View source for Earth:Peat

{{short description|Accumulation of partially decayed vegetation}}
[[File:Peat (49302157252).jpg|thumb|A lump of peat]]
[[File:2013-05-03 Fotoflug Leer Papenburg DSCF6844.jpg|thumb|Peat stacks in Südmoslesfehn (district of Oldenburg, Germany) in 2013]]
[[File:Peat gatherers.JPG|thumb|Peat gatherers at Westhay, Somerset Levels in 1905]]
[[File:Torfabbau-.jpg|thumb|Peat extraction in East Frisia, Germany]]

'''Peat''' ({{IPAc-en|p|iː|t}}) is an accumulation of partially [[Medicine:Decomposition|decayed]] [[Biology:Vegetation|vegetation]] or [[Chemistry:Organic matter|organic matter]]. It is unique to natural areas called [[Earth:Peatland|peatland]]s, [[Earth:Bog|bog]]s, [[Earth:Mire|mire]]s, [[Earth:Moorland|moors]], or [[Earth:Muskeg|muskeg]]s.<ref name="Joosten_Clarke2002">{{cite report|title=Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands: Background and Principles including a Framework for Decision-Making|first1=Hans|last1=Joosten|first2=Donal |last2=Clarke|url=http://www.gret-perg.ulaval.ca/fileadmin/fichiers/fichiersGRET/pdf/Doc_generale/WUMP_Wise_Use_of_Mires_and_Peatlands_book.pdf|isbn=951-97744-8-3|location=Totnes, Devon|year=2002}}</ref><ref name="PERG2013">{{cite report|url=http://www.gret-perg.ulaval.ca/uploads/tx_centrerecherche/Tree_Plantation_guide.pdf|title=Tree plantations within the context of ecological restoration of peatlands: practical guide|last1=Hugron|first1=Sandrine|last2=Bussières|first2=Julie|publisher=Peatland Ecology Research Group (PERG)|location=Laval, Québec, Canada|last3=Rochefort|first3=Line|access-date=22 February 2014|year=2013|archive-date=16 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016225905/http://www.gret-perg.ulaval.ca/uploads/tx_centrerecherche/Tree_Plantation_guide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''[[Biology:Sphagnum|Sphagnum]]'' moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a [[Earth:Habitat|habitat]] aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'.<ref>Walker, M.D. 2019. Sphagnum; the biology of a habitat manipulator. Sicklebrook publishing, Sheffield, U.K.</ref> Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as [[Earth:Histosol|histosol]]s. Peat forms in [[Earth:Wetland|wetland]] conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition.<ref>Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Chapter 1.</ref> Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high [[Spatial heterogeneity|spatial heterogeneity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Sate |last2=Liu |first2=Haojie |last3=Beyer |first3=Florian |last4=Kløve |first4=Bjorn |last5=Lennartz |first5=Bernd |title=Spatial heterogeneity of soil properties in relation to microtopography in a non-tidal rewetted coastal mire |journal=Mires and Peat |date=25 February 2020 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.19189/MaP.2019.GDC.StA.1779 |url=http://mires-and-peat.net/media/map26/map_26_04.pdf}}</ref>
 
Peatlands, particularly [[Earth:Bog|bog]]s, are the primary source of peat;<ref name="Gorham, E. 1957">{{cite journal | last1 = Gorham | first1 = E | year = 1957 | title = The development of peatlands | journal = Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 145–66 | doi=10.1086/401755| s2cid = 129085635 }}</ref>
although less common, other wetlands, including [[Earth:Fen|fen]]s, [[Earth:Pocosin|pocosin]]s, and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including ''[[Biology:Sphagnum|Sphagnum]]'' moss, [[Biology:Ericaceae|ericaceous]] shrubs, and sedges.<ref group="Notes">See [[Earth:Bog|bog]] for more information on this aspect of peat.</ref> Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use.<ref>Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 497 pp. 323–25</ref>

Peat is used by gardeners and for [[Earth:Horticulture|horticulture]] in certain parts of the world,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-06|title=A growing concern: peat is bad for the planet – and for plants|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/jun/06/peat-a-growing-concern|access-date=2021-06-06|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> but this is being banned in some places.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Bek|first1=David|last2=Turner|first2=Margi Lennartsson|title=Peat compost to be banned – luckily, green alternatives are just as good for your garden|url=http://theconversation.com/peat-compost-to-be-banned-luckily-green-alternatives-are-just-as-good-for-your-garden-160315|access-date=2021-06-06|website=The Conversation|date=19 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref> By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser2007_executive_summary.pdf |title=Survey of Energy Resources 2007 |access-date=2008-08-11 |author=World Energy Council |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910214607/http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser2007_executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-10 }}</ref> Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as [[Earth:Coal|coal]], particularly low-grade coal such as [[Chemistry:Lignite|lignite]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2013/02/18/3691317.htm#.UbZSEUDVDTc |title= Is coal still being formed today? |website= Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date= 18 February 2013 |access-date= 25 October 2015}}</ref> The peatland [[Earth:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] covers {{Convert|3.7|e6km2||abbr=off}}<ref name="McGrath-2020">{{Cite news|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=2020-08-10|title=Warming world 'devastating' for frozen peatlands|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53726487|access-date=2020-08-11}}</ref> and is the most efficient [[Physics:Carbon sink|carbon sink]] on the [[Astronomy:Planet|planet]],<ref name=PERG2013 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change|title=Peatlands and climate change|date=2017-11-06|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref> because peatland plants capture [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of [[Earth:Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of {{cvt|1.5|to|2.3|m|ft|disp=sqbr}}, which is the average depth of the [[Earth:Subarctic climate|boreal]] [northern] peatlands",<ref name=PERG2013 /> which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO<sub>2</sub> emissions).<ref name="McGrath-2020" /> Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all [[Chemistry:Soil carbon|soil carbon]], which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 6, 2017|title=Peatlands and climate change|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change|website=IUCN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/climate-change-and-deforestation-threaten-worlds-largest-tropical-peatland|title=Climate change and deforestation threaten world's largest tropical peatland|date=January 25, 2018|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref>

