View source for Earth:Geology of the Himalayas

{{Short description|Origins and structure of the mountain range}}

{{stack|
[[File:290_global.png|right|thumb|'''Fig 1:''' The Earth in the [[Earth:Cisuralian|Early Permian]] (290 million years ago) when India was part of Gondwana and bordered to the north by the Cimmerian Superterrane. Paleogeographic reconstruction by {{Harvtxt|Dèzes|1999}}, based on {{Harvtxt|Stampfli|Borel|2002}} and {{Harvtxt|Patriat|Achache|1984}}.{{efn|1=A more modern paleogeographic reconstruction of the Early Permian can be found at {{cite web |title=Paleotethys |publisher=Université de Lausanne |url= http://www.unil.ch/igp/page22666_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608151513/http://www.unil.ch/igp/page22666_en.html |archive-date=8 June 2011}}.}}]]

[[File:249_global.png|right|thumb|'''Fig 2:''' The Earth at the Permian-Triassic boundary. The opening of the Neotethys separates the Cimmeridian Superterrane from Gondwana. Based on {{Harvtxt|Stampfli|Borel|2002}} and {{Harvtxt|Patriat|Achache|1984}}.({{sfn|Stampfli|2000}}{{sfn|Stampfli|Mosar|Favre|Pillevuit|2001}}{{sfn|Stampfli|Borel|2002}}){{efn|1=A more modern paleogeographic reconstruction of the Permian-Triassic boundary, see {{cite web |title=Neotethys |publisher=Université de Lausanne |url= http://www.unil.ch/igp/page22667_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119041356/http://www.unil.ch/igp/page22667_en.html |archive-date=19 January 2011}}.}}]]

[[File:100 global.png|right|thumb|'''Fig 3:''' The earth in the Cretaceous. The Cimmeridian Superterrane has accreted to Mega Laurasia, the oceanic crust of the Neotethys is subducted to the north along the Dras volcanic arc, the Shigatze Ocean opens as a consequence of back-arc spreading, India is separated from Africa and E. Gondwana and the Indian Ocean opens. Paleogeographic reconstructions based by {{Harvtxt|Dèzes|1999}}, on {{Harvtxt|Stampfli|Borel|2002}} and {{Harvtxt|Patriat|Achache|1984}}.]]

[[File:india 71-0 Ma.gif|right|thumb|'''Fig 4:''' The northward drift of India from 71&nbsp;Ma ago to present time. Note the simultaneous counter-clockwise rotation of India. Collision of the Indian continent with Eurasia occurred at about 55 million years ago. Source: www.usgs.org (modified)]]

[[File:2_2_himal_tecto_units.png|right|thumb|'''Fig 5:''' Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after {{Harvtxt|Le Fort|Cronin|1988}}. Green is the Indus-Yarlung suture zone.]]

[[File:2_6_tectomap2.png|right|thumb|'''Fig 6:''' Geological Map of the NW Himalaya; for references, see image description or [http://comp1.geol.unibas.ch/~zanskar/CHAPITRE10/biblio.html bibliography]. HHCS: High Himalayan Cristalline Sequence; ISZ: Indus Suture Zone; KW: Kishtwar Window; LKRW: Larji-Kulu-Rampur Window; MBT: Main Boundary Thrust; MCT: Main Central Thrust; SF: Sarchu Fault; ZSZ: Zanskar Shear Zone. (Download map in [http://comp1.geol.unibas.ch/~zanskar/CHAPITRE2/images2/GeolNWHimal.pdf PDF] format).]]

