View source for Earth:Ocean disposal of radioactive waste

{{Short description|Method to dispose of nuclear and radioactive waste}}
From 1946 through 1993, thirteen countries used ocean disposal or ocean dumping as a method to dispose of nuclear/[[Physics:Radioactive waste|radioactive waste]] with an approximation of 200,000 tons sourcing mainly from the medical, research and nuclear industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=D.P. |first=Calmet |date=1989 |title=Ocean disposal of radioactive waste: Status report |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:21044010 |journal=International Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |issn=0020-6067}}</ref>

The waste materials included both liquids and solids housed in various containers, as well as reactor vessels, with and without spent or damaged [[Physics:Nuclear fuel|nuclear fuel]].<ref name="IAEA_te_11052">IAEA [http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/te_1105_prn.pdf TECDOC-1105 “Inventory of radioactive waste disposals at sea” August 1999] retrieved 2011-12-4</ref> Since 1993, ocean disposal has been banned by international treaties. (London Convention (1972), [[Chemistry:Basel Convention|Basel Convention]], MARPOL 73/78). There has only been the disposal of low level radioactive waste (LLW) thus far in terms of ocean dumping as high level waste has been strictly prohibited.

"[[Earth:Ocean floor disposal|Ocean floor disposal]]" (or sub-seabed disposal)—a more deliberate method of delivering radioactive waste to the ocean floor and depositing it into the seabed—was studied by the United Kingdom and Sweden, but never implemented.<ref>[[Organization:World Nuclear Association|World Nuclear Association]] [http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf04ap2.html “Storage and Disposal Options”] retrieved 2011-11-14</ref>

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== History ==
Data are from IAEA-TECDOC-1105,<ref name="IAEA_te_11052"/> pages 3–4.
* 1946 First dumping operation at Northeast Pacific Ocean (about 80&nbsp;km off the coast of California)
* 1957 First IAEA Advisory Group Meeting on Radioactive Waste Disposal into the Sea
* 1958 First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I)
* 1964  On the 21 April, a satellite failed carrying a SNAP-9A radiothermal generator. 17,000 Ci (630 TBq) plutonium metal fuel burned up.<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=28628779 | doi=10.1016/j.jenvrad.2017.06.011 | volume=177 | title=On the presence of plutonium in Madagascar following the SNAP-9A satellite failure | year=2017 | journal=J Environ Radioact | pages=91–99 | last1 = Rääf | first1 = C | last2 = Holm | first2 = E | last3 = Rabesiranana | first3 = N | last4 = Garcia-Tenorio | first4 = R | last5 = Chamizo | first5 = E}}</ref>
* 1972 Adoption of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention 1972)
* 1975 The London Convention 1972 entered into force (Prohibition of dumping of high level radioactive waste.)
* 1978 On the 24 January a satellite named [[Engineering:Kosmos 954|Kosmos 954]] failed. It was powered by a liquid sodium–potassium thermionic converter driven by a nuclear reactor containing around 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium-235.
* 1983 Moratorium on low-level waste dumping
* 1988 Assessing the Impact of Deep Sea Disposal of Low-level Radioactive Waste on Living Marine Resources. IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 288
* 1990 Estimation of Radiation Risks at Low Dose. IAEA-TECDOC-557
* 1993 Russia reported the dumping of high level nuclear waste including spent fuel by former USSR.
* 1994 (February 20) Total prohibition of disposal at sea came into force

== 1946–1993 ==
Data are from IAEA-TECDOC-1105.<ref name="IAEA_te_11052"/> Summary of pages 27–120:

Disposal projects attempted to locate ideal dumping sites based on depth, stability and currents, and to treat, solidify and contain the waste. However, some dumping only involved diluting the waste with surface water, or used containers that imploded at depth. Even containers that survived the pressure could physically decay over time.

[[File:Ocean dumping of radioactive waste.png|thumb|800px|center|Country total at the major site. SU:
Soviet Union (39,243&nbsp;TBq) and Russia (2.8v&nbsp;TBq), GB:&nbsp;UK (35,088&nbsp;TBq), CH:&nbsp;Switzerland (4,419&nbsp;TBq), BE:&nbsp;Belgium (2,120&nbsp;TBq).  US:&nbsp;United States of America (3,496&nbsp;TBq), JP:&nbsp;Japan (15TBq), KR:&nbsp;South Korea (?TBq), NZ:&nbsp;New Zealand (1+TBq).
France (354&nbsp;TBq), Germany (0.2&nbsp;TBq), Italy (0.2&nbsp;TBq), the Netherlands (336&nbsp;TBq), and Sweden (3.2&nbsp;TBq) are within the GB marker.]]

