View source for Earth:Post-Soviet states

{{Short description|States established following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991}}

[[File:USSR Republics numbered by alphabet.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Post-Soviet states in English alphabetical order:
{{small|{{nowrap|1. {{Flag|Armenia|size=18px}}}} • {{nowrap|2. {{Flag|Azerbaijan|size=18px}}}} • {{nowrap|3. {{Flag|Belarus|size=18px}} •}} {{nowrap| 4. {{Flag|Estonia|size=18px}} • 5. {{Flag|Georgia|size=18px}} • 6. {{Flag|Kazakhstan|size=18px}} •}} {{nowrap|7. {{Flag|Kyrgyzstan|size=18px}} • 8. {{Flag|Latvia|size=18px}} • 9. {{Flag|Lithuania|size=18px}} •}} {{nowrap|10. {{Flag|Moldova|size=18px}} • 11. {{Flag|Russia|size=18px}} • 12. {{Flag|Tajikistan|size=18px}} •}} {{nowrap|13. {{Flag|Turkmenistan|size=18px}} • 14. {{Flag|Ukraine|size=18px}} • 15. {{Flag|Uzbekistan|size=18px}}}}}}]]

The '''post-Soviet states''', also known as the '''former Soviet Union''' ('''FSU'''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1805/managing_conflict_in_the_former_soviet_union.html|title=Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives|date=30 October 1997|work=harvard.edu|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> the '''former Soviet Republics''' and in Russia as the '''near abroad''' ({{lang-ru|links=no|ближнее зарубежье|blizhneye zarubezhye}}), are the 15 [[Earth:Sovereign state|sovereign state]]s that were union republics of the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], which emerged and re-emerged from the Soviet Union following its dissolution in 1991.

Russia is the primary ''de facto'' internationally recognized [[History:Succession of states|successor state]] to the Soviet Union after the [[History:Cold War|Cold War]]; while {{wipe|Ukraine}} has, by law, proclaimed that it is a state-successor of both the [[Place:Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the Soviet Union which remained under dispute over formerly Soviet-owned properties.<ref>On Legal Succession of Ukraine, Articles 7 and 8.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/go/1543-12|title=Про правонаступництво України|website=Zakon.rada.gov.ua|access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://korrespondent.net/ukraine/politics/3320798-razdel-sssr-rf-obsudyt-nulevoi-varyant-dolhov-sssr-esly-ukrayna-kompensyruet-20-mlrd-dolha|title=Раздел СССР. РФ обсудит нулевой вариант долгов СССР, если Украина компенсирует $20 млрд долга‏|website=Korrespondent.net}}</ref>

The three Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania – were the first to declare their independence from the USSR, between March and May 1990, claiming continuity from the original states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940.<ref name="Elsuwege">{{cite book|last=Van Elsuwege|first=Peter|title=From Soviet Republics to Eu Member States: A Legal and Political Assessment of the Baltic States' Accession to the EU|series=Studies in EU External Relations|volume=1|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004169456|page=xxii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Estonia |last=Smith |first=David James |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26728-1 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx-UmTnLJv0C&pg=PR20}}</ref> The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded, all 12 of which joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and most of the 12 joining the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). In contrast, the Baltic states focused on [[Social:European Union|European Union]] (EU) and NATO membership.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lane|first=David|date=December 2007|title=Post-Communist States and the European Union|journal=Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics|language=en|volume=23|issue=4|pages=461–477|doi=10.1080/13523270701674558|issn=1352-3279|doi-access=free}}</ref> EU officials have stressed the importance of Association Agreements between the EU and post-Soviet states.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moga|first1=Teodor Lucian|last2=Alexeev|first2=Denis|date=2013|title=Post-Soviet States Between Russia and the EU: Reviving Geopolitical Competition? A Dual Perspective|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26326349.pdf|journal=Connections|volume=13|issue=1|pages=41–52|doi=10.11610/Connections.13.1.03|jstor=26326349|via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Jozwiak|first=Rikard|title=EU, Ex-Soviet Republics To Extend Partnership Beyond 2020|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eu-ex-soviet-republics-to-extend-partnership-beyond-2020/29863540.html|date=2019-04-05|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|access-date=2021-08-10|language=en}}</ref>

Several disputed states with varying degrees of recognition exist within the territory of the former Soviet Union: Transnistria in eastern Moldova, [[Place:Abkhazia|Abkhazia]] and [[Place:South Ossetia|South Ossetia]] in northern [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Place:Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]] in southwestern [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]. Since 2014, the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic in far eastern Ukraine have claimed independence. All of these unrecognized states except Artsakh depend on Russian armed support and financial aid. Artsakh is integrated to [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]] at a de-facto level, which also maintains close cooperation with Russia. Prior to its annexation to Russia in March 2014, which is not recognized by most countries, Crimea briefly declared itself an independent state.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Danilova|first1=Maria|last2=Dahlburg|first2=John-Thor|title=Crimea declares independence|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/world/2014/03/17/russia-calls-ukraine-federal-state/X3ipImb0DIelYk4PsRfmNP/story.html|date=2014-03-17|newspaper=The Boston Globe|agency=Associated Press|access-date=2021-08-10|language=en-US}}</ref>

In the political language of Russia and some other post-Soviet states, the term ''near abroad'' (Russian {{Transl|ru|ближнее зарубежье "blizhnee zarubezhe"}}) refers to the independent republics that emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Increasing usage of the term in English is connected to assertions of Russia's right to maintain significant influence in the region.<ref name=nyt>{{cite web|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07EED81E39F931A15756C0A962958260|title= ON LANGUAGE; The Near Abroad|access-date=2008-04-18|author=William Safire|date=1994-05-22|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|author-link= William Safire}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/05/AR2008020502879.html|title=New Europe, Old Russia|access-date=2008-04-18|author=Robert Kagan|date=2008-02-06|newspaper={{wipe|The Washington Post}}|author-link=Robert Kagan}}</ref><ref name=se01/> Russian President Vladimir Putin has declared the region to be a component of Russia's "[[Social:Sphere of influence|sphere of influence]]", and strategically vital to Russian interests.<ref name=se01>{{cite web|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A05E5D91039F936A15751C0A9679C8B63|title=The World; Learning to Fear Putin's Gaze|access-date=2008-04-18|author=Steven Erlanger|date=2001-02-25|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|author-link=Steven Erlanger}}</ref> The concept has been compared to the Monroe Doctrine.<ref name=nyt/>

==Country comparison==
The 15 states may be divided into four [[Earth:Subregion|subregion]]s. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