[[File:coupeHimal2 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|'''Fig 7:''' Simplified cross-section of the north-western Himalaya showing the main tectonic units and structural elements by {{Harvtxt|Dèzes|1999}}. (Download in [https://web.archive.org/web/20050513063931/http://comp1.geol.unibas.ch/~zanskar/CHAPITRE2/images2/coupeHimal2.pdf PDF] format)]]

[[File:Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone.png|'''Fig 8:''' Indus-Yarlung suture zone separates Himalayas from the Transhimalayas. Lhasa Terrane (also called Karakoram-Lhasa Block/Terrane) lies within the Transhimalayas in its east side. Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone separates Qiangtang Terrane from the Lahsa Terrane|thumb]]
}}

The '''geology of the Himalayas''' is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of the immense [[Earth:Mountain range|mountain range]] formed by plate tectonic forces and sculpted by [[Earth:Weathering|weathering]] and [[Earth:Erosion|erosion]]. The Himalayas, which stretch over 2400&nbsp;km between the Namcha Barwa [[Earth:Syntaxis (geology)|syntaxis]] at the eastern end of the mountain range and the Nanga Parbat syntaxis at the western end, are the result of an ongoing [[Physics:Orogeny|orogeny]] — the collision of the [[Earth:Continental crust|continental crust]] of two tectonic plates, namely, the [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian Plate]] thrusting into the [[Earth:Eurasian Plate|Eurasian Plate]]. The Himalaya-Tibet region supplies fresh water for more than one-fifth of the world population, and accounts for a quarter of the global [[Earth:Sedimentary budget|sedimentary budget]]. Topographically, the belt has many superlatives: the highest rate of [[Earth:Tectonic uplift|uplift]] (nearly 10&nbsp;mm/year at Nanga Parbat), the [[Earth:List of highest mountains on Earth|highest relief]] (8848&nbsp;m at Mt. Everest Chomolangma), among the highest [[Earth:Erosion#Mountain ranges|erosion]] rates at 2–12&nbsp;mm/yr,{{sfn|Burbank|Leland|Fielding|Anderson|1996}} the source of some of the greatest rivers and the highest concentration of glaciers outside of the polar regions. This last feature earned the Himalaya its name, originating from the [[Social:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] for "the abode of the snow".

From south to north the Himalaya (Himalaya orogen) is divided into 4 parallel [[Earth:Tectonostratigraphy|tectonostratigraphic zones]] and 5 [[Earth:Thrust fault|thrust fault]]s which extend across the length of Himalaya orogen. Each zone, flanked by the thrust faults on its north and south, has [[Earth:Stratigraphy|stratigraphy]] (type of rocks and their layering) different from the adjacent zones. From south to north, the zones and the major faults separating them are the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), Subhimalaya Zone (also called Sivalik), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Lesser Himalaya (further subdivided into the "Lesser Himalayan Sedimentary Zone (LHSZ) and the Lesser Himalayan Crystalline [[Earth:Nappe|Nappe]]s (LHCN)), Main Central thrust (MCT), Higher (or Greater) Himalayan crystallines (HHC), South Tibetan detachment system (STD), Tethys Himalaya (TH), and the Indus‐Tsangpo Suture Zone (ISZ).{{sfn|DiPietro|Pogue|2004}} North of this lies the transhimalaya in Tibet which is outside the Himalayas. Himalaya has Indo-Gangetic Plain in south, Pamir Mountains in west in [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]], and Hengduan Mountains in east on China–Myanmar border.

From east to west the Himalayas are divided into 3 regions, [[Place:Eastern Himalaya|Eastern Himalaya]], Central Himalaya, and Western Himalaya, which collectively house [[Place:Himalayan states|several nations and states]].

==Making of the Himalayas==

During Late [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]] and the Palaeozoic, the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]], bounded to the north by the [[Earth:Cimmeria (continent)|Cimmerian Superterranes]], was part of [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwana]] and was separated from [[Earth:Eurasia|Eurasia]] by the [[Earth:Paleo-Tethys Ocean|Paleo-Tethys Ocean]] (Fig. 1). During that period, the northern part of {{wipe|India}} was affected by a late phase of the Pan-African orogeny which is marked by an [[Earth:Unconformity|unconformity]] between [[Earth:Ordovician|Ordovician]] continental [[Earth:Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerates]] and the underlying [[Earth:Cambrian|Cambrian]] marine [[Earth:Sediment|sediment]]s. Numerous [[Chemistry:Granite|granitic]] intrusions dated at around 500&nbsp;Ma are also attributed to this event.