The countries involved – listed in order of total contributions measured in TBq (TBq=10<sup>12</sup> [[Becquerel|becquerel]]) – were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, the United States, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, Russia, New Zealand, Germany, Italy and South Korea. Together, they dumped a total of 85,100&nbsp;TBq (85.1x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq) of radioactive waste at over 100 ocean sites, as measured in initial radioactivity at the time of dump.

For comparison:

* Global fallout of nuclear weapon tests – 2,566,087x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq.<ref>UNSCEAR [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_Annex_B.pdf "Exposures of the public and workers from various sources of radiation"]</ref>
* 1986 Chernobyl disaster total release – 12,060x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq.<ref>UNSCEAR [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_D.pdf "Health effects due to radiation from the Chernobyl accident"]</ref>
* 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, estimated total 340x10<sup>15</sup> to 780x10<sup>15</sup> Bq, with 80% falling into the Pacific Ocean.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts | doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.029 |pmid=24189103 | volume=470–471 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |pages=800–817|year=2014 |last1=Steinhauser |first1=Georg |last2=Brandl |first2=Alexander |last3=Johnson |first3=Thomas E. | bibcode=2014ScTEn.470..800S }}</ref>
* Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant cooling water dumped (leaked) to the sea – TEPCO estimate 4.7x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq, Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission estimate 15x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq,<ref>Japan Atomic Industrial Forum Inc(JAIF) [http://www.jaif.or.jp/english/news_images/pdf/ENGNEWS01_1319945921P.pdf "Earthquake-report 250 (30 October 2011)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117195017/http://www.jaif.or.jp/english/news_images/pdf/ENGNEWS01_1319945921P.pdf |date=17 January 2012 }} retrieved 2011-11-12</ref> French Nuclear Safety Committee estimate 27x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq.<ref>Mainichi Shimbun [http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/news/20111029p2g00m0dm016000c.html "Cesium-137 flow into sea 30 times greater than stated by TEPCO report (29 October 2011)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031185017/http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/news/20111029p2g00m0dm016000c.html |date=31 October 2011 }} retrieved 2011-11-12</ref>
* Naturally occurring Potassium 40 in all oceans – 14,000,000x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq.<ref>[[Organization:Idaho State University|Idaho State University]] [http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/natural.htm "Radiation Information Network's Radioactivity in Nature"]</ref>
* One container (net 400&nbsp;kg) of vitrified high-level radioactive waste has an average radioactivity of 4x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq (Max 45x10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Bq).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Ocean dumping of radioactive waste 1946–1993
|-
! rowspan=2 | Country !! colspan=4 | dumped (unit TBq=10<sup>12</sup>&nbsp;Bq）!! rowspan=2 | period !! rowspan=2 | num of sites, volume, etc.*
|-
! Arctic !! Atlantic !! Pacific !! Total 
|-
|align=left| {{flag|USSR}} || 38,369 || 0 || 874 || 39,243 || 1959–1992<ref name=USSR92>Although the USSR dissolved in 1991, IAEA reported dumping of USSR in 1992.</ref> ||   Arctic 20 sites, 222,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> and reactor w or w/o spent fuel; Pacific Ocean (mainly sea of Japan) 12 sites, 145,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>
|-
|align=left| {{flag|UK}} || 0 || 35,088 || 0 || 35,088 || 1948–82 || NE  Atlantic 15 sites, unknown number of containers, 74,052&nbsp;tons and 18 sites off coast of British isles more than 9.4&nbsp;TBq
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Switzerland}} || 0 || 4,419 || 0 || 4,419 || 1969–1982 || NE Atlantic 3 sites, 7,420 containers, 5,321&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|USA}} || 0 || 2,942 || 554 || 3,496 || 1946–70 || Mid/NW  Atlantic (9), Gulf of Mexico (2) total 11 sites, 34,282 containers, unknown quantity; Mid/NE Pacific Ocean, total of 18 sites, 56,261 containers, ? tones
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Belgium}} || 0 || 2,120 || 0 || 2,120 || 1960–1982 || NE  Atlantic 6 sites, 55,324 containers, 23,100&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|France}} || 0 || 354 || 0 || 354 || 1967–1969 || NE Atlantic 2 sites, 46,396 containers, 14,300&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Netherlands}} || 0 || 336 || 0 || 336 || 1967–1982 || NE  Atlantic 4 sites, 28,428 containers, 19,200&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Japan}}  || 0 || 0 || 15.08 || 15.08 || 1955–1969 ||   South of Honshu, 6 sites 15 times, 3,031 containers, 606,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Sweden}} || 0 || 3.2 || 0 || 3.2 || 1959,61,69 ||   Baltic sea 1 site, 230 containers, 64&nbsp;tons; NE Atlantic 1 site, 289.5 containers, 1,080&nbsp;tons, 
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Russia}} || 0.7 || 0 || 2.1 || 2.8 || 1992–93 || Arctic 3,066&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>; Pacific Ocean 6,327&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>
|-
|align=left| {{flag|New Zealand}}  || 0 || 0 || 1.04 || 1.04 || 1954–1976 ||   East coast of New Zealand, 4 sites, 9 containers, 0.62&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Germany}} || 0 || 0.2 || 0 || 0.2 || 1967 || NE Atlantic  1 site once, 480 containers, 185&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|Italy}} || 0 || 0.2 || 0 || 0.2 || 1969 || NE Atlantic 1 site, 100 containers, 45&nbsp;tons
|-
|align=left| {{flag|South Korea}} || 0 || 0 || no data ||  || 1968–1972 ||   Sea of Japan, 1 site 5 times?, 115 container, 45&nbsp;tons
|-
| Total || 38,369 || 45,262 || 1,446 || 85,077 ||  || Subtotal of all volume reported is 982,394&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>.
|-
| rowspan=2 !! colspan=7 | <small>*Some countries report the mass and volume of disposed waste and some just tonnage. The US did not report tonnage or volume of 90,543 containers.</small>
|}