Peat is not a [[Engineering:Renewable energy|renewable source of energy]], due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of {{Convert|1|mm||2|abbr=on}} per year,<ref name="Keddy, P.A 2010"/> and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurosaiwgea.org/Activitiesandmeetings/OtherEUROSAIWGEAmeetings/Documents/Estonia_energy.pdf|title=Aspects of treating peat as renewable or non-renewable natural resource|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121175926/http://www.eurosaiwgea.org/Activitiesandmeetings/OtherEUROSAIWGEAmeetings/Documents/Estonia_energy.pdf|archive-date=2013-01-21|access-date=2012-09-09}}</ref> Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of {{CO2}} into the atmosphere,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The History of Domestic Peat Fuel Exploitation in Relation to Carbon & Climate Change|url=http://www.ukeconet.org/store/p741/The_History_of_Domestic_Peat_Fuel_Exploitation_in_Relation_to_Carbon_&_Climate_Change.html|access-date=2021-06-06|website=UKEconet-Wildtrack Publishing|language=en}}</ref> and much [[Earth:Mire#Management and rehabilitation|peatland restoration]] is needed to help [[Earth:Climate change mitigation|limit climate change]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=How scientists are restoring boreal peatlands to help keep carbon in the ground|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/04/scientists-restoring-peatlands-carbon-climate-change/|access-date=2021-06-06|website=World Economic Forum|date=20 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Formation==
[[File:Peat Lewis.jpg|right|thumb|Peat in Lewis, Scotland]]
Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including [[Biology:Sphagnum|mosses]], sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and [[Earth:Raised bog|raised bog]]s.<!-- more information on this process, refer to [[Earth:Wetland|wetland]] in general and [[Earth:Bog|bog]] in particular --><ref name="Gorham, E. 1957" /> The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete [[Chemistry:Tannin|tannin]]s, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.<ref>Walker, M.D. 2019. Sphagnum: the biology of a habitat manipulator. Sicklebrook Press. 978-0-359-41313-3</ref>

Most modern peat [[Earth:Bog|bog]]s formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the [[Earth:Last glacial period|last ice age]].<ref>Vitt, D.H., L.A. Halsey and B.J. Nicholson. 2005. The Mackenzie River basin. pp. 166–202 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 488 p.</ref> Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.<ref name="Keddy, P.A 2010">Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, UK. Cambridge. 497 p. Chapter 7.</ref> The estimated carbon content is {{Convert|415|Gt|e9ST|abbr=off}} (northern peatlands),<ref name="McGrath-2020" /> {{Convert|50|Gt|e9ST|abbr=unit}} ([[Earth:Tropical peat|tropical peat]]lands) and {{Convert|15|Gt|e9ST|abbr=unit}} (South America).<ref>Zicheng Yu, Julie Loisel, Daniel P. Brosseau, David W. Beilman, Stephanie J. Hunt. 2010. Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol 37, L13402</ref>

==Types of peat material==
Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5872e/x5872e07.htm|title=5. CLASSIFICATION|website=www.fao.org|access-date=2017-03-28}}</ref>

''[[Biology:Phragmites|Phragmites]]'' peat are composed of reed grass, ''Phragmites australis'', and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor [[Earth:Consolidation (soil)|consolidation]] properties – it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

== Peatlands distribution ==
In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they claim are the same)<ref group="Notes">Supported by the "Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the [https://www.wetlands.org/projects/GPI/default.htm Global Peatland Initiative] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120212051/http://www.wetlands.org/projects/GPI/default.htm |date=2008-11-20 }}, managed by Wetlands International in co-operation with the IUCN – Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society."</ref><ref name=Joosten_Clarke2002 /> as<blockquote>the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over {{convert|4|e6km2|e6sqmi |abbr=off |disp=sqbr}} or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.</blockquote>
[[File:PEATMAP.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|PEATMAP is a GIS shapefile dataset that shows a distribution of peatlands that covers the entire world]]
A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Xu|first1=Jiren|last2=Morris|first2=Paul J.|last3=Liu|first3=Junguo|last4=Holden|first4=Joseph|date=2017|title=PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis.|chapter-url=http://archive.researchdata.leeds.ac.uk/251/|language=en|doi=10.5518/252|publisher=University of Leeds|chapter=F840}}</ref> based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23&nbsp;million square kilometres (1.63&nbsp;million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Jiren|last2=Morris|first2=Paul J.|last3=Liu|first3=Junguo|last4=Holden|first4=Joseph|date=2018|title=PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis|journal=CATENA|language=en|volume=160|pages=134–140|doi=10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010|bibcode=2018Caten.160..134X |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/194000/1/194000.pdf}}</ref> In Europe, peatlands extend to about {{cvt|515,000|km2}}.<ref name="IUCNFull">[http://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/sites/all/files/IUCN%20UK%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20on%20Peatlands%20Full%20Report%20spv%20web.pdf IUCN UK Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307180047/http://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/sites/all/files/IUCN%20UK%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20on%20Peatlands%20Full%20Report%20spv%20web.pdf |date=2014-03-07 }} Full Report, IUCN UK Peatland Programme October 2011</ref> About 60% of the world's [[Earth:Wetland|wetland]]s are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley.<ref name="Fraser, L.H 2005">Fraser, L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p. and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p.</ref>
There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo).<ref>{{Cite web |title=CongoPeat - Past, Present & Future of the Peatlands of the Central Congo Basin |url=https://congopeat.net/ |access-date=2023-03-06 |website=CongoPeat |language=en-US}}</ref> In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern [[Place:Patagonia|Patagonia]]/[[Earth:Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuego]]) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape.<ref name="Fraser, L.H 2005"/> Peat can be found in [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by {{convert|100000|hectare}} per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193680:us-ri-discuss-future-of-peat-land-mangroves&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|title=Waspada Online|access-date=25 October 2015}}</ref> A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.<ref>{{cite web | title=An Author Catalog of the Peat Research Collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth. |last=Sandy | first=John H. |date=31 October 2022 | url=https://ir.ua.edu/handle/123456789/9811 | access-date = 2023-10-29 }}</ref>

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for [[Earth:Agriculture|agriculture]] and forestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcanowoodfuels.co.uk/sitefiles/37/5/6/375680/WER_2013_6_Peat.pdf|title=World Energy Resources: Peat – World Energy Council 2013|website=Volcano Wood Fuels|publisher=World Energy Council|access-date=2016-02-25}}</ref> Under certain conditions, peat will turn into [[Chemistry:Lignite|lignite]] coal over geologic periods of time.

