation mm=0.0
|Jul precipitation mm=0.0
|Aug precipitation mm=0.0
|Sep precipitation mm=0.0
|Oct precipitation mm=1.2
|Nov precipitation mm=3.5
|Dec precipitation mm=8.3
|year precipitation mm=41.9
|Jan precipitation days=3.3
|Feb precipitation days=3.5
|Mar precipitation days=2.5
|Apr precipitation days=1.3
|May precipitation days=0.2
|Jun precipitation days=0.0
|Jul precipitation days=0.0
|Aug precipitation days=0.0
|Sep precipitation days=0.0
|Oct precipitation days=0.4
|Nov precipitation days=1.6
|Dec precipitation days=2.8
|year precipitation days=15.6
|unit precipitation days=
|source 1=Israel Meteorological Service<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ims.gov.il/IMS/CLIMATE/LongTermInfo |title=Averages and Records for several places in Israel |publisher=Israel Meteorological Service |date=June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914010915/http://www.ims.gov.il/IMS/CLIMATE/LongTermInfo |archive-date=2010-09-14 }}</ref>
|date=March 2011}}

==Chemistry==
[[File:Dead Sea Halite View 031712.jpg|thumb|Halite deposits (and teepee structure) along the western Dead Sea coast]]
With 34.2% [[Earth:Salinity|salinity]] (in 2011), it is one of the [[Earth:List of bodies of water by salinity|world's saltiest bodies of water]], though Lake Vanda in [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]] (35%), [[Earth:Lake Assal (Djibouti)|Lake Assal]] in Djibouti (34.8%), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]] (such as Don Juan Pond (44%)) have reported higher salinities.

In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the surface layers of the Dead Sea were less salty than today, which resulted in an average density in the range of 1.15-1.17 g/cm<sup>3</sup> instead of the present value of around 1.25 g/cm<sup>3</sup>. A sample tested by Bernays in the 19th century had a salinity of 19%. By the year 1926, the salinity had increased<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Volume 7, page 879</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friend |first1=J. Newton |title=Examination of Dead Sea Water for Eka-Cæsium and Eka-Iodine |journal=Nature |date=June 1926 |volume=117 |issue=2953 |pages=789–790 |doi=10.1038/117789b0 |bibcode=1926Natur.117..789F |s2cid=4114399 }}</ref> (although it was also suspected that the salinity varies seasonally and depends on the distance from the mouth of the Jordan).

Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mixing event took place,<ref name=overturn/> the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost {{convert|35|m|ft|0|sp=us}} or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of about 30%, and a temperature that swung between {{convert|19|°C|°F|abbr=on}} and {{convert|37|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent {{convert|22|°C|°F|abbr=on}} temperature, salinity of over 34%, and complete saturation of [[Chemistry:Sodium chloride|sodium chloride]] (NaCl).<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-14779-1_4 |chapter=The Dramatic Drop of the Dead Sea: Background, Rates, Impacts and Solutions |title=Macro-engineering Seawater in Unique Environments |series=Environmental Science and Engineering |year=2010 |last1=Abu Ghazleh |first1=Shahrazad |last2=Abed |first2=Abdulkader M. |last3=Kempe |first3=Stephan |pages=77–105 |isbn=978-3-642-14778-4 }}</ref> Since the water near the bottom is saturated with NaCl, that salt precipitates out of solution onto the [[Earth:Seabed|sea floor]].

Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978–79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, [[Earth:Ocean stratification|stratification]] has begun to redevelop.<ref name=overturn>{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/TED/deadsea.htm|title=Dead Sea Canal|publisher=American.edu|date=1996-12-09|access-date=May 5, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522133748/http://www1.american.edu/TED/deadsea.htm|archive-date=May 22, 2009}}</ref>[[File:SaltCementedPebblesDeadSea.JPG|thumb|Pebbles cemented with halite on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi|alt=|left]]