In the Early [[Earth:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]], an early stage of rifting developed between the [[Earth:Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]] and the Cimmerian Superterranes. During the Early [[Earth:Permian|Permian]], this [[Earth:Rift|rift]] developed into the Neotethys ocean (Fig. 2). From that time on, the Cimmerian Superterranes drifted away from Gondwana towards the north. Nowadays, [[Religion:Iran|Iran]], Afghanistan and [[Place:Tibet|Tibet]] are partly made up of these terranes.

In the Norian (210&nbsp;Ma), a major rifting episode split Gondwana in two parts. The Indian continent became part of East Gondwana, together with [[Earth:Australia (continent)|Australia]] and [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]]. However, the separation of East and West Gondwana, together with the formation of oceanic crust, occurred later, in the Callovian (160-155&nbsp;Ma). The Indian plate then broke off from Australia and Antarctica in the Early [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]] (130-125&nbsp;Ma) with the opening of the "South Indian Ocean" (Fig. 3).

In the Late [[Earth:Cretaceous|Cretaceous]] (84&nbsp;Ma), the Indian plate began its very rapid northward drift covering a distance of about 6000&nbsp;km,{{sfn|Dèzes|1999}} with the oceanic-oceanic [[Earth:Subduction|subduction]] continuing until the final closure of the oceanic basin and the [[Earth:Obduction|obduction]] of oceanic [[Earth:Ophiolite|ophiolite]] onto India and the beginning of continent-continent tectonic interaction starting at about 65&nbsp;[[Astronomy:Myr|Ma]] in the Central Himalaya.{{sfn|Ding|Kapp|Wan|2005}}  The change of the relative speed between the [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian]] and Asian plates from very fast (18-19.5&nbsp;cm/yr) to fast (4.5&nbsp;cm/yr) at about 55&nbsp;Ma{{sfn|Klootwijk|Gee|Peirce|Smith|1992}} is circumstantial support for collision then.  Since then there has been about 2500&nbsp;km{{sfn|Achache|Courtillot|Xiu|1984}}{{sfn|Patriat|Achache|1984}}{{sfn|Besse|Courtillot|Pozzi|Westphal|1984}}{{sfn|Besse|Courtillot|1988}} of crustal shortening and rotating of India by 45° counterclockwise in the Northwestern Himalaya{{sfn|Klootwijk|Conaghan|Powell|1985}} to 10°-15° counterclockwise in North Central Nepal{{sfn|Bingham|Klootwijk|1980}} relative to Asia (Fig. 4).

While most of the [[Earth:Oceanic crust|oceanic crust]] was "simply" subducted below the [[Place:Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan block]] during the northward motion of India, at least three major mechanisms have been put forward, either separately or jointly, to explain what happened, since collision, to the 2500&nbsp;km of "missing [[Earth:Continental crust|continental crust]]".

* The first mechanism also calls upon the subduction of the Indian continental crust below Tibet.
* Second is the extrusion or escape tectonics mechanism {{Harv|Molnar|Tapponnier|1975}} which sees the Indian plate as an [[Earth:Indenter tectonics|indenter]] that squeezed the [[Place:Indochina|Indochina]] block out of its way.
* The third proposed mechanism is that a large part (~1000&nbsp;km ({{Harvnb|Dewey|Cande|Pitman|1989}}) or ~800 to ~1200&nbsp;km{{sfn|Le Pichon|Fournier|Jolivet|1992}}) of the 2500&nbsp;km of [[Physics:Thick-skinned deformation|crustal shortening]] was accommodated by thrusting and [[Earth:Fold (geology)|folding]] of the sediments of the [[Earth:Passive margin|passive]] [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian margin]] together with the deformation of the Tibetan crust.