==General uses==

=== Fuel ===
[[File:Feu de tourbe.JPG|thumb|Peat fire]]Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture & history {{!}} IUCN UK Peatland Programme |url=https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/about-peatlands/peatland-benefits/culture-history |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=IUCN Peatland Programme |language=en}}</ref> For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Peatcuttingulsta.jpg|thumb|Worked bank in blanket bog, near Ulsta, Yell, Shetland Islands]]
In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store [[Earth:Nutrient|nutrient]]s although it is not fertile itself&nbsp;– it is [[Chemistry:Polyelectrolyte|polyelectrolytic]] with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the [[Organization:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]], England, since 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peat-free compost at Kew| publisher = RBG Kew| year = 2011 | url = http://www.kew.org/visit-kew-gardens/garden-attractions-A-Z/kids-attractions/compost-heap.htm| access-date = 2011-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916065726/http://www.kew.org/visit-kew-gardens/garden-attractions-A-Z/kids-attractions/compost-heap.htm|archive-date=2011-09-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whilst bark or [[Biology:Coir|coir]]-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat remains an important{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} raw material for [[Earth:Horticulture|horticulture]] in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

=== Drinking water ===
Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in [[Earth:Reservoir|reservoir]]s. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Jiren |last2=Morris |first2=Paul J. |last3=Liu |first3=Junguo |last4=Holden |first4=Joseph |date=2018 |title=Hotspots of peatland-derived potable water use identified by global analysis |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/129766/12/Hotspots%20of%20peatland-derived%20potable%20water%20-%20Figures%20and%20tables.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427175642/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/129766/12/Hotspots%20of%20peatland-derived%20potable%20water%20-%20Figures%20and%20tables.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-27 |url-status=live |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=246–253 |doi=10.1038/s41893-018-0064-6 |bibcode=2018NatSu...1..246X |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=134230602}}</ref>[[File:Shovel-Falklands.jpg|thumb|upright|Falkland Islanders shovelling peat in the 1950s]]

=== Metallurgy ===
Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of [[Chemistry:Metallurgy|metallurgical]] importance in the [[History:Early Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]], being the primary source of [[Earth:Bog iron|bog iron]] used to create swords and armour.

=== Flood mitigation ===
Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Assessment on peatlands, biodiversity and climate change: main report |date=2008 |publisher=Global Environment Centre |isbn=978-983-43751-0-2 |editor-last=UNEP |location=Kuala Lumpur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 4: Ecosystem Biodiversity In Malaysia |url=https://globinmed.com/conservation/article-4-ecosystem-biodiversity-in-malaysia/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=GlobinMed |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Freshwater aquaria===
Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or [[Earth:Blackwater river|blackwater river]] systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as ''[[Biology:Corydoras|Corydoras]]'' catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an [[Chemistry:Ion exchange|ion exchange]]r; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of [[Chemistry:Tannin|tannin]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Scheurmann | first=Ines | others=(trans. for Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York: 2000) | title=Natural Aquarium Handbook, The | year=1985 | publisher=Gräfe & Unzer GmbH | location=Munich, Germany }}</ref>

===Balneotherapy===
Peat is widely used in [[Medicine:Balneotherapy|balneotherapy]] (the use of bathing to treat disease).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Myeongkyu |last2=Lee |first2=Kyu Hoon |last3=Han |first3=Seung Hoon |last4=Lee |first4=Sung Jae |last5=Kim |first5=Choong-Gon |last6=Choi |first6=Jae Ho |last7=Hwang |first7=Sun Hee |last8=Park |first8=Si-Bog |date=2020-01-20 |title=Effect of Peat Intervention on Pain and Gait in Patients with Knee Osteoarthritis: A Prospective, Double-Blind, Randomized, Controlled Study |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |language=en |volume=2020 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2020/8093526 |doi-access=free |issn=1741-427X |pmc=7201632 |pmid=32419828}}</ref> Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of [[Chemistry:Peloid|peloid]]s. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat [[Chemistry:Mud bath|muds]], [[Medicine:Poultice|poultice]]s, and suspension baths.<ref>[http://www.peatsociety.org/about-us/commissions-and-working-groups/c6-balneology?id=90 International Peatland Society]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Peat Balneology, Medicine and Therapeutics</ref>

=== Peat archives ===
Authors Rydin and Jeglum in ''Biology of Habitats'' described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.<ref>{{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Sir Harry |year=1981 |title=The archives of the peat bogs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge }}</ref><ref name="Rydin_2013">{{cite book |first1=Håkan |last1=Rydin |first2=John K. |last2=Jeglum |date=18 July 2013 |pages=400 |title=The Biology of Peatlands |edition=2 |series=Biology of Habitats |orig-year=8 Jun 2006 |publisher=University of Oxford Press |isbn=978-0198528722 |ref={{SfnRef|Rydin|Jeglum|2014}}}}</ref><ref name="Keddy_2010">{{citation |last=Keddy |first=P.A. |year=2010 |title=Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK. |pages=323–325}}</ref>

{{blockquote|sign=|source=Rydin, 2013|In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.}}

In ''Quaternary Palaeoecology'', first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how [[Earth:Paleoecology|paleoecological]] studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."<ref name="Rydin_2013" /><ref name="Birks_1980">{{cite book |title=Quaternary Palaeoecology |first1= Harry John Betteley |last1=Birks |first2=Hilary H. |last2=Birks |publisher=Blackburn Press |orig-year=1980 |year=2004 |pages=289 pages}}</ref>