The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl<sup>−</sup> (181.4), Br<sup>−</sup> (4.2), SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup> (0.4), HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> (0.2), Ca<sup>2+</sup> (14.1), Na<sup>+</sup> (32.5), K<sup>+</sup> (6.2) and Mg<sup>2+</sup> (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinhorn |first1=Ilana |title=In situ salt precipitation at the Dead Sea |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=May 1983 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=580–583 |id={{INIST|9327311}} |doi=10.4319/lo.1983.28.3.0580 |bibcode=1983LimOc..28..580S |doi-access=free }}</ref> These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was [[Chemistry:Calcium chloride|calcium chloride]] (CaCl<sub>2</sub>) 14.4%, [[Chemistry:Potassium chloride|potassium chloride]] (KCl) 4.4%, [[Chemistry:Magnesium chloride|magnesium chloride]] (MgCl<sub>2</sub>) 50.8% and [[Chemistry:Sodium chloride|sodium chloride]] (NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most [[Earth:Ocean|ocean]]s and [[Earth:Sea|sea]]s is approximately 85% [[Chemistry:Sodium chloride|sodium chloride]]. The concentration of [[Chemistry:Sulfate|sulfate]] ions (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) is very low, and the concentration of [[Chemistry:Bromide|bromide]] ions (Br<sup>−</sup>) is the highest of all waters on Earth.
[[File:Halite Dead Sea Beach Pebbles.JPG|thumb|Beach pebbles made of halite; western coast]]

The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24&nbsp;kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural [[Physics:Buoyancy|buoyancy]]. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.

An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of [[Chemistry:Bitumen|asphalt]]. From deep [[Earth:Petroleum seep|seeps]], the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bein |first1=A. |last2=Amit |first2=O. |title=The evolution of the dead sea floating asphalt blocks: Simulations by pyrolysis |journal=Journal of Petroleum Geology |date=April 1980 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=439–447 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-5457.1980.tb00971.x |bibcode=1980JPetG...2..439B }}</ref> Asphalt-coated figurines and bitumen-coated [[History:Neolithic|Neolithic]] skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.<ref>Niemi, Tina M., Zvi Ben-Avraham and Joel Gat, eds., ''The Dead Sea: the lake and its setting,'' 1997, Oxford University Press, p. 251 {{ISBN|978-0-19-508703-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rullkötter |first1=J. |last2=Nissenbaum |first2=A. |title=Dead sea asphalt in egyptian mummies: Molecular evidence |journal=Naturwissenschaften |date=December 1988 |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=618–621 |doi=10.1007/BF00366476 |pmid=3237249 |bibcode=1988NW.....75..618R |s2cid=29037897 }}</ref>

==Putative therapies==
The Dead Sea area has become a location for health [[Research|research]] and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of [[Biology:Pollen|pollen]]s and other [[Biology:Allergen|allergen]]s in the atmosphere, the reduced [[Physics:Ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] component of [[Astronomy:Sunlight|solar radiation]], and the higher [[Physics:Atmospheric pressure|atmospheric pressure]] at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced [[Biology:Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] function from [[Disease|disease]]s such as [[Medicine:Cystic fibrosis|cystic fibrosis]] seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deadsea-health.org/new_html/diseases_respiratory.html|title=Asthma, Cystic Fibrosis, Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease|access-date=May 22, 2007|work=Dead Sea Research Center|archive-date=June 21, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621161407/http://www.deadsea-health.org/new_html/diseases_respiratory.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies:
*Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as [[Physics:Temperature|temperature]], [[Physics:Humidity|humidity]], [[Astronomy:Sunlight|sunshine]], [[Physics:Atmospheric pressure|barometric pressure]] and special atmospheric constituents
*Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the [[Astronomy:Sun|sun]]'s radiation
*[[Medicine:Thalassotherapy|Thalassotherapy]]: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea [[Chemistry:Water|water]]

Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for [[Medicine:Psoriasis|psoriasis]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Arnon D. |last2=Van-Dijk |first2=Dina |last3=Naggan |first3=Lechaim |last4=Vardy |first4=Daniel A. |title=Effectiveness of climatotherapy at the Dead Sea for psoriasis vulgaris: A community-oriented study introducing the 'Beer Sheva Psoriasis Severity Score' |journal=Journal of Dermatological Treatment |date=January 2005 |volume=16 |issue=5–6 |pages=308–313 |doi=10.1080/09546630500375841 |pmid=16428150 |s2cid=27903493 }}</ref> by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased thickness of the atmosphere{{citation needed|reason=cloud cover? Or do you mean increased filtering through the atmosphere, which has nothing to do with clouds? I'm pretty certain this is wrong but I don't have access to cited source|date=December 2018}} over the Dead Sea.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Halevy |first1=Sima |last2=Giryes |first2=Hani |last3=Friger |first3=Michael |last4=Sukenik |first4=Shaul |title=Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: a double-blind controlled study |journal=Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology |date=December 1997 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=237–242 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.1997.tb00509.x |s2cid=71957649 }}</ref>

[[Medicine:Rhinosinusitis|Rhinosinusitis]] patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Michael |last2=Vidyasagar |first2=Ramakrishnan |last3=Joseph |first3=Ninos |title=A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind Study on the Efficacy of Dead Sea Salt Nasal Irrigations |journal=The Laryngoscope |date=June 2006 |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=878–882 |doi=10.1097/01.mlg.0000216798.10007.76 |pmid=16735920 |s2cid=13013715 }}</ref>

Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with [[Medicine:Osteoarthritis|osteoarthritis]] of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flusser |first1=Daniel |last2=Abu-Shakra |first2=Mahmoud |last3=Friger |first3=Michael |last4=Codish |first4=Shlomi |last5=Sukenik |first5=Shaul |title=Therapy With Mud Compresses for Knee Osteoarthritis: Comparison of Natural Mud Preparations With Mineral-Depleted Mud |journal=Journal of Clinical Rheumatology |date=August 2002 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=197–203 |doi=10.1097/00124743-200208000-00003 |pmid=17041359 |s2cid=7647456 }}</ref>

{{wide image|Deadsea_panorama.jpg|800px|Panorama of the Dead Sea from the Mövenpick Resort, Jordan.}}

==Life forms==
[[File:Dead Sea Sunrise.jpg|thumb|Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada]]

===In the water===
The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and [[Biology:Aquatic plant|aquatic plant]]s, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.

In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from [[Organization:Hebrew University of Jerusalem|Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] found the Dead Sea to be teeming with an alga called ''[[Biology:Dunaliella|Dunaliella]]''. ''Dunaliella'' in turn nourished [[Biology:Carotenoid|carotenoid]]-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.

In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea. They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and [[Biology:Archaea|archaea]].<ref>{{cite journal |volume=7|issue=6|pages=e38319|doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0038319 |year = 2012|last1 = Ionescu|first1 = Danny|last2=Siebert|first2=Christian|last3=Polerecky|first3=Lubos|last4=Munwes|first4=Yaniv Y.|last5=Lott|first5=Christian|last6=Häusler|first6=Stefan|last7=Bižić-Ionescu|first7=Mina|last8=Quast|first8=Christian|last9=Peplies|first9=Jörg|last10=Glöckner|first10=Frank Oliver|last11=Ramette|first11=Alban|last12=Rödiger|first12=Tino|last13=Dittmar|first13=Thorsten|last14=Oren|first14=Aharon|last15=Geyer|first15=Stefan|last16=Stärk|first16=Hans-Joachim|last17=Sauter|first17=Martin|last18=Licha|first18=Tobias|last19=Laronne|first19=Jonathan B.|last20=De Beer|first20=Dirk|title=Microbial and Chemical Characterization of Underwater Fresh Water Springs in the Dead Sea|journal=PLOS ONE|pmid=22679498|pmc=3367964|bibcode=2012PLoSO...738319I|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Fauna and flora around the lake===
Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see ibex, [[Biology:Hare|hare]]s, [[Biology:Hyrax|hyrax]]es, [[Biology:Jackal|jackal]]s, [[Biology:Fox|fox]]es, and even leopards. Hundreds of [[Biology:Bird|bird]] species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.