<div style="font-size:99%">
{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:right" width=100%
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Earth:Subregion|Subregion]]
!rowspan=2|[[Earth:List of sovereign states|Country]]
!colspan=2|Symbols
!rowspan=2|Capital
!rowspan=2|Form of<br>government
!rowspan=2|Independence
!colspan=2|Area<ref name="auto1">Area includes land and water.</ref>
!rowspan=2|Population
!colspan=2|Ethnic majority, percent
!colspan=2|Density
!rowspan=2|Notes
|-
!Coat of arms
!Flag
!km<sup>2</sup>
!mi<sup>2</sup>
!1989
!now
!p/km<sup>2</sup>
!p/mi<sup>2</sup>
|-
|rowspan=6 style="background:#688856" |
|rowspan=5 align=center|[[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]
|align=center|'''Kazakhstan'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Kazakhstan)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Kazakhstan latin.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Kazakhstan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|{{nowrap|[[Place:Astana|Astana]]}}
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Dominant-party system|dominant-party]]<br>presidential [[Social:Republic|republic]]
|align=center|December 16, 1991
|{{convert|2,724,900|km2|0|disp=table}}
|19,000,336
|39.7%
|{{increase}} 69.6%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 18448000/2724900 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of February 1, 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eng.stat.kz/Pages/default.aspx|title=The Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan : Latest data|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801110415/http://www.eng.stat.kz/Pages/default.aspx|access-date=5 March 2022|archive-date=1 August 2013}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Kyrgyzstan'''<br />{{small|(Kyrgyz Republic)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Kyrgyzstan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Kyrgyzstan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Bishkek|Bishkek]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]]
|align=center|August 31, 1991
|{{convert|199,945|km2|0|disp=table}}
|6,663,000
|52.4%
|{{increase}} 73.8%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 6523500/199945 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stat.kg/media/statisticsoperational/8095e2a8-5228-4645-90e5-4ee025605225.xls|title=Official estimate|website=Stat.kg|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Tajikistan'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Tajikistan)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Tajikistan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Tajikistan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Dushanbe|Dushanbe]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] under a [[Social:Dictatorship|dictatorship]]
|align=center|September 9, 1991
|{{convert|143,100|km2|0|disp=table}}
|9,504,000
|62.3%
|{{increase}} 84.3%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 9121600/143100 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stat.tj/en/|title=Statistical Agency under President of the Republic of Tajikistan|date=March 6, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306125630/http://www.stat.tj/en/|archive-date=2012-03-06}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Turkmenistan'''<br />{{small|({{small|formerly the}} Republic of Turkmenistan)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Turkmenistan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Ashgabat|Ashgabat]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] under a hereditary<br>[[Social:Dictatorship|dictatorship]]
|align=center|October 27, 1991
|{{convert|491,210|km2|0|disp=table}}
|6,118,000
|72.0%
|{{increase}} 85.6%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 5240000/491210 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of July 1, 2013.</ref><ref>UN estimate</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Uzbekistan'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Uzbekistan)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Uzbekistan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Tashkent|Tashkent]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]]
|align=center|August 31, 1991
|{{convert|444,103|km2|0|disp=table}}
|35,064,893
|71.4%
|{{increase}} 84.4%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 33905000/444103 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref name="auto">Population data as of January 1, 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stat.uz/demographic/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140723223303/http://www.stat.uz/demographic/|url-status=dead|title=Государственный комитет Республики Узбекистан по статистике - Демографические данные|archive-date=23 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan="7"|'''Total Central Asia'''
|{{convert|4,003,258|km2|0|disp=table}}
|76,350,229
|{{increase}} {{Average|69.6|73.8|84.3|85.6|84.4|round=1}}%
|{{convert|{{Average|7|33|64|11|76}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|
|-
|rowspan=5 style="background:#ffc600" |
|rowspan=4 align=center|[[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]
|align=center|'''{{wipe|Belarus}}'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Belarus)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Belarus (2020).svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Belarus|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Minsk|Minsk]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] under a [[Social:Dictatorship|dictatorship]]
|align=center|December 10, 1991
|{{convert|207,600|km2|0|disp=table}}
|9,349,645
|77.9%
|{{increase}} 84.9%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 9452000/207600 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of July 1, 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://belstat.gov.by/en/ofitsialnaya-statistika/otrasli-statistiki/naselenie/demografiya_2/current-data/demographic-situation-in-Half-Year-2014/|title=Demographic situation in Half-Year 2014|date=July 29, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729023401/http://belstat.gov.by/en/ofitsialnaya-statistika/otrasli-statistiki/naselenie/demografiya_2/current-data/demographic-situation-in-Half-Year-2014/|archive-date=2014-07-29}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Moldova'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Moldova)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Moldova.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Moldova|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Chișinău|Chișinău]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]]
|align=center|August 27, 1991
|{{convert|33,843|km2|0|disp=table}}
|2,597,100
|64.5%
|{{increase}} 75.1%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 2681735/33843 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of January 1, 2017.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistica.gov.md/category.php?l=ro&idc=103&|title=// Populaţia și procesele demografice|first=Biroul Naţional de|last=Statistică|website=statistica.gov.md}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''{{wipe|Russia}}'''<br />{{small|(Russian Federation)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Russia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Moscow|Moscow]]
|align=center|[[Social:Federation|Federal]] [[Social:Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|December 12, 1991
|{{convert|17,098,242|km2|0|disp=table}}
|146,171,015
|81.5%
|{{decrease}} 77.7%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 146748590/17098242 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>The Russian Federation technically achieved ''de facto'' independence from the Soviet Union after ratifying the Belavezha Accords. After the Almaty Protocol, the RF took over the Soviet Union's UN membership.</ref><ref>Population data as of January 1, 2018.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/Popul2018.xls|title=Official estimate|format=XLS|website=Gks.ru|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref>Includes the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, claimed by Ukraine.</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''{{wipe|Ukraine}}'''
|align=center|[[File:Lesser Coat of Arms of Ukraine.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Ukraine|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Kyiv|Kyiv]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|August 24, 1991
|{{convert|603,700|km2|0|disp=table}}
|41,383,182
|72.7%
|{{increase}} 77.5%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 41762138/577528 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of April 1, 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/operativ/operativ2014/ds/kn/kn_e/kn0414_e.html|title=Population as of April 1, 2014. Average annual populations January-March 2014|website=Ukrstat.gov.ua}}</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan="7"|'''Total Eastern Europe'''
|{{convert|17,943,385|km2|0|disp=table}}
|199,500,942
|{{increase}} {{Average|84.9|75.1|77.7|77.5|round=1}}%
|{{convert|{{Average|46|79|9|72}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|
|-
|rowspan=4 style="background:#0065c8" |
|rowspan=3 align=center|[[Place:Baltic region|Northeastern Europe]]
|align=center|'''Estonia'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Estonia)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Estonia.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Estonia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Tallinn|Tallinn]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|May 8, 1990
|{{convert|45,339|km2|0|disp=table}}
|1,330,068
|61.5%
|{{increase}} 69.1%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 1329000/45339 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of January 1, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stat.ee/main-indicators|title=Official estimate|website=Stat.ee|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Latvia'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Latvia)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Latvia.svg|75x75px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Latvia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Riga|Riga]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|May 4, 1990
|{{convert|64,562|km2|0|disp=table}}
|1,882,200
|52.0%
|{{increase}} 62.2%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 1907675/64562 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.csb.gov.lv/en/statistikas-temas/population-key-indicators-30624.html|title=Population - Key Indicators &#124; Latvijas statistika|date=June 28, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628214416/http://www.csb.gov.lv/en/statistikas-temas/population-key-indicators-30624.html|archive-date=2013-06-28}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''Lithuania'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Lithuania)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Lithuania.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Lithuania|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Vilnius|Vilnius]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Semi-presidential republic|semi-presidential]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|March 11, 1990
|{{convert|65,300|km2|0|disp=table}}
|2,786,006
|79.6%
|{{increase}} 84.6%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 2794000/65300 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14=|title=Number of persons by month - Database of Indicators - data and statistics|date=August 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819130935/http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14=|archive-date=2010-08-19}}</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan="7"|'''Total Northeastern Europe'''
|{{convert|175,201|km2|0|disp=table}}
|5,998,274
|{{increase}} {{Average|69.1|62.2|84.6|round=1}}%
|{{convert|{{Average|29|30|43}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|
|-
|rowspan=4 style="background:#f18cbf" |
|rowspan=3 align=center|[[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]
|align=center|'''[[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Armenia)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Armenia.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Armenia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Yerevan|Yerevan]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|{{nowrap|September 21, 1991}}
|{{convert|29,743|km2|0|disp=table}}
|2,963,300
|93.3%
|{{increase}} 98.1%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 2965000/29743 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.armstat.am/en/?nid=126&id=11001|title=Feedback / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia|website=Armstat.am|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''[[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Azerbaijan)}} 
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Azerbaijan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Azerbaijan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Baku|Baku]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] semi-presidential<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] under a hereditary<br>[[Social:Dictatorship|dictatorship]]
|align=center|August 30, 1991
|{{convert|86,600|km2|0|disp=table}}
|10,139,196
|82.7%
|{{increase}} 91.6%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 9981400/86600 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>Population data as of December 31, 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stat.gov.az/news/?id=2122|title=2013-cü ildə ölkənin iqtisadi və sosial inkişafının makroiqtisadi göstəriciləri|first=Anar|last=Samadov|website=Stat.gov.az|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|align=center|'''[[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'''<br />{{small|({{small|formerly the}} Republic of Georgia)}}
|align=center|[[File:Greater coat of arms of Georgia.svg|65x65px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Georgia (country)|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Tbilisi|Tbilisi]]
|align=center|[[Earth:Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Social:Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]]<br>[[Social:Republic|republic]] 
|align=center|April 9, 1991
|{{convert|69,700|km2|0|disp=table}}
|3,728,573
|70.1%
|{{increase}} 86.8%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 3723000/69700 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geostat.ge/index.php/ka|title=საქართველოს სტატისტიკის ეროვნული სამსახური|website=Geostat.ge}}</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan="7"|'''Total South Caucasus'''
|{{convert|186,043|km2|0|disp=table}}
|16,831,069
|{{increase}} {{Average|98.1|91.6|86.8|round=1}}%
|{{convert|{{Average|100|115|53|round=1}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|
|-
|- class="sortbottom" style="border-top:2px solid gray" |
|align=center colspan="8"|'''Total former Soviet Union'''
|{{convert|22,307,815|km2|0|disp=table}}
|296,582,638
|50.6%
|{{decrease}} 44.5%
|{{convert|{{#expr: 208826650/22307815 round 0}}|/km2|0|disp=table}}
|align=center|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1946/population.pdf|title=The Population of the Soviet Union : History and Prospects|author=Frank Lorimer|website=Marxists.org|access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>
|}
</div>

===Current leaders===
====Heads of state====
<gallery>
File:Vahagn Khachaturyan portrait (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|ARM}} '''[[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]'''<br />Vahagn Khachaturyan<br />President of Armenia
File:Ilham Aliyev 2020 (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|AZE}} '''[[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]'''<br />Ilham Aliyev<br />President of Azerbaijan
File:Lukashenko (October 2019) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|BLR}} '''{{wipe|Belarus}}'''<br />Alexander Lukashenko<br />President of Belarus
File:Volodymyr Zelenskyy met with Estonian President Karis in Kyiv 2022 (13) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|EST}} '''Estonia'''<br />Alar Karis<br />President of Estonia
File:Victory Day - Europe Day 2020 Address Photo of Salome Zourabichvili (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|GEO}} '''[[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'''<br />Salome Zourabichvili<br />President of Georgia
File:Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (2020-02-01).jpg|{{flagicon|KAZ}} '''Kazakhstan'''<br />Kassym-Jomart Tokayev<br />President of Kazakhstan
File:President of Kyrgyzstan Sadyr Japarov.jpg|{{flagicon|KGZ}} '''Kyrgyzstan'''<br />Sadyr Dzaparov<br />President of Kyrgyzstan
File:Sergio Mattarella and Latvian President Levits at the 16th Arraiolos meeting (2) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|LAT}} '''Latvia'''<br />Egils Levits<br />President of Latvia
File:Gitanas Nauseda crop.png|{{flagicon|LTU}} '''Lithuania'''<br />Gitanas Nausėda<br />President of Lithuania
File:Sergio Mattarella e Maia Sandu al Quirinale 2021 (8) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|MDA}} '''Moldova'''<br />Maia Sandu<br />President of Moldova
File: Vladimir Putin (2021-02-27).jpg |{{flagicon|RUS}} '''{{wipe|Russia}}'''<br />Vladimir Putin<br />President of Russia
File:Emomali Rahmon in 2016 (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|TJK}} '''Tajikistan'''<br />Emomali Rahmon<br />President of Tajikistan
File:Vladimir Putin and Serdar Berdimuhamedow (2022-06-10) 02 (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|TKM}} '''Turkmenistan'''<br />Serdar Berdimuhamedow<br />President of Turkmenistan<ref name=TKMPM>Holds both presidency and executive powers as the Prime Minister of Turkmenistan role was abolished.</ref>
File:For every act of terrorism by Russian troops on the territory of Ukraine there will be an international tribunal - address by President Volodymyr Zelenskyy. (51940800012) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|UKR}} '''{{wipe|Ukraine}}'''<br />Volodymyr Zelenskyy<br />President of Ukraine
File:Shavkat Mirziyoyev.jpg|{{flagicon|UZB}} '''Uzbekistan'''<br />Shavkat Mirziyoyev<br />President of Uzbekistan
</gallery><!--Lacks portrait-->