=== Types of waste and packaging ===
Data are from IAEA-TECDOC-1105.<ref name="IAEA_te_11052"/>{{rp|6–7, 14}}

====Liquid waste ====
* unpackaged and diluted in surface waters
* contained in package but not solidified

====Solid waste====
* low level waste like resins, filters, material used for decontamination processes, etc., solidified with cement or [[Chemistry:Bitumen|bitumen]] and packaged in metal containers
* unpackaged solid waste, mainly large parts of nuclear installations (steam generators, pumps, lids of reactor pressure vessels, etc.)

====Reactor vessels====
* without nuclear fuel
* containing damaged spent nuclear fuel solidified with polymer agent
* special container with damaged spent nuclear fuel (icebreaker ''Lenin'' by the former Soviet Union)

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Ocean disposal (unit TBq  = 10<sup>12</sup>&nbsp;Bq)
|-
! Waste type !! Atlantic !! Pacific Ocean !! Arctic !! total !! note
|-
| Reactors with spent fuel || Nil || Nil || 36,876 || 36,876 ||  
|-
| Reactors w/o fuel || 1,221 || 166 || 143 || 1,530  || 
|-
| Low level solid || 44,043 || 821 || 585 || 45,449  || 
|-
| Low level liquid || <0.001 || 459 || 765 || 1,223  || 
|-
| Total || 45,264 || 1445 || 38,369 || 85,078  || 
|}

=== Dump sites ===
Data are from IAEA-TECDOC-1105.<ref name="IAEA_te_11052"/>{{rp|27–120}} There are three dump sites in the Pacific Ocean.

====Arctic====
Mainly at the east coast of Novaya Zemlya at Kara Sea and relatively small proportion at Barents Sea by the Soviet Union. Dumped at 20 sites from 1959 to 1992,<ref name=USSR92/> total of 222,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> including reactors and spent fuel.

[[File:ODNW arctic.png|thumb|center|Arctic Ocean dump sites of radioactive waste. SU: Soviet Union (38,369&nbsp;TBq), RU: Russia (0.7&nbsp;TBq), SE: Sweden.]]

====North Atlantic ====
Dumping occurred from 1948 to 1982.  The UK accounts for 78% of dumping in the Atlantic (35,088&nbsp;TBq), followed by Switzerland (4,419&nbsp;TBq), the United States (2,924&nbsp;TBq) and Belgium (2,120&nbsp;TBq). Sunken Soviet nuclear submarines are not included; see [[Engineering:List of sunken nuclear submarines|List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

There were 137,000&nbsp;tonnes dumped by eight European countries. The United States reported neither tonnage nor volume for 34,282 containers.

[[File:Ocean dumping of radioactive waste in Atlantic Ocean.png|thumb|800px|center| B: Belgium (2,120&nbsp;TBq), F: France (354&nbsp;TBq), D: Germany (0.2&nbsp;TBq), I: Italy (0.2&nbsp;TBq), N: the Netherlands (336&nbsp;TBq), S: Sweden (3.2&nbsp;TBq), C: Switzerland (4,419&nbsp;TBq), G:United Kingdom (35,088&nbsp;TBq), US: United States (2,942&nbsp;TBq), SU: Soviet Union.]]

====Pacific Ocean====
The Soviet Union 874&nbsp;TBq, US 554&nbsp;TBq, Japan 606.2&nbsp;Tonnes, New Zealand 1+&nbsp;TBq. 751,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> was dumped by Japan and the Soviet Union. The United States reported neither tonnage nor volume of 56,261 containers.

Dumping of contaminated water at the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident (estimate 4,700–27,000&nbsp;TBq) is not included.