====History====
The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of [[Biology:Cyperus papyrus|papyrus]] and [[Biology:Arecaceae|palm tree]]s. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described [[Place:Jericho|Jericho]] as "the most fertile spot in Judea". In [[History:Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times, [[Biology:Sugarcane|sugarcane]],{{dubious|Fatimid and Crusader period only, unless proven differently.|date=October 2015}} henna, and [[Biology:Ficus sycomorus|sycamore fig]] all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the [[Biology:Commiphora|balsam]] tree, which could be made into perfume. By the 19th century, Jericho's fertility had disappeared.{{dubious|Really? Why? Source? Jordan, other streams still there, population and water needs low.|date=October 2015}}

==Human settlement==
There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north–south on the Israeli side for a total distance of {{convert|565|km|0|abbr=on}} from Metula on the [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanese]] border in the north to its southern terminus at the [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]ian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat.

Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima. Highway 65 runs north–south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba.

==Human history==
===Biblical period===
[[File:MountSodom061607.jpg|thumb|Mount Sodom, Israel, showing the so-called "Lot's Wife" pillar (made of halite like the rest of the mountain)]]
Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the [[Religion:Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Bible]] as having taken place before the Israelites came to [[Place:Canaan|Canaan]], and extensively at the time of King David.

Just northwest of the Dead Sea is [[Place:Jericho|Jericho]]. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the [[Religion:Book of Genesis|Book of Genesis]] which were said to have been destroyed in the time of [[Biography:Abraham|Abraham]]: [[Religion:Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom and Gomorrah]] (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain", Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21–22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural [[Earth:Tar pit|tar pit]]s, which was called the '''vale of Siddim'''. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby.

In Ezekiel 47:8–9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting [[Biology:Marine biology|marine life]]. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that "living waters will go out from [[Place:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], half of them to the eastern sea [likely the Dead Sea] and half to the western sea [the [[Place:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]]."

===Greek and Roman period===
Greek and Jewish writers report that the Nabateans had monopolistic control over the Dead Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Philip C. |date=1959 |title=The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3209307 |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=40–48 |doi=10.2307/3209307 |jstor=3209307 |s2cid=133997328 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence shows multiple anchorages existing on both sides of the sea, including in Ein Gedi, Khirbet Mazin (where the ruins of a Hasmonean-era dry dock are located), Numeira and near [[Earth:Masada|Masada]].<ref name="anchorages">{{cite journal |last1=  Hadas|first1= Gideon|date= April 2011|title= Dead Sea Anchorages|journal= Revue Biblique |volume= 118 |issue= 2|pages= 161–179|jstor= 44092052}}</ref><ref>[https://www.imj.org.il/en/exhibitions/special-find-sailing-dead-sea Sailing the Dead Sea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106104318/https://www.imj.org.il/en/exhibitions/special-find-sailing-dead-sea |date=2019-01-06 }}, Israel Museum</ref>

King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was [[Earth:Masada|Masada]], where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple. The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, [[Biography:John the Baptist|John the Baptist]] was imprisoned by [[Religion:Herod Antipas|Herod Antipas]] and died.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+18.119 18.119]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=BabbaQ |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref>

{{rquote|right|Again if, as is fabled, there is a lake in [[Place:Palestine (region)|Palestine]], such that if you bind a man or beast and throw it in it floats and does not sink, this would bear out what we have said. They say that this lake is so bitter and salt that no fish live in it and that if you soak clothes in it and shake them it cleans them. — [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]], ''Meteorology''}}

Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (''Natural History'', Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.

[[File:Madaba BW 9 THERMA KALLIROIS highlighted.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A cargo boat on the Dead Sea as seen on the Madaba Map, from the 6th century AD]]Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of [[Religion:Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom]]. However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-1.htm|author=Josephus|title=Antiquities of the Jews|volume=1|chapter=9|title-link=Antiquities of the Jews|access-date=2012-02-18|archive-date=2020-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111185534/https://sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.<ref>Found today in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum of Jerusalem</ref> The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced [[Biology:Persimmon|persimmon]] for the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pardes.org.il/online_learning/weekly-talmud/2009-02-12.php |title=Sodomite salt could cause blindness |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815040437/http://www.pardes.org.il/online_learning/weekly-talmud/2009-02-12.php |archive-date=2009-08-15 }}</ref> The Roman camps surrounding [[Earth:Masada|Masada]] were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.<ref>A synagogue mosaic floor (circa 100 BCE) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna, portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town's secret persimmon recipe. Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area, especially persimmon trees, but also olive and date trees</ref>

===Byzantine period===
Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted [[Religion:Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] [[Philosophy:Monk|monk]]s since the [[Place:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.