====Heads of government====
<gallery>
File:Nikol Pashinyan 01 (07-04-2021).jpg|{{flagicon|ARM}} '''[[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]'''<br />Nikol Pashinyan<br />Prime Minister of Armenia
File:Ali Asadov (2019-12-17).jpg|{{flagicon|AZE}} '''[[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]'''<br />Ali Asadov<br />Prime Minister of Azerbaijan
File:Roman Golovchenko (2020-09-03)(portrait).jpg|{{flagicon|BLR}} '''{{wipe|Belarus}}'''<br />Roman Golovchenko<br />Prime Minister of Belarus
File:Kaja Kallas (crop).jpg|{{flagicon|EST}} '''Estonia'''<br />Kaja Kallas<br />Prime Minister of Estonia
File:Irakli Gharibashvili (16211044716).jpg|{{flagicon|GEO}} '''[[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'''<br />Irakli Garibashvili<br />Prime Minister of Georgia
File:Alihan Smayilov (26074) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|KAZ}} '''Kazakhstan'''<br />Älihan Smaiylov<br />Prime Minister of Kazakhstan
File:Акылбек Жапаров (19-11-2021).jpg|{{flagicon|KGZ}} '''Kyrgyzstan'''<br />Akylbek Dzaparov<br />Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers of Kyrgyzstan
File:Krišjānis Kariņš 2019 (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|LAT}} '''Latvia'''<br />Krišjānis Kariņš<br />Prime Minister of Latvia
File:Ingrida Simonyte 2019 crop 2.jpg|{{flagicon|LTU}} '''Lithuania'''<br />Ingrida Šimonytė<br />Prime Minister of Lithuania
File:Natalia Gavrilița - jun 2019.jpg|{{flagicon|MDA}} '''Moldova'''<br />Natalia Gavrilița<br />Prime Minister of Moldova
File:Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg|{{flagicon|RUS}} '''{{wipe|Russia}}'''<br />Mikhail Mishustin<br />Prime Minister of Russia
File:Kokhir Rasulzoda (2018-04-19).jpg|{{flagicon|TJK}} '''Tajikistan'''<br />Kokhir Rasulzoda<br />Prime Minister of Tajikistan
File:Vladimir Putin and Serdar Berdimuhamedow (2022-06-10) 02 (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|TKM}} '''Turkmenistan'''<br />Serdar Berdimuhamedow<br />President of Turkmenistan<ref name=TKMPM />
File:Денис Шмигаль (08-12-2020) (cropped).jpg|{{flagicon|UKR}} '''{{wipe|Ukraine}}'''<br />Denys Shmyhal<br />Prime Minister of Ukraine
File:Abdulla Aripov (2019-05-30).jpg|{{flagicon|UZB}} '''Uzbekistan'''<br />Abdulla Aripov<br />Prime Minister of Uzbekistan
</gallery><!--Lacks portrait-->

==Economy==
The dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. As the [[Social:Gosplan|Gosplan]], which had set up production chains to cross SSR lines, broke down, the inter-republic economic connections were also disrupted, leading to even more serious breakdown of the post-Soviet economies.

Most of the formerly Soviet states began the [[Finance:Transition economy|transition]] to a [[Finance:Market economy|market economy]] from a command economy in 1990–1991 and made efforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, with varying results. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with [[Finance:Gross domestic product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995.<ref>''Transition: The First Ten Years – Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union'', The World Bank, Washington, DC, 2002, p. 4.</ref> This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the [[Finance:Great Depression|Great Depression]] between 1930 and 1934.<ref>[http://www.k-a.kg/?nid=5&value=6 GDP decline: transition and Great Depression compared], Kalikova and Associates Law Firm, Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved 13 January 2009.</ref> The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and [[Social:Economic inequality|economic inequality]].<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63 Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries], New York Times, October 12, 2000</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =  Scheidel| first = Walter |  title =The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century | publisher = Princeton University Press| year =2017 | isbn =978-0691165028|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222]}}</ref> The economic shocks associated with wholesale [[Finance:Privatization|privatization]] resulted in the excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2009/090115.html |title=Death surge linked with mass privatisation |publisher=[[Organization:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] |date=2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702113600/http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2009/090115.html|archive-date=2014-07-02|access-date=2015-06-28|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7828901.stm Privatisation 'raised death rate']. ''BBC,'' 15 January 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2014.</ref> A study by economist Steven Rosefielde asserts that 3.4 million Russians died premature deaths from 1990 to 1998, partly as the result of "shock therapy" imposed by the [[Finance:Washington Consensus|Washington Consensus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rosefielde|first1=Steven|date=2001 |title=Premature Deaths: Russia's Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=53 |issue=8 |pages=1159–1176|doi= 10.1080/09668130120093174|s2cid=145733112}}</ref>

The initial transition decline was eventually arrested by the cumulative effect of market reforms, and after 1995 the economy in the post-Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative to positive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991.<ref name=imf>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=901|title=Edit/Review Countries|date=May 9, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509173048/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=901|archive-date=2006-05-09}}</ref> According to economist Branko Milanović in 2015, many former Soviet Republics and Warsaw Pact countries still have not caught up to their levels of output during the twilight of the Soviet era, including Bosnia-Herzegovina, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Serbia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|date=2017 |title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism|url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|publisher=Duke University Press|page=63 |isbn=978-0822369493}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =Challenge| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 =  Milanović | first1 = Branko| s2cid =153398717|author-link=}}</ref> Commenting on Milanović's report in 2021, Kristen Ghodsee and Mitchell A. Orenstein state that the suffering associated with the transition to capitalism "had produced few results for 90 percent of the former socialist population."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghodsee|first1=Kristen|last2=Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2021|title=Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of the 1989 Revolutions|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|page=184|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001 |isbn=978-0197549247}}</ref>

The economic changes were in harmony with the constitutional reforms, while provisions on '''public finances''' can be identified and in some countries, a separate chapter deals with public finances. Most of the constitutions define directly or indirectly the '''economic system''' of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s: free market economy, which sometimes complemented with the social or socially (and ecologically) oriented attribute, economic development, or only the economic rights are included as a ground for the economy. In the case of '''fiscal policy''', the legislative, the executive and other state organs (Budget Council, Economic and Social Council) define and manage the budgeting. The average government debt in the countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great, because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows, that the sovereign debt ratio to GDP in most of the countries has been rising. The constitutional background for '''taxation''' is similar. The contribution to cover the finances for common needs is declared, the principle of just tax burden sharing is supplemented sometimes with special aspects. Tax revenues expose typically 15 – 19% of the GDP, and rates above 20% only rarely can be found. The '''state audit''' of the government budget and expenditures is an essential control element in public finances, and an important part of the concept of checks and balances. The central banks are independent state institutions, which possess the monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's '''monetary policy'''. Besides monetary policy, some of them even perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. In the case of price stability function, the '''inflation''' rate, in the examined area, relatively quickly dropped to below 5% by 2000. The majority of the constitutions determine the '''national currency''', legal tender or monetary unit. The local currency exchange rate to U.S. dollar shows that drastic interventions were not necessary. '''National wealth or assets''' are the property of the state and/or the local governments, and as an exclusive property, the management and protection of them aim at serving the public interest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vértesy|first=László|date=2017|title=Constitutional Bases of Public Finances in the Central and Eastern European Countries|journal=25th NISPAcee Annual Conference: Innovation Governance in the Public Sector|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=3157175}}</ref>

'''Change in gross domestic product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991–2015'''<ref name=worldbank>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG|title=GDP growth (annual %)|work=worldbank.org|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Country!!data-sort-type="number"|1991*!!data-sort-type="number"|1996!!data-sort-type="number"|2001!!data-sort-type="number"|2006!!data-sort-type="number"|2011!!data-sort-type="number"|2015!!data-sort-type="number"|2021!!data-sort-type="number"|Turnaround<br /> year**
|-
|''[[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]''||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || ||
|-
|Kazakhstan||100 || 69.3 || 88.5 || 141.4 ||185.7 || 219.0 || 252.3 || 1996
|-
|Kyrgyzstan||100 || 58.9 || 76.1 || 89.6 ||114.4 || 133.9 || 154.5 || 1996
|-
|Tajikistan||100 || 34.1 || 45.2 || 56.0 ||98.1 || 124.5 || 189.5 || 1997
|-
|Turkmenistan||100 || 68.4 || 107.7 ||215.5 ||351.8 || 515.5 || ? || 1998
|-
|Uzbekistan||100 || 82.9 || 102.6 || 137.5 ||208.4 || 281.2 || 363.6 || 1996
|-
|''[[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]''|| ||  ||  ||  || || || ||
|-
|{{wipe|Belarus}}||100 || 67.9 || 94.0 || 141.5 ||192.5 || 193.9 || 206.0 || 1996
|-
|Moldova||100 || 45.2 || 45.0 || 62.5 ||74.5 || 83.2 || 104.6 || 1997
|-
|{{wipe|Russia}}||100 || 63.1 || 74.5 || 103.3  ||118.3 || 119.8 || 135.2 || 1997
|-
|{{wipe|Ukraine}}||100 || 47.2 || 51.8 || 73.7 ||75.9 || 63.4 || 68.8 || 2000
|-
|''[[Place:Baltic region|Northeastern Europe]]''||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || || || 
|-
|Estonia||100 || ? || ? || ? || ? || ? || ? || ?
|-
|Latvia||100 || 67.8 || 92.9 || 143.1 ||130.1 || 145.8 || 165.3 || 1993
|-
|Lithuania||100 ||  64.6 || 81.5 || 119.8 ||123.9 || 139.6 || 173.2 || 1995
|-
|''[[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]''|| ||  ||  ||  || || || ||
|-
|[[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]||100 || 63.3 || 84.2 || 154.7 ||172.5 || 202.6 || 244.2 || 1994
|-
|[[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]||100 || 42.7 || 65.2 || 150.2 ||241.1 || 276.5 || 269.6 || 1996
|-
|[[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]]||100 || 39.8  || 49.8 || 74.1 ||93.2 || 109.3 || 136.0 || 1995
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989–1990, thus indices for 1991 do not match pre-reform maximums.