Even though it is more than reasonable to argue that this huge amount of crustal shortening most probably results from a combination of these three mechanisms, it is nevertheless the last mechanism which created the high topographic relief of the Himalaya.

The ongoing active collision of the Indian and [[Earth:Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] continental plates challenges one hypothesis for plate motion which relies on subduction.

==Major tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya==
One of the most striking aspects of the Himalayan orogen is the lateral continuity of its major tectonic elements. The Himalaya is classically divided into four tectonic units that can be followed for more than 2400&nbsp;km along the [[Physics:Orogeny|belt]] (Fig. 5 and Fig. 7).{{efn|1=The fourfold division of Himalayan units has been used since the work of {{Harvtxt|Blanford|Medlicott|1879}} and {{Harvtxt|Heim|Gansser|1939}}.}}

===Sub-Himalayan (Churia Hills or Sivaliks) tectonic plate===
{{anchor| Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate}}

The Sub-Himalayan tectonic plate is sometimes referred to as the ''Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate'' in the older literature. It forms the southern foothills of the Himalayan Range and is essentially composed of Miocene to [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] [[Earth:Molasse|molassic]] sediments derived from the erosion of the Himalaya. These [[Earth:Molasse|molasse]] deposits, known as the ''"Murree and [[Earth:Geology of the Himalaya#The sub-Himalaya (Churia Hills or Siwaliks) tectonic plate|Sivaliks]] Formations"'', are internally folded and [[Earth:Imbrication (sedimentology)|imbricated]]. The Sub-Himalayan Range is thrust along the [[Earth:Main Frontal Thrust|Main Frontal Thrust]] over the [[Earth:Quaternary|Quaternary]] [[Earth:Alluvium|alluvium]] deposited by the rivers coming from the Himalaya (Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra and others), which demonstrates that the Himalaya is still a very active orogen.

===Lesser Himalaya (LH) tectonic plate===

The Lesser Himalaya (LH) tectonic plate is mainly formed by Upper [[Earth:Proterozoic|Proterozoic]] to lower [[Earth:Cambrian|Cambrian]] [[Earth:Detritus (geology)|detrital]] sediments from the [[Earth:Passive margin|passive Indian margin]] [[Earth:Interbedding|intercalated]] with some [[Chemistry:Granite|granite]]s and [[Earth:Acidic rock|acid]] [[Earth:Volcanic rock|volcanic]]s (1840 ±70&nbsp;Ma{{sfn|Frank|Gansser|Trommsdorff|1977}}). These sediments are thrust over the Sub-himalayan range along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). The Lesser Himalaya often appears in tectonic windows (Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows) within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence.

===Central Himalayan Domain, (CHD) or High Himalaya tectonic plate===

The Central Himalayan Domain forms the backbone of the Himalayan orogen and encompasses the areas with the highest [[Earth:Topography|topographic]] relief (highest peaks). It is commonly separated into four zones.

====High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence (HHCS)====

Approximately 30 different names exist in the literature to describe this unit; the most frequently found equivalents are ''"Greater Himalayan Sequence"'', ''"[[Place:Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan Slab]]"'' and ''"High Himalayan Crystalline"''. It is a 30-km-thick, medium- to high-grade [[Earth:Metamorphic zone|metamorphic sequence]] of [[Earth:Metasedimentary rock|metasedimentary rock]]s which are intruded in many places by granites of [[Earth:Ordovician|Ordovician]] (c. 500&nbsp;Ma) and early Miocene (c. 22&nbsp;Ma) age. Although most of the metasediments forming the HHCS are of late [[Earth:Proterozoic|Proterozoic]] to early [[Earth:Cambrian|Cambrian]] age, much younger metasediments can also be found in several areas, e.g. [[Earth:Mesozoic|Mesozoic]] in the Tandi [[Earth:Syncline|syncline]] of Nepal and Warwan Valley of Kistwar in [[Place:Kashmir|Kashmir]], [[Earth:Permian|Permian]] in the ''"Tschuldo slice"'', [[Earth:Ordovician|Ordovician]] to [[Earth:Carboniferous|Carboniferous]] in the ''"Sarchu area"'' on Leh-Manali Highway. It is now generally accepted that the metasediments of the HHCS represent the [[Earth:Metamorphism|metamorphic]] equivalents of the sedimentary series forming the base of the overlying ''"[[Earth:Tethys Ocean|Tethys Himalaya]]"''. The HHCS forms a major [[Earth:Nappe|nappe]] which is thrust over the Lesser Himalaya along the ''"[[Earth:Main Central Thrust|Main Central Thrust]]"'' (MCT).