Scientists continue to compare modern [[Chemistry:Mercury (element)|mercury]] (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural-archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example.<ref name="Biester_Bindler_2009">{{citation |url=http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2009/mwp128-13.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916091927/http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2009/mwp128-13.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-16 |url-status=live |series=Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute |number=128|title=Modelling Past Mercury Deposition from Peat Bogs – The Influence of Peat Structure and 210Pb Mobility |first1=Harald |last1=Biester |first2=Richard |last2=Bindler |access-date=21 October 2014 |year=2009}}</ref> Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the [[Chemistry:Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry|inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry]] (ICP-SMS),<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.elmvale.org/elmvalefoundation/publications/A64.pdf |url-status=live|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume=74|year=2010|pages=1963–1981|title=The isotopic evolution of atmospheric Pb in central Ontario since AD 1800, and its impacts on the soils, waters, and sediments of a forested watershed, Kawagama Lake|first1=W.|last1=Shotyk|first2=M.|last2=Krachler|issue=7 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2010.01.009 |bibcode=2010GeCoA..74.1963S |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206132705/http://www.elmvale.org/elmvalefoundation/publications/A64.pdf|archive-date=2023-02-06}}</ref> and more recently the initial penetration (IP).<ref>{{cite conference| title=Modeling the downward transport of 210Pb in mires and repercussions on the deriv| conference=EGU General Assembly |bibcode=2013EGUGA..1511054O}}</ref>

==== Bog bodies ====
Naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies" have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Painter |first1=Terence J. |title=Lindow man, tollund man and other peat-bog bodies: The preservative and antimicrobial action of Sphagnan, a reactive glycuronoglycan with tanning and sequestering properties |journal=Carbohydrate Polymers |date=1 January 1991 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1016/0144-8617(91)90028-B |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0144-8617%2891%2990028-B |access-date=29 October 2023 |issn=0144-8617}}</ref> A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Prior to that, another bog body, the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60&nbsp;m (200&nbsp;ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOVA &#124; The Perfect Corpse &#124; PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bog/ |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>

==Environmental and ecological issues==
[[File:Co2.recent.ch.png|thumb|Increase, and change relative to previous year, of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.]]

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst [[Biology:Siberian crane|Siberian crane]]s nest in the West Siberian peatland. [[Earth:Palsa|Palsa]] mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat,<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1017/S0376892904001018| volume = 31| issue = 1| pages = 30–37| last1 = Luoto| first1 = Miska| last2 = Heikkinen| first2 = Risto K.| last3 = Carter| first3 = Timothy R.| title = Loss of palsa mires in Europe and biological consequences| journal = Environmental Conservation| accessdate = 2022-03-04| date = 2004| bibcode = 2004EnvCo..31...30L| s2cid = 86157282| url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/loss-of-palsa-mires-in-europe-and-biological-consequences/C704EC2EF3CD217FF7D6E1567A92008F#}}</ref> and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 83| issue = 6| pages = 860| last1 = Richardson| first1 = Evan| last2 = Stirling| first2 = Ian| last3 = Hik| first3 = David S.| title = Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) maternity denning habitat in western Hudson Bay: a bottom-up approach to resource selection functions| journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology| accessdate = 2023-07-31| date = 2005| doi = 10.1139/z05-075| url = https://www.academia.edu/4675165}}</ref> Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see [[Earth:Wetland|wetland]], [[Earth:Bog|bog]] or [[Earth:Fen|fen]].

Around half of the area of northern peatlands is [[Earth:Permafrost|permafrost]]-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1916387117| issn = 0027-8424| volume = 117| issue = 34| pages = 20438–20446| last1 = Hugelius| first1 = Gustaf| last2 = Loisel| first2 = Julie| last3 = Chadburn| first3 = Sarah| last4 = Jackson| first4 = Robert B.| last5 = Jones| first5 = Miriam| last6 = MacDonald| first6 = Glen| last7 = Marushchak| first7 = Maija| last8 = Olefeldt| first8 = David| last9 = Packalen| first9 = Maara| last10 = Siewert| first10 = Matthias B.| last11 = Treat| first11 = Claire| last12 = Turetsky| first12 = Merritt| last13 = Voigt| first13 = Carolina| last14 = Yu| first14 = Zicheng| title = Large stocks of peatland carbon and nitrogen are vulnerable to permafrost thaw| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| date = 2020-08-25| pmid = 32778585| pmc = 7456150| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2020PNAS..11720438H}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1029/2008GB003327| issn = 1944-9224| volume = 23| issue = 2| last1 = Tarnocai| first1 = C.| last2 = Canadell| first2 = J. G.| last3 = Schuur| first3 = E. a. G.| last4 = Kuhry| first4 = P.| last5 = Mazhitova| first5 = G.| last6 = Zimov| first6 = S.| title = Soil organic carbon pools in the northern circumpolar permafrost region| journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles| date = 2009| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2009GBioC..23.2023T}}</ref><ref name="science.sciencemag.org">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1128908| issn = 0036-8075| volume = 312| issue = 5780| pages = 1612–1613| last1 = Zimov| first1 = Sergey A.| last2 = Schuur| first2 = Edward A. G.| last3 = Chapin| first3 = F. Stuart| title = Permafrost and the Global Carbon Budget| journal = Science| accessdate = 2020-02-14| date = 2006-06-16| url = https://science.sciencemag.org/content/312/5780/1612| pmid = 16778046| s2cid = 129667039}}</ref> Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm<sup>−1</sup>K<sup>−1</sup>) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.08.002| issn = 0165-232X| volume = 52| issue = 3| pages = 408–414| last1 = Kujala| first1 = Kauko| last2 = Seppälä| first2 = Matti| last3 = Holappa| first3 = Teuvo| title = Physical properties of peat and palsa formation| journal = Cold Regions Science and Technology| accessdate = 2023-07-03| date = 2008-05-01| bibcode = 2008CRST...52..408K| url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07001644}}</ref> The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/521453| issn = 0435-3676| volume = 68| issue = 3| pages = 141–147| last = Seppälä| first = Matti| title = The Origin of Palsas| journal = Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography| accessdate = 2020-10-22| date = 1986| url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/521453| jstor = 521453}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="science.sciencemag.org"/> Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in [[Chemistry:Methane emissions|methane emissions]] and a small increase in [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] uptake, meaning that it contributes to the [[Earth:Permafrost carbon cycle|permafrost carbon feedback]].<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01267.x| issn = 1365-2486| volume = 12| issue = 12| pages = 2352–2369| last1 = Johansson| first1 = Torbjörn| last2 = Malmer| first2 = Nils| last3 = Crill| first3 = Patrick M.| last4 = Friborg| first4 = Thomas| last5 = Åkerman| first5 = Jonas H.| last6 = Mastepanov| first6 = Mikhail| last7 = Christensen| first7 = Torben R.| title = Decadal vegetation changes in a northern peatland, greenhouse gas fluxes and net radiative forcing| journal = Global Change Biology| accessdate = 2021-08-11| date = 2006| bibcode = 2006GCBio..12.2352J| s2cid = 34813903| url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01267.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5194/bg-7-95-2010| issn = 1726-4170| volume = 7| issue = 1| pages = 95–108| last1 = Bäckstrand| first1 = K.| last2 = Crill| first2 = P. M.| last3 = Jackowicz-Korczyñski| first3 = M.| last4 = Mastepanov| first4 = M.| last5 = Christensen| first5 = T. R.| last6 = Bastviken| first6 = D.| title = Annual carbon gas budget for a subarctic peatland, Northern Sweden| journal = Biogeosciences| accessdate = 2021-08-11| date = 2010-01-11| url = https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/7/95/2010/| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2010BGeo....7...95B}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1029/2003GL018680| issn = 1944-8007| volume = 31| issue = 4| last1 = Christensen| first1 = Torben R.| last2 = Johansson| first2 = Torbjörn| last3 = Åkerman| first3 = H. Jonas| last4 = Mastepanov| first4 = Mihail| last5 = Malmer| first5 = Nils| last6 = Friborg| first6 = Thomas| last7 = Crill| first7 = Patrick| last8 = Svensson| first8 = Bo H.| title = Thawing sub-arctic permafrost: Effects on vegetation and methane emissions| journal = Geophysical Research Letters| date = 2004| s2cid = 129023294| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2004GeoRL..31.4501C}}</ref> Under 2&nbsp;°C global warming, 0.7 million km<sup>2</sup> of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6&nbsp;°C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100.<ref name=":0" /> The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