===Modern times===
[[File:IRBY(1823) p507 SKETCH OF THE BACKWATER AT THE SOUTH END OF THE DEAD SEA.jpg|thumbnail|The southern basin of the Dead Sea as of 1817–18, with the Lisan Peninsula and its ford (now named Lynch Strait). North is to the right.]]
In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835, Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847, William Francis Lynch in 1848, and John MacGregor in 1869.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deadseaguide.com/dead_sea_history|title=History of the Dead Sea - Discover the Dead Sea with Us!|date=1 July 2016|access-date=22 November 2015|archive-date=22 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122195402/http://www.deadseaguide.com/dead_sea_history|url-status=live}}</ref> The full text of W. F. Lynch's 1949 book ''Narrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea'' is available online. Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817–18, but didn't navigate on its waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/the-unfortunate-costigan-first-surveyor-of-the-dead-sea/|title='The unfortunate Costigan', first surveyor of the Dead Sea|date=25 February 2013|access-date=22 November 2015|archive-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225020326/http://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/the-unfortunate-costigan-first-surveyor-of-the-dead-sea/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:World's lowest point (1971).jpg|thumb|World's lowest (dry) point, Jordan, 1971]]

Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate.

After the find of the "Moabite Stone" in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al-Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite" antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips", a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace.

The 1922 census of Palestine lists 100 people (68 Muslims and 32 Christians) with "Dead Sea & Jordan" as their main locality.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 |title=Palestine Census ( 1922)}}</ref> The 1931 census shows a sharp increase with 535 people (264 Muslims, 230 Jews, 21 Christians, 17 [[Philosophy:Druze|Druze]], and three with no religion) listing "Dead Sea" as their main village/town.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/palestine-census-1931 |title=Palestine Census 1931}}</ref> The 1938 nor 1945 village statistics does not give a number for the general Dead Sea area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Village statistics, February 1938. |url=https://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE13978876 |access-date=2023-08-19 |website=rosetta.nli.org.il |archive-date=2023-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819190145/https://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE13978876 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Village statistics, April, 1945 {{!}} Palestine (1917-1948). Department of Statistics {{!}} {{!}} The National Library of Israel |url=https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH990022497560205171/NLI |access-date=2023-08-19 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819190141/https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH990022497560205171/NLI |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about {{convert|1|mi|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The world's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at {{convert|393|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} below sea level.

==Tourism and leisure==
[[File:Ein Bokek - Dead Sea2.jpg|thumb|Ein Bokek, a resort on the Israeli shore]]

===British Mandate period===
A golf course named for [[Religion:Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom and Gomorrah]] was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore.

===Israel===
The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex.

Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a {{convert|6|km|mi|spell=in|adj=mid|abbr=off}} stretch of the southern shore.<ref name=WorldBank/>

===Jordan===
[[File:Kempinski Hotel Ishtar - Dead Sea - Jordan.jpg|thumb|Kempinski Hotel, one of the many hotels on the Jordanian shore]]
On the Jordanian side, nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center, along with resort apartments, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side's capacity to 2,800 rooms.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://jordantimes.com/news/local/dead-sea-aqaba-hotels-packed-during-eid-al-fitr-holiday|title=Dead Sea, Aqaba hotels packed during Eid Al Fitr holiday|access-date=12 July 2016|date=10 July 2016|work=The Jordan Times|archive-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711122153/http://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/dead-sea-aqaba-hotels-packed-during-eid-al-fitr-holiday|url-status=live}}</ref>