[[File:Ocean dumping of radioactive waste in Pacific Ocean.png|thumb|800px|center|JP: Japan (15.1&nbsp;TBq), KR: South Korea (?&nbsp;TBq), NZ: New Zealand (1+&nbsp;TBq), RU: Russia (2.1&nbsp;TBq), SU: Soviet Union (874&nbsp;TBq), US: United States (554&nbsp;TBq)]]

==== Sea of Japan ====
The Soviet Union dumped 749&nbsp;TBq.  Japan dumped 15.1&nbsp;TBq south of main island. South Korea dumped 45 tonnes (unknown radioactivity value).

[[File:Ocean dumping of radioactive waste in Sea of Japan.png|thumb|400px|center|Dump sites in the Sea of Japan. Sites off coast of Nakhodka are of the Soviet Union and Russia.]]

== Environmental impact ==
Data are from IAEA-TECDOC-1105.<ref name="IAEA_te_11052"/>{{rp|7}}

===Arctic Ocean  ===

Joint Russian-Norwegian expeditions (1992–94) collected samples from four dump sites. At immediate vicinity of waste containers, elevated levels of radionuclide were found, but had not contaminated the surrounding area.

===North-East Atlantic Ocean ===

Dumping was undertaken by UK, Switzerland, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Italy.
IAEA had been studying since 1977. The report of 1996, by CRESP suggests measurable leakages of radioactive material, and, concluded that environmental impact is negligible.

===North-East Pacific Ocean, North-West Atlantic Ocean dump sites of USA===

These sites are monitored by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and US [[Organization:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]. So far, no excess level of radionuclides was found in samples (sea water, sediments) collected in the area, except the sample taken at a location close to disposed packages that contained elevated levels of isotopes of [[Chemistry:Caesium|caesium]] and [[Chemistry:Plutonium|plutonium]].

===North-West Pacific Ocean dump sites of the Soviet Union, Japan, Russia, and Korea===

The joint Japanese-Korean-Russian expedition (1994–95) concluded that contamination resulted mainly from global fallout. The USSR dumped waste in the Sea of Japan. Japan dumped waste south of the main island.

== Policies ==
The first conversations surrounding dumping radioactive waste into the ocean began in 1958 at the United Nations Law of the Sea Conference (UNCLOS).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bewers |first1=J. M. |last2=Garrett |first2=C. J. R. |date=1987-04-01 |title=Analysis of the issues related to sea dumping of radioactive wastes |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0308-597X%2887%2990003-0 |journal=Marine Policy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=105–124 |doi=10.1016/0308-597X(87)90003-0 |issn=0308-597X}}</ref> The conference resulted in an agreement that all states should actively try to prevent radioactive waste pollution in the sea and follow any international guidelines regarding the issue.<ref name=":2" /> The UNCLOS also instigated research into the issues radioactive waste dumping caused.<ref name=":2" />

However, by the late 1960s to early 1970s, millions of tons of waste were still being dumped into the ocean annually.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title="The Ocean Is Not a Dumping Ground" Fifty Years of Regulating Ocean Dumping |url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/regulating-ocean-dumping |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=International Institute for Sustainable Development |language=en}}</ref> By this time, governments began to realize the severe impacts of marine pollution, which led to one of the first international policies regarding ocean dumping in 1972 – the London Convention.<ref name=":0" /> The London Convention's main goals were to effectively control sources of marine pollution and take the proper steps to prevent it from happening, mainly accomplishing this by banning specific substances from being dumped in the ocean.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter |url=https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/London-Convention-Protocol.aspx |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.imo.org}}</ref> The most recent version of the London Convention now bans all materials from marine dumping, except a thoroughly researched list of certain wastes.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> It also prohibits waste from being exported to other countries for disposal, as well as incinerating waste in the ocean.<ref name=":0" /> While smaller organizations like the Nuclear Energy Agency of the European Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development have produced similar regulations, the London Convention remains the central international figure of radioactive waste policies.<ref name=":2" />

Although there are many existing regulations that ban ocean dumping, it is still a prevalent issue. Different countries enforce the ban on radioactive waste dumping on different levels, resulting in an inconsistent implementation of the agreed upon policies.<ref name=":0" /> Because of these discrepancies, it is hard to judge the effectiveness of international regulations like the London Convention.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
*[[Engineering:Horizontal drillhole disposal|Horizontal drillhole disposal]]
*[[Earth:Ocean floor disposal|Ocean floor disposal]]
* Deep borehole disposal
* Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
* [[Physics:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant|Waste Isolation Pilot Plant]]
* Grigory Pasko
* [[Physics:Nuclear fuel cycle|Nuclear fuel cycle]]
* [[Physics:Radioactive waste|Radioactive waste]]
* {{format link|Great Lakes Basin#Nuclear power plants}}
* Decommissioning of Russian nuclear-powered vessels

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nuclear Technology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ocean disposal of radioactive waste}}
[[Category:Ocean pollution]]

{{Sourceattribution|Ocean disposal of radioactive waste}}