One characteristic of peat is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Mitchell, Carla P. J. |author2=Branfireun, Brian A. |author3=Kolka, Randall K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008|title=Spatial Characteristics of Net Methylmercury Production Hot Spots in Peatlands|journal=Environmental Science and Technology|publisher=American Chemical Society|volume=42|number=4|pages=1010–1016|url=http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2008/nrs_2008_mitchell_001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031163040/http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2008/nrs_2008_mitchell_001.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2008|url-status=live|doi=10.1021/es0704986|pmid=18351065 |bibcode=2008EnST...42.1010M}}</ref>

===Peat drainage===
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.borneonaturefoundation.org/en/saving-the-rainforest/canal-blocking/|title=Peatland drainage through canals}}</ref>). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change|title=Peatlands and climate change|date=2017-11-06|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2020-01-23}}</ref> As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon&nbsp;– which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater&nbsp;– is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}), which is released into the atmosphere.<ref>[https://qualitywatertreatment.com/pages/saving-peatlands-their-carbon-nature Content from Wetlands.org], Wetlands International | Peatlands and CO<sub>2</sub> Emissions</ref> The global {{CO2}} emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/{{CO2}}-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/{{CO2}}-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland {{CO2}} (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total {{CO2}} emissions from the worldwide 500,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.<ref>[http://www.wetlands.org/peatco2 Wetlands.org]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, The Global Peat CO2 Picture, Wetlands International and Greifswald University, 2010</ref>{{Obsolete source|reason=This source is old and needs update |date=November 2023}}

==={{anchor|Fires|Peat Fires}} Peat fires===
<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before you save your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. (This text: Template:Anchor comment) -->
[[File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997]]
Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Shaorun |last2=Cheung |first2=Yau Kuen |last3=Xiao |first3=Yang |last4=Huang |first4=Xinyan |date=2020-07-20 |title=Can rain suppress smoldering peat fire? |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720319811 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=727 |page=138468 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.727m8468L |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138468 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=32334212 |s2cid=216146063 |hdl=10397/89496|hdl-access=free }}</ref> {{-r|Peat fires}} may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a [[Biology:Wildfire|wildfire]] penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous ''[[Biology:Sarracenia|Sarracenia]]'' (trumpet pitcher), [[Biology:Dionaea (plant)|''Dionaea'']] (Venus flytrap), ''[[Biology:Utricularia|Utricularia]]'' (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the [[Biology:Lilium pyrophilum|sandhills lily]], [[Biology:Ctenium aromaticum|toothache grass]] and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence, and absence of fire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pitcherplant.org/|title=Meadowview Biological Research Station – Preserving and Restoring Pitcher Plant Bogs|author=Michael Kevin Smith|access-date=25 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/news/archives/may03/lilly050903.html|title=New lily species found in eastern N.C. Sandhills|access-date=25 October 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dmr.state.ms.us/Coastal-Ecology/preserves/plants/grasses-sedges-rushes/toothache-grass/toothache-grass.htm toothache-grass] ''www.dmr.state.ms.us''{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than {{Convert|50|e9t|e9ST e9LT|abbr=off}} of carbon, has contributed to increases in world [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] levels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/vast-peat-fires-threaten-health-and-boost-global-warming/|title=Vast Peat Fires Threaten Health and Boost Global Warming|last=Lim|first=XiaoZhi|website=Scientific American|language=en|access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref> Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4208564.stm | work=BBC News | title=Asian peat fires add to warming | date=2005-09-03 | access-date=2010-05-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Joel S. Levine |title=Wildland fires and the environment: a global synthesis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSPnDrb0LsC |access-date=9 May 2011 |date= 1999 |publisher=UNEP/Earthprint |isbn=978-92-807-1742-6 }} [http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/biomass_burn/wildland.html web link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050902225846/http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/biomass_burn/wildland.html |date=2005-09-02 }}</ref>