<nowiki>**</nowiki>The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth.

'''List of the present [[Finance:Gross domestic product|gross domestic product]] (GDP)''' (figures are given in 2021 {{wipe|United States dollar}}s for the year 2021 according to the [[Organization:International Monetary Fund|IMF]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/ARM/AZE/BLR/EST/GEO/KAZ/KGZ/LVA/LTU/MDA/RUS/TJK/TKM/UKR/UZB|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|website=Imf.org}}</ref>)

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No.
! Country
! Nominal<br />(billions {{wipe|United States dollar}})
! Nominal<br />per capita ({{wipe|United States dollar}})
! [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]<br />(billions {{wipe|United States dollar}})
! [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]<br />per capita ({{wipe|United States dollar}})
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 1
| align=left| {{flag|Armenia}}
| 12
| 4,125
| 42
| 14,180
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 2
| align=left| {{flag|Azerbaijan}}
| 50
| 4,883
| 150
| 15,080
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 3
| align=left| {{flag|Belarus}}
| 61
| 6,487
| 189
| 19,940
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 4
| align=left| {{flag|Estonia}}
| 35
| 26,470
| 51
| 38,540
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 5
| align=left| {{flag|Georgia}}
| 16
| 4,361
| 58
| 15,630
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 6
| align=left| {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
| 188
| 9,828
| 509
| 27,290
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 7
| align=left| {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| 7
| 1,123
| 35
| 5,520
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 8
| align=left| {{flag|Latvia}}
| 38
| 19,824
| 61
| 32,010
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 9
| align=left| {{flag|Lithuania}}
| 62
| 22,245
| 107
| 38,590
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 10
| align=left| {{flag|Moldova}}
| 12
| 4,638
| 36
| 13,440
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 11
| align=left| {{flag|Russia}}
| 1,710
| 11,654
| 4,140
| 28,180
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 12
| align=left| {{flag|Tajikistan}}
| 8 
| 810
| 33
| 3,540
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 13
| align=left| {{flag|Turkmenistan}}
| 54
| 9,032
| 96
| 16,430
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 14
| align=left| {{flag|Ukraine}}
| 164
| 3,984
| 561
| 13,440
|- style="height: 25px;"
| 15
| align=left| {{flag|Uzbekistan}}
| 61
| 1,775
| 245
| 7,370
|}

==Developmental progress==
The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores in 2021.<ref name="hdi-report">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|website=Hdr.undp.org |publisher=[[Finance:United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Programme]] |access-date=25 September 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Post-Soviet states by HDI (2020).png|right|630px]]

'''Very High Human Development:'''

* {{flagcountry|Estonia}}: 0.890
* {{flagcountry|Lithuania}}: 0.875
* {{flagcountry|Latvia}}: 0.863
* {{flagcountry|Russia}}: 0.822
* {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}}: 0.811
* {{flagcountry|Belarus}}: 0.808
* {{flagcountry|Georgia}}: 0.802

'''High Human Development:'''

* {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}: 0.773
* {{flagcountry|Moldova}}: 0.767
* {{flagcountry|Armenia}}: 0.759
* {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}}: 0.745
* {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}: 0.745
* {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}: 0.727

'''Medium Human Development:'''

* {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}}: 0.692
* {{flagcountry|Tajikistan}}: 0.685

== Regional organizations ==<!-- This section is linked from Black Sea -->

[[File:Commonwealth of Independent States vs EU and NATO.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|{{legend|#FFFFD0|CIS members}}{{legend|#3CE67B|States that joined [[Social:European Union|EU]],
 NATO}} and [[Organization:OECD|OECD]]{{legend|#FFD0D0|Other EU or NATO members}}]]

A number of [[Place:Regional organization|regional organization]]s and cooperating blocs have sprung up since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Only organizations that are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section; organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the regional blocs:
* {{wipe|Belarus}}, {{wipe|Russia}}, and {{wipe|Ukraine}} founded the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. It was conceived as a successor organization to the USSR, and in December 1993 it included 12 of the 15 former Soviet republics (except the three Baltic states).<ref name=ratification/> It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one associate state (Turkmenistan). Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008, while Ukraine stopped participating from the CIS in May 2018.
* The three Baltic states have not sought membership in any of these post-Soviet organizations, seeking and achieving membership in the [[Social:European Union|European Union]] and NATO instead, although their electricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former Soviet organizations. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice.
* The Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (as well as Belarus) are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the [[Social:Eurasian Economic Community|Eurasian Economic Community]] (later merged with [[Finance:Eurasian Economic Union|Eurasian Economic Union]], which Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are not members of), Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. The last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO (which it subsequently withdrew from in 2008 and 2012, respectively).
* [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], besides its membership in CIS participates in Collective Security Treaty Organization and the [[Finance:Eurasian Economic Union|Eurasian Economic Union]].
* Moldova and [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] participate in the CIS but other than that they mostly cooperate within regional organizations that are not dominated by Russia. Such organizations are GUAM and the Community of Democratic Choice. Although Ukraine is one of the three founding countries of the CIS, it is legally not a member because it has never ratified the 1993 CIS Charter.<ref name=ratification>[http://cis.minsk.by/sm.aspx?uid=11368 Ratification status of CIS documents as of 15 January 2008] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030122332/http://cis.minsk.by/sm.aspx?uid=11368 |date=October 30, 2008 }} ('''Russian''').</ref>
* Turkmenistan is an associate member of CIS (having withdrawn from full membership in August 2005)<ref name=turken>[http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1061002.html Turkmenistan reduces CIS ties to "Associate Member"], Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 29 August 2005.</ref> and a member in the [[Organization:Economic Cooperation Organization|Economic Cooperation Organization]]; it has not sought closer integration in any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations.
* In 2008, [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]] notified the CIS executive bodies of its decision to leave the regional organization,<ref name=BBC>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7560100.stm Georgian parliament votes to withdraw from CIS] on BBC News, 14 August 2008.</ref><ref name=georgia>[http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=36&info_id=7526 Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia on Georgia's withdrawal from CIS] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903225356/http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=36&info_id=7526 |date=September 3, 2008 }}, 18 August 2008.</ref> and according to the CIS Charter (sec. 1, art. 9) this decision went into force 12 months after the notification date.<ref name=charter>[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060720174729/http://www.therussiasite.org/legal/laws/CIScharter.html CIS Charter], 22 January 1993 ('''unofficial English translation''').</ref>

=== Commonwealth of Independent States ===
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 10 former Soviet Republics that differ in their membership status. As of December 2010, 9 countries have ratified the CIS charter and are full CIS members (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), one country (Turkmenistan) is an associate member and two countries (Georgia, Ukraine) left the organization in 2009 and in 2018. In 2014, Ukraine declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal from the organization.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-cis-idUSBREA2I17F20140319 |title=Ukraine Says It Could Quit Russia-Led Bloc |agency=Reuters |date=March 19, 2014 |work=Reuters |access-date=Jan 14, 2015}}</ref>

In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create a free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. On October 19, 2011, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine signed a free trade agreement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/cis_putin_free-trade_zone/24364420.html |title=Most CIS Countries Sign Up To Free-Trade Zone |author=RFE/RL |date=Oct 19, 2011 |publisher=RFE/RL |access-date=Jan 14, 2015}}</ref> Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013.{{cn|date=May 2022}}

=== Eurasian Economic Community ===
[[File:Commonwealth of Independent States EAEC vs GUAM.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|{{legend|#FFFFD0|EAEC members}}{{legend|#F8A20C|GUAM members}}{{legend|#3CE67B|Other CIS members}}]]
{{main|Social:Eurasian Economic Community}}
The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CIS Customs Union, was established by {{wipe|Russia}}, {{wipe|Belarus}}, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. {{wipe|Ukraine}} and Moldova have observer status in the community; however, Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20051110/42053167.html |title=Working group discusses Uzbekistan's accession to EurAsEC |author=Sputnik |date=10 November 2005 |work=rian.ru |access-date=2 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501224247/http://en.rian.ru/russia/20051110/42053167.html |archive-date=May 1, 2013 }}</ref> when the process of merging Central Asian Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistan subsequently suspended its membership in 2008.<ref name=suspension>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/world/20081112/118264022.html |title=Uzbekistan suspends Eurasec membership, Moscow unruffled |author=Sputnik |date=12 November 2008 |work=rian.ru |access-date=2 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625030620/http://en.rian.ru/world/20081112/118264022.html |archive-date=June 25, 2013 }}</ref>