On November 22, 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on [[Software:Google Street View|Google Street View]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/streetview/|title=Discover Street View and contribute your own imagery to Google Maps.|website=Google Maps Street View|access-date=2022-05-13|archive-date=2021-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205145017/https://www.google.com/streetview/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Palestine (West Bank)===
The portion of Dead Sea coast which Palestinians could possibly eventually manage is about {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=off}} long. The [[Organization:World Bank|World Bank]] estimates that such Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs.<ref name=WorldBank/> However, Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism-related investments on the Dead Sea.<ref name=WorldBank/> According to the World Bank, officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement, but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000.<ref name=WorldBank/>

==Chemical industry==
{{multiple image
|direction=vertical
|align=right
|width=220
|image1=STS028-96-65.jpg
|caption1=View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, taken in 1989 from the [[Engineering:Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle Columbia]] ([[Engineering:STS-28|STS-28]]). The southern half is separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall in level of the Dead Sea.
|image2=Dead-Sea---Salt-Evaporation-Ponds.jpg
|caption2=View of the mineral evaporation ponds almost 12 years later ([[Engineering:STS-102|STS-102]]). A northern and small southeastern extension were added and the large polygonal ponds subdivided.
}}
[[File:Dead sea ecological disaster 1960 - 2007.gif|thumb|The dwindling water level of the Dead Sea]]

===British Mandate period===
In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of [[Chemistry:Potash|potash]] (potassium chloride) and [[Chemistry:Bromine|bromine]]. A concession was granted by the British Mandatory government to the newly formed Palestine Potash Company in 1929. Its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of [[Earth:Lake Baikal|Lake Baikal]] exploitation, Moses Novomeysky, had worked for the charter for over ten years having first visited the area in 1911.<ref name="Norris2013"/> The first plant, on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya, commenced production in 1931<ref name="Norris2013">{{cite book|author=Jacob Norris|title=Land of Progress: Palestine in the Age of Colonial Development, 1905-1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hV9zeYpzCawC&pg=PA159|date=11 April 2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-966936-3|pages=159–|access-date=22 December 2018|archive-date=30 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075942/https://books.google.com/books?id=hV9zeYpzCawC&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times.<ref name = "PM Nov 1930">{{Cite magazine | title = Wealth From The Dead Sea | magazine = Popular Mechanics | volume = 54 | issue = 5 | pages = 794–798 | publisher = Hearst Magazines | location = Chicago | date = November 1930 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uOQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA794 | access-date = 2020-09-28 | archive-date = 2023-10-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075942/https://books.google.com/books?id=uOQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA794#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref> The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East,{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during [[Social:World War II|World War II]]. Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1o_pCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 |title= Saline Lakes V: Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Inland Saline Lakes, held in Bolivia, 22–29 March 1991 |first= Stuart H. |last= Hurlbert |date= 6 December 2012 |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media |via= Google Books |isbn= 978-94-011-2076-0 |access-date= 13 September 2020 |archive-date= 30 October 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231030075943/https://books.google.com/books?id=1o_pCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }}</ref>

===Israel===
The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state-owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/who-really-owns-the-dead-sea.premium-1.515340|title=Who Really Owns the Dead Sea?|first=Asher|last=Schechter|date=14 April 2013|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=17 May 2016|archive-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624005034/http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/who-really-owns-the-dead-sea.premium-1.515340|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million [[Ton|ton]]s potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons [[Chemistry:Sodium hydroxide|caustic soda]], 25,000 tons [[Chemistry:Magnesium|magnesium]] metal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US$3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals.<ref name=WorldBank>World Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, [http://hlrn.org/img/violation/Area+C+Report+Oct-13.pdf Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222012616/http://hlrn.org/img/violation/Area+C+Report+Oct-13.pdf |date=2014-02-22 }}, October 2, 2013</ref>

===Jordan===
On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate.

Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan's GDP).

===West Bank===
The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=off}} long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate.<ref name=WorldBank/> The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918M incremental value added per year, "almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today".<ref name=WorldBank/>

===Extraction===
Both companies, Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash, use extensive salt [[Engineering:Pan evaporation|evaporation pan]]s that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing [[Chemistry:Carnallite|carnallite]], potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The [[Earth:Salt evaporation pond|ponds]] are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north–south along the international border. The [[Chemistry:Power station|power plant]] on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.).

Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.

==Recession and environmental concerns==
[[File:Dead Sea Coastal Erosion March 2012.JPG|thumb|right|Gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession of water levels. It was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year.]]

===Receding shoreline{{anchor|recession}}===
Since 1930, when its surface was {{convert|1050|km2|abbr=on}} and its level was {{convert|390|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously. The Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking since the 1960s because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north<ref name=klein1987/> as part of the National Water Carrier scheme,<ref name=sinkholes/> completed in 1964.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://research.haifa.ac.il/~eshkol/kantorb.html | title=The National Water Carrier | first=Shmuel | last=Kantor | access-date=19 June 2021 | publisher=the [[Organization:University of Haifa|University of Haifa]] | archive-date=2 October 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002192717/http://research.haifa.ac.il/~eshkol/kantorb.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a water surface of {{convert|395|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} below sea level in 1970<ref name=klein1987>{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=C. |last2=Flohn |first2=H. |title=Contributions to the knowledge of the fluctuations of the Dead Sea level |journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology |date=1987 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=151–156 |id={{INIST|7617200}} |doi=10.1007/BF00868099 |bibcode=1987ThApC..38..151K |s2cid=122554176 }}</ref> it fell {{convert|22|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|418|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of {{convert|1|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics{{vague|date=October 2021}} of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.

{{anchor|sinkholes}}
The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a [[Earth:Groundwater|groundwater]] level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large [[Earth:Sinkhole|sinkhole]]s along the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Abelson|author2=Y. Yechieli |author3=O. Crouvi |author4=G. Baer |author5=D. Wachs |author6=A. Bein |author7=V. Shtivelman |title=Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes in|work=special paper 401|publisher=Geological Society of America| pages=241–253| year=2006}}</ref> {{as of|2021}} Ein Gedi, on the western coast, has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, attributed to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea.<ref name=sinkholes>{{cite web | last=Tlozek | first=Eric | title=The Dead Sea is disappearing, leaving behind a landscape shattered by sinkholes | website=ABC News | publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=10 June 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-10/the-disappearing-dead-sea-sinkhole-science-en-gedi/100123858 | access-date=19 June 2021 | others=Cinematography: Alon Farago and Abu Saada; Graphics: Andres Gomez Isaza | archive-date=19 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619034832/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-10/the-disappearing-dead-sea-sinkhole-science-en-gedi/100123858 | url-status=live }}</ref>

{{as of|2021}}, the surface of the Sea has shrunk by about 33 percent since the 1960s, which is partly attributed to the much-reduced flow of the Jordan River since the construction of the National Water Carrier project, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the Dead Sea has diminished even further since [[Earth:Flash flood|flash flood]]s started pouring into the sinkholes. The EcoPeace Middle East, a joint Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian environmental group, has estimated that the annual flow into the Dead Sea from the Jordan is {{as of|lc=yes|2021}} less than {{convert|100,000,000|m3}} of water, compared with former flows of between {{convert|1,200,000,000|m3}} and {{convert|1,300,000,000|m3}}.<ref name=sinkholes/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Water level (m)
! Surface (km<sup>2</sup>)
|-
| '''1930'''|| −390|| 1050
|-
| '''1980'''|| −400|| 680
|-
| '''1992'''|| −407|| 675
|-
| '''1997'''|| −411|| 670
|-
| '''2004'''|| −417|| 662
|-
| '''2010'''|| −423|| 655
|-
| '''2016'''|| −430.5|| 605
|}
Sources: Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research,<ref name="ISRAMAR"/> ''[[Social:Haaretz|Haaretz]]'',<ref name="HRTZ"/> Jordan Valley Authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/Presentations/Water_Management_Symposium/Jordan/Jordan.pdf|title=River Basin Management|access-date=31 May 2014|author=Eng. Sa’ad Abu Hammour, JVA|publisher=Jordan Valley Authority|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531104927/http://www.sesrtcic.org/Presentations/Water_Management_Symposium/Jordan/Jordan.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-31|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:The Dead Sea 1972-2011 - NASA Earth Observatory.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|Views in 1972, 1989, and 2011 compared<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=77592|title=The Dead Sea : Image of the Day|date=6 April 2012|access-date=23 September 2013|archive-date=19 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119021358/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=77592|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