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between {{Convert|0.81 and 2.57|Gt|e9ST e9LT|abbr=off}} of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.<ref>Cat Lazaroff, [http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908133919/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp |date=2019-09-08 }}, Environment News Service</ref><ref>Fred Pearce [https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6613-massive-peat-burn-is-speeding-climate-change/ Massive peat burn is speeding climate change], New Scientist, 6 November 2004</ref> More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida Everglades|url=http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1182/|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=11 June 2013|date=15 January 2013|archive-date=26 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626081529/http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1182/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to ''Sphagnum'' recolonization.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Nicole |last1=Fenton |first2=Nicolas |last2=Lecomte |first3=Sonia |last3=Légaré |name-list-style=amp |first4=Yves |last4=Bergeron |title=Paludification in black spruce (''Picea mariana'') forests of eastern Canada: Potential factors and management implications |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=213 |issue=1–3 |year=2005 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.017 }}</ref>

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to {{convert|40|C|F}} ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic [[Earth:Smog|smoke blanket]]. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-10762921 |title=Fog from peat fires blankets Moscow amid heat wave |work=BBC |date=26 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2012486819_apeurussiafires.html?syndication=rss |title=Russia begins to localize fires, others rage |agency=Associated Press |date= 30 July 2010}}</ref>

In June 2019, despite some [[Biology:Wildfire#Prevention|forest fire prevention methods]] being put in place, peat fires<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/weather/2019/07/23/arctic-fires-shown-satellite-concerning-scientists/1793530001/|title=Thanks to climate change, parts of the Arctic are on fire. Scientists are concerned|first=Morgan|last=Hines|website=USA Today}}</ref> in the Arctic emitted {{Convert|50|Mt|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} of CO<sub>2</sub>, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/26/unprecedented-more-than-100-wildfires-burning-in-the-arctic-in-worst-ever-season|title='Unprecedented': more than 100 Arctic wildfires burn in worst ever season|date=July 26, 2019|website=The Guardian}}</ref> The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190822-why-is-the-arctic-on-fire|title=Why the Arctic is smouldering|last=Cormier|first=Zoe|website=www.bbc.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turetsky|first1=Merritt R.|last2=Benscoter|first2=Brian|last3=Page|first3=Susan|last4=Rein|first4=Guillermo|last5=van der Werf|first5=Guido R.|last6=Watts|first6=Adam|date=2014-12-23|title=Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2325.epdf|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=11–14|doi=10.1038/ngeo2325|issn=1752-0894|hdl=10044/1/21250|hdl-access=free}}</ref>[[File:Peat haggs at start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig - geograph.org.uk - 1420692.jpg|thumb|Peat hags at the start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig]]

=== Erosion: Peat hags ===
Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes in isolation.<ref name="YPP">[http://www.yppartnership.org.uk/restoration/peat-hags/ ''Peat Hags''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712032305/http://www.yppartnership.org.uk/restoration/peat-hags/|date=2016-07-12}} at www.yppartnership.org.uk, website of the Yorkshire Peat Partnership. Retrieved 9 July 2016.</ref> Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.<ref name="YPP" />

==Protection==
{{See also|Global Peatlands Initiative}}{{Excerpt|Mire|Management and rehabilitation|paragraphs=1}}
In June 2002, the [[Organization:United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Programme]] launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5&nbsp;years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293563126_Wise_use_of_mires_Background_and_principles "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands&nbsp;– Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making"]. The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book ''Peatlands and Climate Change'', summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "[https://peatlands.org/assets/uploads/2019/10/srpm2019finalforprint.pdf Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management]", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

==Restoration==
{{Excerpt|Mire|Management and rehabilitation|paragraphs=2-3}}

==Characteristics and uses by nation==
===Latvia===
[[File:Ķemeru purva laipa.jpg|thumb|upright|Ķemeri bog at sunset]]
Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume followed only by {{wipe|Canada}} with 13% in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What will be the future of peat? |url=https://www.db.lv/zinas/kad-zalais-kurss-nomaldas-no-kursa-512732}}</ref> In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by {{wipe|Germany}} with 1.5 and {{wipe|Canada}} with 1.42 million tons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latvia is the largest exporter of peat in the world |url=https://investinlatvia.org/en/news/latvia-is-the-largest-exporter-of-peat-in-the-world}}</ref> Nevertheless, although first in the world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind {{wipe|Canada}}. As an example, Latvia's income from exports was 237 million US dollars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latvia is the largest exporter of peat in the world |url=https://investinlatvia.org/en/news/latvia-is-the-largest-exporter-of-peat-in-the-world}}</ref>

Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is peat and what is a peat deposit? |url=http://www.latvijaskudra.lv/en/Interesting_information/interesanta_informacija/}}</ref> Latvia, as {{wipe|Finland}} due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peat in Latvia |url=https://videscentrs.lvgmc.lv/lapas/peat}}</ref>

More than two thrids of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to the state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peat in Latvia |url=http://www.latvijaskudra.lv/en/Interesting_information/interesanta_informacija/}}</ref>

Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitant due their ecological values and up to 128 thousand hectares or 40% of the areas in the territory are protected by environmental laws.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peat in Latvia |url=http://www.latvijaskudra.lv/en/Interesting_information/interesanta_informacija/}}</ref> The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park, Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve.

===Finland===
 [[File:Toppila power plant.JPG|thumb|upright|The Toppila Power Station, a peat-fired facility in Oulu, {{wipe|Finland}}]]
The climate, geography, and environment of {{wipe|Finland}} favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics Finland – Energy supply and consumption |url=https://www.stat.fi/til/ehk/2021/01/ehk_2021_01_2021-06-30_tie_001_en.html}}</ref>

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO<sub>2</sub> annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000&nbsp;years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO<sub>2</sub> storage than the original peat bog.