On 10 October 2014 an agreement on the termination of the Eurasian Economic Community was signed in [[Place:Minsk|Minsk]] after a session of the Interstate Council of the EAEC. The Eurasian Economic Community was terminated from 1 January 2015 in connection with the launch of the [[Finance:Eurasian Economic Union|Eurasian Economic Union]].{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

=== Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia ===
[[File:Europe economical bloc.PNG|thumb|right|upright=2.05|Economical integration [[Organization:Trade bloc|blocs]] in Post-Soviet area: EU, EFTA, CEFTA and Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia]]
{{wipe|Russia}}, {{wipe|Belarus}}, Kazakhstan created a customs union that entered into force in July 2010. {{wipe|Ukraine}}, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan indicated interest in joining at the time.<ref>[http://en.rian.ru/world/20100706/159703796.html RIA Novosti report, 6 July 2010, "Customs Union of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan to become fully operational"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927232840/http://en.rian.ru/world/20100706/159703796.html |date=September 27, 2010 }}, retrieved 22 December 2010</ref><ref>[http://en.rian.ru/world/20101126/161514325.html RIA Novosti report, 26 November 2010, "Ukraine eyes customs union with Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224012251/http://en.rian.ru/world/20101126/161514325.html |date=December 24, 2010 }}, retrieved 22 December 2010</ref> Russia has been eager for [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], Moldova and Ukraine to join the custom union instead of the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], and the Moldovan break-away state of Transnistria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]] announced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in {{wipe|Ukraine}} led to the Revolution of Dignity after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU [[Organization:Eastern Partnership|Eastern Partnership]] in favor of the union. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU in favor of the union.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/moldova-gagauz-referendum-counting/25251251.html|title=Gagauzia Voters Reject Closer EU Ties For Moldova|work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref>

On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus established the Single Economic Space which ensures the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital and labour, and to establish coherent industrial, transport, energy and agricultural policies.<ref name="Glazyev">[http://www.ukrinform.ua/eng/news/ukraines_association_with_eu_rules_out_participation_in_customs_union___putin_aide_305195 Ukraine cannot get observer status at Eurasian Econ Union due to Association Agreement with EU, Russia], Interfax-Ukraine (14 June 2013)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cistranfinance.com/news/belarus-eases-current-account-deficit-with-customs-union-common-economic-space/360/ |title=Belarus eases current account deficit with Customs Union, Common Economic Space |last1=Barron |first1=Lisa |publisher=Cistran Finance |date=1 October 2013 |access-date=25 October 2013}}</ref> The agreement included a roadmap for future integration and established the [[Finance:Eurasian Economic Commission|Eurasian Economic Commission]] (modelled on the European Commission).<ref name="tut.by">{{cite news |script-title=ru:Евразийские комиссары получат статус федеральных министров |url=http://news.tut.by/politics/259307.html |newspaper=Tut.By |language=ru |date=17 November 2011 |access-date=19 November 2011}}</ref> The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for the Eurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space and the Eurasian Economic Union.<ref name="Glazyev" />

=== Eurasian Economic Union ===
[[File:CIS-Eurasian Economic Union.png|upright=0.9|thumb|{{legend|#FFFFD0|EAEU members}}{{legend|#3CE67B|Acceding EAEU Members}}{{legend|#FFD0D0|Other CIS Members}}]]
The [[Finance:Eurasian Economic Union|Eurasian Economic Union]] is an [[Finance:Economic union|economic union]] of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of the EAEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of {{wipe|Belarus}}, Kazakhstan and {{wipe|Russia}}, and came into force on 1 January 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/connect/bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B5.docx?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1 |title=Договор о Евразийском экономическом союзе |access-date=2015-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201013526/http://economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/connect/bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B5.docx?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1 |archive-date=2017-12-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Treaties aiming for [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]'s and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.customs-code.ru/pravovbaza/18429-dogovor-arm|title=ДОГОВОР О ПРИСОЕДИНЕНИИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ АРМЕНИЯ К ДОГОВОРУ О ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОМ СОЮЗЕ ОТ 29 МАЯ 2014 ГОДА (Минск, 10 октября 2014 года)|author=Дмитрий|work=customs-code.ru|access-date=2 December 2015|archive-date=25 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225011034/http://www.customs-code.ru/pravovbaza/18429-dogovor-arm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty will not come into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified,<ref name=kyrsign>{{cite web|url=http://www.armradio.am/en/2014/12/23/finalization-of-ratification-procedures-on-armenias-accession-to-eeu-to-be-declared-in-moscow-today/|title=Finalization of ratification procedures on Armenia's accession to EAEU to be declared in Moscow today|work=Public Radio of Armenia|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> it will participate in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.<ref name=WB>{{cite news|title=Kyrgyzstan, Armenia officially enter Eurasian Economic Union|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/151539/kyrgyzstan-armenia-officially-enter-eurasian-economic-union|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=World Bulletin|date=24 December 2014|quote=Signed agreement opens up new possibilities for Kyrgyzstan and Armenia, starting from 1st January 2015}}</ref><ref name=LN>{{cite news|title=Putin said the accession of Kyrgyzstan to the EAEC|url=http://lifenews.ru/news/147572|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=Life News|date=23 December 2014|language=ru|quote=Kyrgyzstan is among the member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEC). Kyrgyzstan will participate in the governing bodies of the EAEC since the start of the Union – from 1 January 2015.}}</ref><ref name=DW>{{cite news|title=EAEC: stillborn union?|url=http://www.dw.de/%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%8D%D1%81-%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7/a-18148811|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=Deutsche Welle|language=ru|quote=Eurasian Economic Union added December 23 Armenia and Kyrgyzstan.}}</ref><ref name=FT>{{cite news|last1=Farchy|first1=Jack|title=Eurasian unity under strain even as bloc expands|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/b08c2e4e-8ab2-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3MvV5Evn1|access-date=26 December 2014|newspaper=The Financial Times|date=23 December 2014|quote=Kyrgyzstan on Tuesday a signed a treaty to join the Eurasian Economic Union, expanding the membership of Moscow-led project to five even as its unity is strained by the market turmoil gripping Russia.}}</ref><ref name=TT>{{cite news|title=Eurasian Economic Union to Launch on January 1|url=http://www.thetrumpet.com/article/12307.19.0.0/eurasian-economic-union-to-launch-on-january-1|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=The Trumpet|date=24 December 2014|quote=Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan agreed to a January 1 inauguration.}}</ref> Moldova and Tajikistan are prospective members.

=== Collective Security Treaty Organization ===
[[File:Commonwealth of Independent States CSTO vs GUAM.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|{{legend|#FFFFD0|CSTO members}}{{legend|#F8A20C|GUAM members}}{{legend|#3CE67B|Other CIS members}}]]
Seven CIS member states, namely {{wipe|Russia}}, {{wipe|Belarus}}, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005, it withdrew from GUAM and joined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspended its membership in the CSTO.<ref>{{cite news|title=Uzbekistan Suspends Its Membership in CSTO|url=http://www.satrapia.com/news/article/uzbekistan-suspends-its-membership-in-csto/|access-date=29 June 2012|newspaper=The Gazette of Central Asia|date=29 June 2012}}</ref>

=== North Atlantic Treaty Organization ===
[[File:Nato-csto.svg|thumb|right|upright=2.75|NATO/CSTO]]
Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Georgia, where both public opinion and the ruling government favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogue program with NATO. Ukraine also declared joining NATO as its geopolitical goal once again in 2017 (the first time being right after the Orange Revolution and in the beginning of presidency of Viktor Yushchenko), after the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych, during which the government officially declared neutrality and ceased to seek NATO membership.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2017/06/8/7146297/|title=Рада зробила пріоритетом для України вступ до НАТО|last=Kizilov|first=Yevhen|date=8 June 2017|newspaper=Ukrayinska Pravda|access-date=14 February 2018|language=uk|trans-title=Verkhovna Rada made joining NATO a priority for Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unian.info/politics/2333875-poroshenko-eu-nato-membership-remains-ukraines-strategic-goal-not-prospect-of-2018.html|title=Poroshenko: EU, NATO membership remains Ukraine's strategic goal, not prospect of 2018|date=6 January 2018|publisher=UNIAN|access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref>

Other states in the Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan program include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

=== GUAM ===
Four member states, namely [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]], {{wipe|Ukraine}}, [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] and Moldova, established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

=== Union State ===
[[File:Commonwealth of Independent States Union of Russia and Belarus.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|{{legend|#FFFFD0|Members of the Union}}{{legend|#3CE67B|CIS members who have shown interest in becoming members of the Union}}{{legend|#FFD0D0|Other CIS members}}]]
{{main|Organization:Union State}}
The Union State of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name ''Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus'', before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the rouble as a common currency.

== Other regional organizations ==

=== Economic Cooperation Organization ===
{{main|Organization:Economic Cooperation Organization}}
[[File:ECO CDC Map.png|upright=0.9|right|thumb|
{{legend|#eaa500|Community of Democratic Choice}}
{{legend|#399e39|Economic Cooperation Organization}}
]]

The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]], Iran and {{wipe|Pakistan}} but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet republics: [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

===Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations===
{{main|Organization:Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations}}
The post-Soviet disputed states of [[Place:Abkhazia|Abkhazia]], [[Place:Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]], [[Place:South Ossetia|South Ossetia]], and Transnistria are all members of the [[Organization:Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations|Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]] which aims to forge closer integration.

=== Community of Democratic Choice ===
The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania and North Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], Bulgaria, and {{wipe|Poland}}.

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic countries also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.

=== Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ===
[[File:SCO (orthographic projection).svg|upright=0.9|right|thumb|Shanghai Cooperation Organisation:
{{legend|Green|Member state}}
{{legend|#000081|Observer state}}
{{legend|Purple|Dialogue partner}}
{{legend|#00a0aa|Applicants for observer status}}
]]
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues such as border
demarcation, terrorism and energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2015/545718/EPRS_ATA(2015)545718_REV1_EN.pdf|title=Regional organisations in the post-Soviet space|website=Europarl1.europa.eu|access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref>

===Economic cooperation organizations===
* [[Organization:Central European Free Trade Agreement|Central European Free Trade Agreement]] (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post-Soviet countries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countries that left CEFTA when joining the European Union; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similar to what [[Organization:European Free Trade Association|European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) provides in Western Europe for non EU-members; this alliance an economical organization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that do not want to participate in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even if Moldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participates to the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but cannot join the EU because of incompatibility with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistria) but can still benefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU).
* Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Turkey, Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Armenia (an economic organisation closely related to the SCO but more focused regionally to include also Armenia; it also aims for the harmonious development of democracy for increasing the commerce in South-East Europe and includes some EU members, so it cannot be a regional free-trade union).
* The [[Social:European Union|European Union]] (EU) with the three Baltic countries that were the first ones to declare independence from the former USSR have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR (it includes also now some post-communist countries in [[Place:Central Europe|Central Europe]], that have left CEFTA when entering the EU : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Slovenia).

=== Political integration and security alliances ===
* [[Place:Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe|Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]] (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA, but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members); this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers at Western European Union (WEU).
* The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Central European countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEU membership because they follow the Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and Defence Policy policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members).
* The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflict and political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficiently for their political integration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still do not have full sovereignty in this domain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). They still need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of other organizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However a more limited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger [[Organization:Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE).
* The only exception is Belarus (whose post-soviet democratic transition did not occur) that still rejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countries in Europe other than Russia (which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened in almost all domains).

====Organizations in other domains====
* Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, but focuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus on trade).
* Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP).
* [[Place:Central European Initiative|Central European Initiative]] (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central and South-Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Eastern European countries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economic development and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regional organization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almost stalled, as it is the only country of the former Communist bloc country that balances in favor of stronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO; however Belarus remains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group led by Russia and China).
* Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (also non post-soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in their maintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their political development); however this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, but reaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in the CEI.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* [[Organization:Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations|Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]]

===Other organizations===
Apart from above, the former Soviet republics also hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:
<!-- (???) Baltic Basketball League-->
* FIBA
* FIFA
* [[Organization:International Ice Hockey Federation|International Ice Hockey Federation]]
* International Olympic Committee
* International Paralympic Committee
* Kontinental Hockey League (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Russia)
* [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]]
* [[Organization:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]]
* [[Organization:World Trade Organization|World Trade Organization]]

==Politics==
Regarding [[Social:Political freedom|political freedom]] in the former Soviet republics, [[Organization:Freedom House|Freedom House]]'s 2021 report listed the following:
* Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as "free" countries.
* [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Moldova, and {{wipe|Ukraine}} were listed as "partly free".
* [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], {{wipe|Belarus}}, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, {{wipe|Russia}}, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were listed as "not free".

Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2022 recorded the following as regards press freedom:<ref>{{cite web|title=2020 World Press Freedom Index {{!}} Reporters Without Borders|url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking|access-date=2021-06-12|website=Rsf.org|language=en}}</ref>
* Estonia — "Good situation"
* Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova — "Satisfactory situation"
* [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Kyrgyzstan, {{wipe|Ukraine}} — "Problematic situation"
* Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan — "Difficult situation"
* [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], {{wipe|Belarus}}, {{wipe|Russia}}, Turkmenistan — "Very serious situation"

It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019,<ref>{{cite web|date=2020-03-16|title=Managed leadership succession in Kazakhstan: A model for gradual departure?|url=https://www.fiia.fi/julkaisu/managed-leadership-succession-in-kazakhstan|access-date=2021-08-10|website=Fiia.fi|language=fi}}</ref> and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Higgins|first=Andrew|date=2018-04-02|title=As Authoritarianism Spreads, Uzbekistan Goes the Other Way|language=en-US|newspaper={{wipe|The New York Times}}|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/01/world/asia/uzbekistan-reform.html|access-date=2021-08-10|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kyrgyzstan: between democratisation and authoritarianism|url=http://www.gis-reseau-asie.org/en/kyrgyzstan-between-democratisation-and-authoritarianism|access-date=2021-08-10|website=Gis-reseau-asie.org|language=en}}</ref> Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself.<ref>{{cite web|last=agencies|first=Staff and|date=2006-12-21|title=The personality cult of Turkmenbashi|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/21/1|access-date=2021-08-10|newspaper={{wipe|The Guardian}}|language=en}}</ref> His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, has maintained a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sattarov|first=Rafael|title=Turkmen Leader's Personality Cult Goes Viral|url=https://carnegie.ru/commentary/77733|access-date=2021-08-10|website=Carnegie.ru|language=en}}</ref>

The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forumkz.addr.com/2004en/en_forum_09_08_04.htm |title=Kazakhstan flirts with dynastic succession Dariga Nazarbayeva has led a charmed life. / Kazakhstan's Democratic Forces Forum |access-date=2005-04-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050312151938/http://forumkz.addr.com/2004en/en_forum_09_08_04.htm |archive-date=2005-03-12 }}</ref> The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

===Separatist conflicts===

Economic, political, national, military, and social problems have all been factors in [[Social:Separatism|separatism]] in the post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/PsgeTMR.pdf|title=National Construction, Territorial Separatism and Post-Soviet Geopolitics: The Example of the Transdniester Moldovan Republic|website=Colorado.edu|access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref> Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

====Current self-declared states====
{| class="sortable wikitable"  style="text-align:right; width:100%;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|Region
!rowspan=2|Country name
!rowspan=2|{{longitem|Coat of arms}}
!rowspan=2|Flag
!rowspan=2|Capital
!rowspan=2|Independence
!rowspan=2|Recognition
!colspan=2|Area<ref name="auto1"/>
!rowspan=2|Population
!colspan=2|Density
|-
!km<sup>2</sup>
!mi<sup>2</sup>
!p/km<sup>2</sup>
!p/mi<sup>2</sup>
|-
|rowspan=3 style="background:#ffc600" |
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|[[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]
|align=center|'''Transnistria'''<br />{{small|(Transnistrian Moldavian Republic)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Transnistria.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|[[File:Flag of Transnistria (state).svg|75x75px]]
|align=center|Tiraspol
|align=center|25 August 1991<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Moldova}})}}
| rowspan="1"  style="text-align:center; background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c;"|''Not recognised''
|{{convert|4,163|km2|0|disp=table}}
|306,000
|{{convert|{{#expr: 306000/4163 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''Donetsk'''<br />{{small|(Donetsk People's Republic)}}
|align=center|[[File:Official Donetsk People's Republic coat of arms.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Donetsk People's Republic|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Donetsk
|align=center|12 May 2014<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Ukraine}})}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Limited
|{{convert|7,853|km2|0|disp=table}}
|2,302,444
|{{convert|{{#expr: 2302444/7853 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''Luhansk'''<br />{{small|(Luhansk People's Republic)}}
|align=center|[[File:COA LPR oct 2014.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Luhansk People's Republic|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Luhansk
|align=center|12 May 2014<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Ukraine}})}}
|{{convert|8,377|km2|0|disp=table}}
|1,464,039
|{{convert|{{#expr: 1464039/8377 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|rowspan=3 style="background:#f18cbf" |
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|[[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]
|align=center|'''[[Place:Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]]'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Artsakh)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Artsakh.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Artsakh|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Stepanakert|Stepanakert]]
|align=center|10 December 1991<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Azerbaijan}})}}
| rowspan="1"  style="text-align:center; background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c;"|''Not recognised''
|{{convert|11,458|km2|0|disp=table}}
|150,932
|{{convert|{{#expr: 150932/11458 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''[[Place:South Ossetia|South Ossetia]]'''<br />{{small|(Republic of South Ossetia –<br />the State of Alania)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of South Ossetia.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|South Ossetia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Tskhinval
|align=center|21 December 1991<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia|1990}})}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Limited
|{{convert|3,900|km2|0|disp=table}}
|53,532
|{{convert|{{#expr: 53532/3900 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''[[Place:Abkhazia|Abkhazia]]'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Abkhazia)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Abkhazia|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Sukhumi|Sukhumi]]
|align=center|23 July 1992<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia|1990}})}}
|{{convert|8,660|km2|0|disp=table}}
|254,246
|{{convert|{{#expr: 254246/8660 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|}
* {{flag|Transnistria|state}}, which is ''de facto'' independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, due to its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the presence of Russian forces in Transnistria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3641826.stm | work=BBC News | title=Trans-Dniester profile | date=26 December 2011}}</ref>
* {{flag|Donetsk People's Republic}} and {{flag|Luhansk People's Republic}}, states which declared independence from {{wipe|Ukraine}} in 2014 and were recognized by {{wipe|Russia}} on 22 February 2022.
* {{flag|Republic of Artsakh}}, which is ''de facto'' independent from Azerbaijan. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into a war which lasted until a ceasefire in 1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have continued since then.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3658938.stm | work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Nagorno-Karabakh | date=10 January 2012}}</ref>
* {{flag|South Ossetia}}, which is ''de facto'' independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3797729.stm | work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: South Ossetia | date=25 April 2012}}</ref>
* {{flag|Abkhazia}}, which is ''de facto'' independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm | work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Abkhazia | date=12 March 2012}}</ref>