====Tethys Himalaya (TH)====

The Tethys Himalaya is an approximately 100-km-wide synclinorium formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly [[Earth:Metamorphism|metamorphosed]] sedimentary series. Several nappes, termed the ''"North Himalayan Nappes"'',{{sfn|Steck|Spring|Vannay|Masson|1993a}} have also been described within this unit. An almost complete [[Earth:Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] record ranging from the [[Earth:Proterozoic|Upper Proterozoic]] to the [[Earth:Eocene|Eocene]] is preserved within the sediments of the TH. Stratigraphic analysis of these sediments yields important indications on the geological history of the northern [[Earth:Continental margin|continental margin]] of the Indian sub-continent from its [[Earth:Gondwana|Gondwanian]] evolution to its continental collision with [[Earth:Eurasia|Eurasia]]. The transition between the generally low-grade sediments of the ''"Tethys Himalaya"'' and the underlying low- to high-grade rocks of the ''"High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence"'' is usually progressive. But in many places along the Himalayan belt, this transition zone is marked by a major structure, the ''"Central Himalayan Detachment System"'', also known as the ''"South Tibetan Detachment System"'' or ''"North Himalayan Normal Fault"'', which has indicators of both extension and compression. See ''ongoing geologic studies'' section below.

====Nyimaling-Tso Morari Metamorphic Dome (NTMD)====
''"Nyimaling-Tso Morari Metamorphic Dome"'' in the Ladakh region, the ''"Tethys Himalaya synclinorium"'' passes gradually to the north in a large dome of [[Earth:Greenschist|greenschist]] to [[Earth:Eclogite|eclogitic]] [[Earth:Metamorphism|metamorphic]] rocks. As with the HHCS, these metamorphic rocks represent the metamorphic equivalent of the sediments forming the base of the Tethys Himalaya. The ''"[[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]] Phe Formation"'' is also here intruded by several [[Earth:Ordovician|Ordovician]] (c. 480&nbsp;Ma{{sfn|Girard|Bussy|1998}}) granites.

==== Lamayuru and Markha Units (LMU) ====
The Lamayuru and Markha Units are formed by [[Earth:Flysch|flysch]]s and [[Earth:Olistostrome|olistholith]]s deposited in a [[Earth:Turbidite|turbiditic]] environment, on the northern part of the Indian continental slope and in the adjoining [[Earth:Tethys Ocean|Neotethys basin]]. The age of these sediments ranges from [[Earth:Late Permian|Late Permian]] to [[Earth:Eocene|Eocene]].

===Indus Suture Zone (ISZ) (or Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) tectonic plate===

ISZ, also called [[Earth:Indus-Yarlung suture zone|Indus-Yarlung suture zone]], Yarlung-Zangpo Suture Zone or Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone, defines the zone of collision between the [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian Plate]] and the Ladakh Batholith (also Transhimalaya or Karakoram-Lhasa Block) to the north. This suture zone is formed by:

:* ''[[Earth:Ophiolite|Ophiolite]] [[Earth:Mélange|Mélange]]s'', composed of an intercalation of [[Earth:Flysch|flysch]] and [[Earth:Ophiolite|ophiolite]]s from the Neotethys oceanic crust.