At 106&nbsp;g&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub>/[[Joule|MJ]],<ref name="imcg.net">[http://www.imcg.net/imcgnl/nl0702/kap05.htm The CO<sub>2</sub> emission factor of peat fuel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707134451/http://www.imcg.net/imcgnl/nl0702/kap05.htm|date=2010-07-07}}. Imcg.net. Retrieved on 2011-05-09.</ref> the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6&nbsp;g&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub>/MJ) and [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]] (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93&nbsp;g&nbsp;CO<sub>2</sub>/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.<ref>{{Cite web |title=VTT 2004: Wood in peat fuel&nbsp;– impact on the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions according to IPCC guidelines |url=http://virtual.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2004/W12.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927010519/http://virtual.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2004/W12.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-27 |access-date=2006-12-20}}</ref>

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salomaa |first1=Anne |last2=Paloniemi |first2=Riikka |last3=Ekroos |first3=Eri |date=2018 |title=The case of conflicting Finnish peatland management – Skewed representation of nature, participation and policy instruments |journal=[[Finance:Journal of Environmental Economics and Management|Journal of Environmental Economics and Management]] |volume=223 |pages=694–702 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.048 |pmid=29975897 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Sweden ===
[[File:Peat (49302157252).jpg|thumb|Peat layer showing the typical dark colour of rich organic matter soils.]]
About 15% of the land in Sweden is covered by peatlands.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Peat |url=https://www.sgu.se/en/physical-planning/energy/peat/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=www.sgu.se |language=en}}</ref> Whilst nowadays the main use of such soils is for forestry, peat-rich lands have historically been exploited to produce energy, agricultural land and horticultural substrates.<ref name=":1" /> The most common method to extract peat during the 19th and 20th centuries was peat cutting, a process where the land is cleared of forest and subsequentially drained.<ref name=":1" /> Peat cores are then extracted under dry weather conditions and stored on stacks to let the residual moisture evaporate.<ref name=":1" /> Today, clear cutting for [[Earth:Horticulture|horticultural]] peat (of which Sweden is an important producer in Europe) is limited to some areas of Sweden and strictly regulated by the [https://www.naturvardsverket.se/en/laws-and-regulations/the-swedish-environmental-code/ Swedish Environmental Code] to prevent that significant groundwater storages and carbon sinks areas are altered and compromised by human activities.<ref name=":1" /> At the same time, restoration of drained peatlands through rewetting is urged by national and international policies to exploit the peat-rich soil properties in mitigating climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Därför är våtmarker viktiga |url=https://www.naturvardsverket.se/amnesomraden/vatmark/varfor-ar-vatmarker-sa-viktiga/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=www.naturvardsverket.se |language=sv}}</ref>

===Ireland===
[[File:BordnaMona 2930.jpg|thumb|left|Industrial-milled peat production in a section of the Bog of Allen in the Irish Midlands: The 'turf' in the foreground is machine-produced for domestic use.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}]]
In the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned company called {{lang|ga|Bord na Móna}} was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat [[Chemistry:Briquette|briquette]]s which are used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Doherty |first=Caroline |date=14 January 2021 |title=Bord na Móna confirms it has ended peat harvesting for good |work=Independent |url=https://www.independent.ie/news/bord-na-mona-confirms-it-has-ended-peat-harvesting-for-good-39970397.html |access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref>

In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dublin |first=Barry Hartigan in |title=A burning issue for Ireland as the sale of peat is outlawed |url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/a-burning-issue-for-ireland-as-the-sale-of-peat-is-outlawedthis-is-a-fuel-poverty-issue-as-there-are-around-100000-homes-that-burn-turf-and-who-dont-have-a-choice/ |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=The Sunday Post |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Russia===
[[File:Shatura steam power plant (2010).jpg|thumb|Shatura Power Station. {{wipe|Russia}} has the largest peat power capacity in the world|left]]thumb|The [[Kerzhenets peat narrow gauge railway|Bor Peat Briquette Factory, {{wipe|Russia}}]]{{Update section|date=August 2020}}
Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.<ref name="wildfire">{{cite web |author=Serghey Stelmakovich |title=Russia institutes peat fire prevention program |url=http://wildfiremag.com/tactics/russia_institutes_peat/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618114909/http://wildfiremag.com/tactics/russia_institutes_peat/ |archive-date=June 18, 2010 |access-date=August 9, 2010}}</ref>

===Netherlands===
[[File: 500vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|left|Peat covered area (brown) 2,500 years ago in the Netherlands]]2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>{{Convert|40|cm||abbr=on}} peat) to about {{cvt|2733|km2}}<ref>Joosten, Hans; Tanneberger, Franziska; Moen, Asbjørn. 2017. ''Mires and peatlands of Europe''. Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany. 780 p. Chapter "Netherlands".{{ISBN?}}</ref> or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating [[Earth:Polder|polder]]s so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533<ref>Reh, W., Steenbergen, C., Aten, D. 2007. ''Sea of Land, The polder as an experimental atlas of Dutch landscape architecture''. 344 pp, Uitgeverij Architectura & Natura. {{ISBN|978-9071123962}}</ref> and the last one in 1968. 
Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the [[Earth:Holocene|Holocene]]. As a result, approximately 26% of the area<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schiermeier |first1=Quirin |year=2010 |title=Few fishy facts found in climate report |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=170 |page=170 |doi=10.1038/466170a |pmid=20613812 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 21% of the population<ref>"Milieurekeningen 2008" (PDF). Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Retrieved 4 February 2010.</ref> of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, {{cvt|6.76|m}} [[Amsterdam Ordnance Datum|below average sea level]]. [[File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png|thumb|right|The Netherlands compared to sealevel]]

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400&nbsp;kg/m3 dry peat) <ref>{{Cite web |title=Common substances, materials, foods and gravels |url=https://www.aqua-calc.com/page/density-table |website=www.aqua-calc.com}}</ref>): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported.<ref>CBS (opendata.cbs.nl), [https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/81268ned/table?dl=2378F Goederensoorten naar land; minerale brandstoffen en chemie] (''tr. "Goods by country; mineral fuels and chemistry")''</ref> Most is used in gardening and greenhouse [[Earth:Horticulture|horticulture]].