===Link to the Red Sea===
[[File:Red Sea - Dead Sea Canal map.jpg|thumb|right|The proposed Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.]]
In May 2009 at the [[Organization:World Economic Forum|World Economic Forum]], Jordan introduced plans for a "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project" (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jordan, Israel agree $900 million Red Sea-Dead Sea project |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-economy-water/jordan-israel-agree-900-million-red-sea-dead-sea-project-idUSKBN0LU23Z20150226 |access-date=11 December 2018 |work=Reuters |date=26 February 2015 |language=en |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215174726/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-economy-water/jordan-israel-agree-900-million-red-sea-dead-sea-project-idUSKBN0LU23Z20150226 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=JRSP>Jordan Red Sea Project: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324005936/http://www.jrsp-jordan.com/imgs/JRSP%20Project%20Description.pdf |date=2012-03-24 }} Original: [http://www.jrsp-jordan.com/imgs/JRSP%20Project%20Description.pdf Jordan Red Sea Project Description], retrieved on May 11, 2011</ref>

At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.jpost.com/Features/Back-from-the-Dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027040042/http://www.jpost.com/Features/Back-from-the-Dead |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 27, 2013 |title=Back from the Dead? |author=Ehud Zion Waldoks |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=July 8, 2009 }}</ref>

In October 2009, the Jordanians accelerated plans to extract around {{convert|300|e6m3|e9cuft|0|abbr=off}} of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/6285055/Jordan-to-refill-shrinking-Dead-Sea-with-salt-water.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091013062851/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/6285055/Jordan-to-refill-shrinking-Dead-Sea-with-salt-water.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 13 October 2009|title=Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|date=10 October 2009}}</ref>

In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline would be {{convert|180|km|abbr=on}} long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/09/dead-sea-pipeline-water-red-sea|date=2013-12-09|title=Dead Sea neighbours agree to pipeline to pump water from Red Sea|first=Harriet|last=Sherwood|newspaper={{wipe|The Guardian}}|access-date=2016-12-14|archive-date=2018-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704153555/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/09/dead-sea-pipeline-water-red-sea|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water was dropping by {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on|1}} a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.org/news/international/middle_east/story.php?id=58290|title=Dead Sea Dying: Levels of salt water are dropping by three feet annually|author=Catholic Online|access-date=2015-01-08|archive-date=2015-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108112540/http://www.catholic.org/news/international/middle_east/story.php?id=58290|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 27 November 2016, the Jordanian government shortlisted five consortia to implement the project. Jordan's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project would begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and would be completed by 2021.<ref name="JT"/> The project was officially abandoned in June 2021, having never broken ground.<ref name="TOI-Nixed">{{cite web |title=After years of delays, Jordan said to nix Red Sea-Dead Sea canal with Israel, PA |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/after-years-of-delays-jordan-said-to-nix-red-sea-dead-sea-canal-with-israel-pa/ |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=22 February 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522234420/https://www.timesofisrael.com/after-years-of-delays-jordan-said-to-nix-red-sea-dead-sea-canal-with-israel-pa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
*Aral Sea
*List of drying lakes
*List of places on land with elevations below sea level
*[[Place:Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal|Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal]]
*Benjamin Elazari Volcani
*PEF rock with the Dead Sea level reference line used between 1900 and 1913

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}

==Further reading==
*The World Bank, 2013, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130915013427/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTREDSEADEADSEA/0,,contentMDK:21827416~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:5174617,00.html "The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program"], and source of basic data on the Dead Sea.
*Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) ''New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research'', Geological Society of America, {{ISBN|978-0-8137-2401-0}}
*Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., [[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], 286 p.
* World Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, [http://hlrn.org/img/violation/Area+C+Report+Oct-13.pdf Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy], October 2, 2013

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Dead Sea}} (Israeli and West Bank part and Jordanian part)
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle = Dead Sea |volume= VII |last= Porter |first= Josias Leslie  | pages=1-3 |short=1 }}


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