:* ''Dras Volcanics'', [[Earth:Relict (geology)|relicts]] of a [[Earth:Cretaceous|Late Cretaceous]] to Late [[Earth:Jurassic|Jurassic]] volcanic island arc and consist of [[Earth:Basalt|basalt]]s, [[Earth:Dacite|dacite]]s, volcanoclastites, [[Earth:Pillow lava|pillow lava]]s and minor [[Earth:Radiolarite|radiolarian]] [[Earth:Chert|chert]]s

:* ''Indus [[Earth:Molasse|Molasse]]'', a continental [[Earth:Clastic rock|clastic rock]] sequence (with rare interbeds of marine saltwater sediments) comprising [[Earth:Alluvial fan|alluvial fan]], braided stream and fluvio-lacustrine sediments derived mainly from the Ladakh batholith but also from the suture zone itself and the ''Tethys Himalaya''. These molasses are [[Earth:Continental collision|post-collisional]] and thus Eocene to post-Eocene.

:* ''[[Earth:Indus-Yarlung suture zone|Indus Suture Zone]]'', representing the northern limit of the Himalaya. Further to the North is the so-called ''Transhimalaya'', or more locally ''Ladakh Batholith'', which corresponds essentially to an active margin of Andean type. Widespread volcanism in this [[Earth:Volcanic arc|volcanic arc]] was caused by the melting of the [[Earth:Mantle (geology)|mantle]] at the base of the Tibetan bloc, triggered by the [[Chemistry:Dehydration reaction|dehydration]] of the [[Earth:Subduction|subducting]] [[Earth:Indian Plate|Indian oceanic crust]].

==See also==
Localized geology and geomorphology topics for various parts of the Himalaya are discussed on other pages:
* Geology of Nepal
* [[History:Zanskar|Zanskar]] is a subdistrict of the Kargil district, which lies in the eastern half of the Indian union territory of Ladakh.
* Indus River - the erosion at Nanga Parbat is causing rapid uplifting of lower crustal rocks
* [[Earth:Mount Everest#Geology|Mount Everest]]
* Sutlej River - similar small scale erosion to the Indus
* [[Place:Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan Plateau]] to the North (also discussed in Geography of Tibet)
* Paleotethys
* Karakoram fault system - major active fault system within the Himalaya
* [[Earth:Main Himalayan Thrust|Main Himalayan Thrust]] - the root thrust that underlies the Himalaya

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}
{{clear}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Klootwijk |first1=C.T. |last2=Conaghan |first2=P.J. |last3=Powell |first3=C.McA. |title=The Himalayan Arc: large-scale continental subduction, oroclinal bending and back-arc spreading |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=75 |issue=2–3 |date=October 1985 |pages=167–183 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(85)90099-8 |bibcode=1985E&PSL..75..167K }}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Cite book|url=http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~manning/pdfs/c01.pdf |title=Geochronologic and Thermobarometric Constraints on the Evolution of the Main Central Thrust, Himalayan Orogen |series=PhD Thesis |publisher=University of California |first=Elizabeth Jacqueline |last=Catlos |year=2000 }}
*[http://www.geocities.ws/himalayangeology/pdf/Chap01.pdf  "Geology and Petrographic study of the area from Chiraundi Khola to Thulo Khola, Dhading/Nawakot district, central Nepal".] MS Thesis by Gyanendra Gurung 
*[http://www.virtualexplorer.com.au/journal/2003/11/ Granitoids of the Himalayan Collisional Belt.] Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161021014535/http://www.virtualexplorer.com.au/journal/2002/08 Reconstruction of the evolution of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny.] Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120404073102/http://www.ranjan.net.np/ranjan/index.php/engineering-geology-of-nepal "Engineering Geology of Nepal"]
*[http://www.wihg.res.in/ Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India, main page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030082841/http://www.wihg.res.in/ |date=30 October 2014 }}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Geology of the Himalaya}}
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]

{{Sourceattribution|Geology of the Himalayas}}