====Former self-declared states====
{| class="sortable wikitable"  style="text-align:right; width:100%;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|Region
!rowspan=2|Country name
!rowspan=2|{{longitem|Coat of arms}}
!rowspan=2|Flag
!rowspan=2|Capital
!rowspan=2|Independence
!rowspan=2|Fate
!colspan=2|Area<ref name="auto1"/>
!rowspan=2|Population
!colspan=2|Density
|-
!km<sup>2</sup>
!mi<sup>2</sup>
!p/km<sup>2</sup>
!p/mi<sup>2</sup>
|-
|rowspan=2 style="background:#ffc600" |
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|[[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]
|align=center|'''Gagauzia'''<br />{{small|(Gagauz Republic)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coats of arms of None.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Gagauz people.svg|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Comrat
|align=center|19 August 1990<br />{{small|(from {{flagicon image|Flag of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990).svg}}&nbsp;[[Place:Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic|SSR Moldova]])}}
|align=center|{{small|''Reincorporated into Moldova<br />as an autonomy in 1994''}}
|{{convert|1,848|km2|0|disp=table}}
|134,132
|{{convert|{{#expr: 134132/1848 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''Crimea'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Crimea)}}
|align=center|[[File:Emblem of Crimea.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Crimea|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Simferopol
|align=center|17 March 2014<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Ukraine}})}}
|align=center|{{small|''Joined Russia after a<br />referendum on the next day''}}
|{{convert|26,100|km2|0|disp=table}}
|1,913,731
|{{convert|{{#expr: 1913731/26100 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|style="background:#688856" |
|style="text-align:center;"|[[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]
|align=center|'''Tatarstan'''<br />{{small|(Republic of Tatarstan)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of Arms of Tatarstan.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Tatarstan|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Kazan
|align=center|21 March 1992<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Russia|1991}})}}
|align=center|{{small|''Reincorporated into Russia<br />after peaceful negotiations in 1994''}} 
|{{convert|68,000|km2|0|disp=table}}
|3,786,488
|{{convert|{{#expr: 3786488/68000 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|rowspan=2 style="background:#f18cbf" |
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|[[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]
|align=center|'''[[Place:Chechen Republic of Ichkeria|Chechnya]]'''<br />{{small|(Chechen Republic of Ichkeria)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coat of Arms of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagdeco|Chechen Republic of Ichkeria|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|[[Place:Grozny|Grozny]]
|align=center|8 June 1991<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Russian SFSR|name=Russian SFSR}})}}
|align=center|{{small|''Disestablished in 2000<br />after the Second Chechen War''}}
|{{convert|15,300|km2|0|disp=table}}
|1,103,686
|{{convert|{{#expr: 1103686/15300 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|-
|align=center|'''Talysh-Mughan'''<br />{{small|(Толъш-Мъғонә Мохтарә Республикә)}}
|align=center|[[File:Coats of arms of None.svg|60x60px]]
|align=center|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Talysh.svg|size=75px|text=none}}
|align=center|Lankaran
|align=center|June 1993<br />{{small|(from {{flag|Azerbaijan}})}}
|align=center|{{small|''Reincorporated into Azerbaijan in August 1993''}}
|{{convert|7465|km2|0|disp=table}}
|960,000
|{{convert|{{#expr: 960000/7465 round 2}}|/km2|1|disp=table}}
|}
* {{flagicon|Gagauzia|1990}} Gagauz Republic, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", independent of Moldova but still within the [[Place:Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], on 19 August 1990, but was reintegrated into Moldova as an autonomous region on 23 December 1994.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Territorial autonomy in Gagauzia|first1=Jeff|last1=Chinn|first2=Steven|last2=Roper|journal=Nationalities Papers|volume=26|number=1|year=1998|quote=But on 19 August 1990, the Gagauz elite, led by President Stepan Topal and Supreme Soviet Chairperson Mihail Kendighelean, quickly took the next step, declaring Gagauzia to be independent of Moldova and subject only to central Soviet authority|doi=10.1080/00905999808408552|pages=87–101|s2cid=154359743 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://leader.viitorul.org/public/513/en/Conflicttransform%20Neukirch.pdf|title=Autonomy And Conflict Transformation: The Case Of The Gagauz Territorial Autonomy In The Republic Of Moldova|first=Claus|last=Neukirch|publisher=European Centre for Minority Issues|quote=On 12 November 1989, a "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" was proclaimed by an assembly in Comrat ... In reaction to the Moldovan declaration of sovereignty, on 19 August 1990 the Gagauz leadership proclaimed a "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", which would be independent from Moldova, but part of the Soviet Union ... on 23 December 1994 the Moldovan Parliament passed the "Law on the Special Juridical Status of Gagauzia (Gagauz-Yeri)"|access-date=2014-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014231818/http://leader.viitorul.org/public/513/en/Conflicttransform%20Neukirch.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Opportunity structures and group building processes: An institutional analysis of the secession processes in Pridnestrovie and Gagauzia between 1989 and 1991|journal=Soviet and Communist Studies|first=Dareg|last=Zabarah|year=2012|volume=45|number=1–2|quote=According to the first point of its declaration, the Gagauz Republic "is a sovereign, socialist, soviet and multinational state}}</ref>
* {{flag|Tatarstan}}, declared itself to be a sovereign state after a referendum on 21 March 1992. Negotiations with Russia led to the signing of a treaty in 1994 which ended Tatarstan's de facto independence, but reserved significant autonomy for the Tatarstan government. In 2002 a new constitution was enacted for Tatarstan which removed the prior constitution's declaration that Tatarstan was a sovereign state.
* {{flag|Republic of Crimea (country)|name=Republic of Crimea}}. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when {{wipe|Russia}}n special forces and pro-Russian militias occupied the region.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/20/world/europe/crimea.html|title=Ukraine Plans to Withdraw Troops From Russia-Occupied Crimea|date=19 March 2014|access-date=6 August 2014|first1=David|last1=Herszenhorn|first2=Andrew|last2=Kramer|newspaper={{wipe|New York Times}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Kristina Zakurdaeva|author2=Mikhail Maglov|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/crimea-how-eu-firms-sidestepping-sanctions-making-money-on-peninsula/30303687.html|title=The Crimea Circumvention: How EU Firms Are Sidestepping Sanctions And Making Money On The Peninsula|date=3 December 2019|access-date=15 November 2020|publisher=Current Time TV}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Carl Schreck|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/from-not-us-to-why-hide-it-how-russia-denied-its-crimea-invasion-then-admitted-it/29791806.html|title=From 'Not Us' To 'Why Hide It?': How Russia Denied Its Crimea Invasion, Then Admitted It|date=26 February 2019|access-date=15 November 2020|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10772235/Vladimir-Putin-in-TV-denial-that-Russian-special-forces-are-in-eastern-Ukraine.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417152044/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10772235/Vladimir-Putin-in-TV-denial-that-Russian-special-forces-are-in-eastern-Ukraine.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 17, 2014|title=Vladimir Putin in TV denial that Russian special forces are in eastern Ukraine|date=17 April 2014|access-date=13 August 2014|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1230212/russian-special-forces-storm-crimea-base|title=Russian Special Forces Storm Crimea Base|date=23 March 2014|access-date=13 August 2014|publisher=Sky News}}</ref> In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ukraine-pm-rejects-crimea-referendum-vows-to-defend-country-1.2561973|title=Ukraine PM rejects Crimea referendum, vows to defend country|date=6 March 2014|access-date=6 August 2014|publisher=CBC News}}</ref> and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory.
* {{flag|Chechen Republic of Ichkeria}}, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. Russia claims that the situation in Chechnya has normalised.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/2565049.stm | work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Chechnya | date=22 November 2011}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Talysh.svg|size=23x15px|text=none}} Talysh-Mughan, declared independence from Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2733283.stm|title=Azerbaijan in a stir over political prisoner|date=6 February 2003|access-date=21 February 2022|website=News.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

===Civil wars===
Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:
* The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
* The Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

===Colour revolutions===
Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "colour revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.
* The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the resignation of Eduard Shevardnadze.
* The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko and toppling the pro-Russian leader Viktor Yanukovych.
* The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev.
* The Velvet Revolution in Armenia, leading to the resignation of Serzh Sargsyan.

===Russian population in post-Soviet states===
There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country.<ref>Robert Greenall, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia], BBC News, 23 November 2005.</ref> While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept [[Social:Russian language|Russian]] as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic states, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language.

===Religion===
While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp."<ref>{{Cite journal
  | last = Naumkin
  | first = Vitaly
  | title = Islam in the States of the Former USSR
  | journal = Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
  | volume = 524
  | pages = 131–142
  | date = November 1992
  | doi = 10.1177/0002716292524001011
  | s2cid = 145812443
 }}</ref>

The [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]n states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] in the [[Place:Transcaucasia|Southern Caucasus]] are [[Religion:Muslim|Muslim]], except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic countries are historically Western Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although the majority of what has been the traditionally Protestant population there (in Estonia and northern Latvia) is now relatively irreligious. The dominant religion in the other former Soviet countries ([[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], {{wipe|Belarus}}, [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Moldova, {{wipe|Russia}}, and {{wipe|Ukraine}}) is Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In most countries, religiosity has increased since the Soviet collapse.

===LGBT rights===
{{main|LGBT rights in the Post-Soviet states}}LGBT people may encounter difficulties not shared by non-LGBT residents. In Transnistria homosexuality is illegal. In some other regions, such as Russia and Ukraine, homosexual actions are legal, but there is still discrimination and bias towards the gay community.