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.<ref>Prins, Marcel & Steenhuis, Peter Henk, "Hidden," Arthur A. Levine Books, New York, 2011, p. 205.</ref>   During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat.  Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.<ref>Ibid, p. 204.</ref>

===Estonia===
After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peat |url=https://www.turbaliit.ee/en/peat/ |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=Turbaliit |language=en-US}}</ref> The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100&nbsp;million and it is mostly export-oriented.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} Peat is extracted from around {{Convert|14|e3ha||abbr=out}}.<ref>[https://www.err.ee/1082339/ministeerium-seisvad-turbamaardlad-on-moistlik-taas-kasutusele-votta "Ministeerium: seisvad turbamaardlad on mõistlik taas kasutusele võtta"] ERR, 25 April 2020 (in Estonian)</ref>

===India===
====Sikkim====
The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands.<ref name="oneill_khecheopalri">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=Alexander |display-authors=0 |date=25 February 2020 |title=Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland |journal=Wetlands Ecology & Management |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=375–388 |doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7 |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..375O |s2cid=211081106}}</ref> Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms, 196 families, and 453 genera.<ref name="O'Neill_2019">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R. |date=2019 |title=Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=20 |issue=e00715 |page=19 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
====England====
England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of {{CO2}} every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-15 |title=Just 124 people own most of England's deep peat – its largest carbon store |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/15/just-124-people-own-most-of-england-deep-peat-its-largest-carbon-store-aoe |access-date=2021-11-15 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2009 |title=Somerset Peat Paper&nbsp;– Issues consultation for the Minerals Core Strategy |url=http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/Documents/Environment/Minerals%20and%20waste/Mineral%20consultation%20papers/Peat%20Extraction%20Paper.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310135710/http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/Documents/Environment/Minerals%20and%20waste/Mineral%20consultation%20papers/Peat%20Extraction%20Paper.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2012 |access-date=30 November 2011 |publisher=Somerset County Council |page=7}}</ref> On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced [[Chemistry:Naphtha|naphtha]] on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.<ref>[http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/peat_moor.htm Dartmoor Peat], Dartmoor history</ref>

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-[[Earth:Last glacial period|Ice Age]] peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mawndiroedd Fenn's, Whixall a Bettisfield |url=http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscape/national-nature-reserves/fenns-whixall-and-bettisfiel.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202832/http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscape/national-nature-reserves/fenns-whixall-and-bettisfiel.aspx |archive-date=2013-10-29 |access-date=2013-10-27}}</ref> Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands.<ref>Walker, M. D. Sphagnum. Sicklebrook Press. {{ISBN|978-0-359-41313-3}}</ref> Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.<ref>{{cite web |title=Giving peat a(nother) chance {{!}} Yorkshire Wildlife Trust |url=https://www.ywt.org.uk/news/giving-peat-another-chance |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=www.ywt.org.uk|date=5 January 2021 }}</ref>

====Northern Ireland====
In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, [[Earth:Afforestation|afforestation]] has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Peatlands Park ASSI |url=http://www.wonderfulni.info/protected_areas_home/new_assi_landing_page/county_armagh-2/peatlands_park_assi.htm |access-date=14 August 2010 |work=NI Environment Agency}}{{Dead link|date=May 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

====Scotland====
[[File:Peat-Stack in Ness, Outer Hebrides, Scotland.jpg|thumb|A peat stack in Ness on the Isle of Lewis (Scotland)]]
Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted [[Biology:Barley|barley]]. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".<ref>{{cite web |title=Peat and Its Significance in Whisky |url=http://www.whisky.com/information/knowledge/tasting/flavour/peat-and-its-significance-in-whisky.html |access-date=25 October 2015}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=need more recent or change sentence to past tense|date=January 2022}}
The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky, is calculated in [[Physics:Parts-per notation#ppm|ppm]] of [[Chemistry:Phenol|phenol]]. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore,<ref>{{cite web |title=Octomore 5 Years 03.1 |url=http://www.whisky.com/whisky-database/bottle-search/details/fdb/Bottles/Details/octomore-031.html |access-date=25 October 2015}}</ref> the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

==== Wales ====
Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme (SMS) Project |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/abergwesyn-common/features/welsh-peatland-sustainable-management-scheme-sms-project |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref> Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition.  In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural Resources Wales / The National Peatland Action Programme |url=https://naturalresources.wales/evidence-and-data/maps/the-national-peatland-action-programme/?lang=en |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=naturalresources.wales |language=en-gb}}</ref>

===Canada===
Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000&nbsp;kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000&nbsp;kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000&nbsp;kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000&nbsp;kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000&nbsp;kg).<ref>{{cite web |title=Peat; (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated exports by country in 2021 |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2021/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/270300 |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=WITS – World Integrated Solution |publisher=World Bank |ref=58}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Earth:Acid sulfate soil|Acid sulfate soil]]
* [[Earth:Acrotelm|Acrotelm]]
* [[Earth:Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|Climate change mitigation]]
* Gytta
* Histosols
* Irish Peatland Conservation Council
* [[Earth:List of bogs|List of bogs]]
* Peat Cutting Monday
* [[Earth:Tropical peat|Tropical peat]]
* [[Earth:Turbary|Turbary]]
* [[Unified Soil Classification System]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=Notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{NSRW Poster}}
* [https://peatlands.org/ International Peatland Society]
* [http://www.imcg.net International Mire Conservation Group]
* [http://www.ipcc.ie/ Irish Peatland Conservation Council]
* [https://www.rhs.org.uk/science/gardening-in-a-changing-world/peat-use-in-gardens/peat-alternatives Gardening without peat] Royal Horticultural Society
* [https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/advice/gardening-for-wildlife/plants-for-wildlife/peat-free-compost/ Peat-free gardens] RSPB
* [https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change] From The New Scientist
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/topics/c5rmpkv42j4t/peatlands Peatlands articles] on the BBC
* [http://www.pitcherplant.org Meadowview Biological Research Station]
* [https://ir.ua.edu/handle/123456789/9811 Peat and Peatlands Bibliography]

{{Geotechnical engineering|state=collapsed}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}

[[Category:Solid fuels]]
[[Category:Sediments]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Wetlands]]

{{Sourceattribution|Peat}}