=== Environment ===
The Soviet Union inherited environmental problems from the pre-Revolutionary era that it blamed on the failings and evils of capitalism.<ref name=":8" /> The Soviet Union promoted environmental sentiments; it had a constitutional clause on environmental protection and promoted the idea that, by ending capitalism, environmental problems would cease to arise.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=Valerie M.|last2=Orlova|first2=Anna O.|date=2001|title=Soviet and Post-Soviet Environmental Management: Lessons from a Case Study on Lead Pollution|journal=Ambio|volume=30|issue=2|pages=104–111|jstor=4315114|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-30.2.104|pmid=11374307|s2cid=27761136}}</ref> Some environmental strides were made, such as the banning of lead-based paint and leaded gasoline in the 20th century.<ref name=":1" /> However, the prioritization of industrial production over environmental protection meant that many environmental issues were left to post-Soviet institutions, particularly air and water pollution in the Northern regions where industrialism was heaviest.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/09644010410001685227|title = Environmental Pasts/Environmental Futures in Post-Socialist Europe|journal = Environmental Politics|volume = 13|pages = 237–265|year = 2004|last1 = Pavlínek|first1 = Petr|last2 = Pickles|first2 = John|s2cid = 155024373}}</ref> The Northern countries of Central Europe, including Poland, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia formed what is referred to as the "black triangle" due to their heavy use of [[Chemistry:Lignite|brown coal]] for energy.<ref name=":3" /> Environmental degradation in the former Soviet Union is attributed to rapid industrialization and a lack of institutions that were able to curb pollution levels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernstedt|first=Kris|date=July 2002|title=Environmental Protection in the Russian Federation: Lessons and Opportunities|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management|volume=45|issue=4|pages=493–516|doi=10.1080/09640560220143521|s2cid=154142478|issn=0964-0568}}</ref> Many republics of the Soviet Union experienced soil degradation due to collective farming<ref name=":3" /> In the 1970s, a Soviet study revealed vast technological inefficiencies in the USSR: compared to the West, the USSR created double the amount of pollutants for each product produced, and quadruple the amount of pollution for each car.<ref name=":8" /> The Soviet regime also withheld information regarding the environmental problems facing them, and when these problems became evident to the public, authorities continued to attribute them to capitalism.<ref name=":8" /> The Chernobyl disaster was a turning point in which the Soviets had to take responsibility for a huge environmental disaster amid pressures to disclose information regarding its causes and consequences, and this led to a broader discussion about the state of the environment as well as to concerns about nuclear energy.<ref name=":8" /> As general unrest grew in the final years of the Soviet Union, the public began to demand environmental reform as part of their resistance to Communism. Many citizens wanted to capitalize on the political turnover to achieve an environmentalist agenda.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Coumel|first1=Laurent|last2=Elie|first2=Marc|date=2013-01-01|title=A Belated and Tragic Ecological Revolution: Nature, Disasters, and Green Activists in the Soviet Union and the Post-Soviet States, 1960s–2010s*|journal=The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review|volume=40|issue=2|pages=157–165|doi=10.1163/18763324-04002005|issn=1075-1262}}</ref> There was a push away from coal and towards cleaner forms of energy in the 1980s,<ref name=":3" /> and 1986–1987 saw the first wave of environmental protests.<ref name=":8" /> Village Prose literature by authors such as Valentin Rasputin fostered an environmentalist sentiment.<ref name=":8" /> The Soviet "Green Front" was a populist environmental movement that had five subgroups: the Social-Ecological Union which promoted environmental solutions based in ecological practice, the Ecological Union which advocated for greater monitoring of pollution, the Ecological Foundation that sought to create funds through pollution taxes, the Ecological Society of the Soviet Union that called for a return to the Russian way of life that was closely connected to nature, and the All-Union Movement of Greens which was a culminating body of the four preceding groups.<ref name=":8" /> Russian oil-drilling and the military were among the things they took issue with.<ref name=":8" /> Critics of the Green Front opposed their effects on the chemical industry and claimed that it led to reduced commercial product availability of items such as soap, which was in very short supply in the late 1980s, and restricted access to pharmaceutical goods.<ref name=":8" />

It was expected that the transition to post-Soviet society would bring about environmental change from both democratic governments and NGOs, but the dissolution of the Soviet Union had both positive and negative effects on the environment. Transition brought about numerous changes that had both positive and negative environmental effects. The abandonment of croplands following dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the creation of carbon sinks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schierhorn|first1=Florian|last2=Müller|first2=Daniel|last3=Beringer|first3=Tim|last4=Prishchepov|first4=Alexander V.|last5=Kuemmerle|first5=Tobias|last6=Balmann|first6=Alfons|date=2013-12-01|title=Post-Soviet cropland abandonment and carbon sequestration in European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume=27|issue=4|pages=1175–1185|doi=10.1002/2013GB004654|bibcode=2013GBioC..27.1175S|s2cid=53637765 |issn=1944-9224|url=https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_18950 }}</ref> Industrial activity drastically decreased, which reduced air pollution even as the economy took an upturn.<ref name=":3" /> However, the introduction of a capitalist market caused new environmental problems: the increase in privately owned cars and the infrastructure changes to accommodate them, the increase in consumerism with no waste management to handle its byproducts, and the poorly planned construction of retail sites.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/10889388.1999.10641120|title = Environmental Change and Post-Communist Transformations in the Czech Republic and Slovakia|journal = Post-Soviet Geography and Economics|volume = 40|issue = 5|pages = 354–382|year = 1999|last1 = Pavlínek|first1 = Petr|last2 = Pickles|first2 = John}}</ref> Environmental clean-up efforts by post-Soviet regimes included institutional changes through the creation of or reformation of environmental agencies, and legislative changes through the introduction of new environmental regulations and their enforcement.<ref name=":3" /> However, some contend that the efficacy of these reforms was curtailed by economic troubles in the 1990s.<ref name=":3" /> New environmental standards were sometimes used by governments to lower preexisting ones, and many of the post-Soviet initiatives have been criticized as "neoliberal" for their basis in free market principles and belief that the market would correct for environmental problems.<ref name=":3" /> Technological innovation was generally directed towards "end-of-pipe" technologies, which deal with the clean-up of emissions and their byproducts rather than the reduction of emissions.<ref name=":5"/>

Nongovernmental environmental organizations did not exist under the Soviet Union.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/09644016.2010.508300|title = Environmental mobilisation and organisations in post-socialist Europe and the former Soviet Union|journal = Environmental Politics|volume = 19|issue = 5|pages = 689–707|year = 2010|last1 = Carmin|first1 = Joann|last2 = Fagan|first2 = Adam|s2cid = 144224257}}</ref> Rather, some republics had state and local institutions for environmental oversight where citizens could voice concerns, but open criticism of the state was prohibited.<ref name=":4" /> Conservation brigades, otherwise known as ''druzhiny'',<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Bowers |first1=Stephen |title=Soviet and Post-Soviet Environmental Problems |journal=Faculty Publications and Presentations (Liberty University) |date=1993 |s2cid=41347149 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c96b/33e27ba6bcce8f81a3acdc27d907beb22aee.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209123452/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c96b/33e27ba6bcce8f81a3acdc27d907beb22aee.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2018-12-09 }}</ref> engaged in preservationist and recreational outdoor activities.<ref name=":4" /> However, environmental damage and openings in political freedom in the 1980s led to greater grassroots activism.<ref name=":4" /> The Chernobyl disaster of 1986, its cover-up by national, republic and local government officials, and its environmental and health effects spurred many to action.<ref name=":4" /> General dissatisfaction with the socialist regime and a push for democratization took an environmental focus.<ref name=":4" /> As Soviet citizens became more comfortable with the Gorbachev-era ideals of glasnost and perestroika in the late 20th century, environmentalists became more outspoken in their demands, and radical splinter groups formed in the late 1980s.<ref name=":4" /> The opening of borders led to the spread of ideas and partnership with international environmental NGOs who were able to visit and converse with environmentalists of post-Soviet nations.<ref name=":4" /> The conservation state institutions from the Soviet era continued to exist into the post-Soviet era but experienced difficulty getting funding due to their connection with the socialist regime in national memory.<ref name=":4" /> New environmental NGOs had challenges receiving funding as well as organizing, and the NGOs that survived were not as influential on national decision-making as the state.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":7" /> Many NGOs expressed disappointment with the lack of substantial environmental change during times of political transformation.<ref name=":5" /> It has also been contended that environmental issues are of little importance to Russian citizens today.<ref name=":7" /> Many former-Soviet citizens abandoned their earlier interest in the environment after the achievement of independence, while continued demands for environmental reform were suppressed.

==== Russia ====
[[File:Nizhnehopersky Nature Park 008.JPG|thumb|Nizhnehopersky Nature Park]]
Russia has an expansive amount of land which contains a high amount of natural resources and biodiversity. Protected natural areas, or ''zapovedniki,'' were created under the Soviet Union.<ref name=":0" /> Soviet leaders attributed former pollution and environmental degradation in Russia to private enterprise and capitalism.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Henry|first1=Laura A.|last2=Douhovnikoff|first2=Vladimir|date=November 2008|title=Environmental Issues in Russia|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=33|issue=1|pages=437–460|doi=10.1146/annurev.environ.33.051007.082437| doi-access=free|issn=1543-5938}}</ref> However, environmental problems arose in Russia under the Soviets because industrialization was favored over environmentalism, and there was little discussion on how to properly use resources and they were depreciated.<ref name=":0" /> The task of environmental governance was distributed among 15 different ministries.<ref name=":0" /> There is controversy among academics as to whether environmental destruction under the Soviet Union can be attributed more to Marxist ideology or to the industrialization push.<ref name=":0" />

In 1988, the Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers formed the USSR Union Republic State Committee for Environmental Control, or the ''Goskompriroda''.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /> The intention of this institution was resource management and environmental testing and oversight.<ref name=":8" /> Eventually, however, the ''Goskompriroda'' was accused of holding "entrepreneurial interests," particularly related to nuclear power.<ref name=":8" /> The 1990s saw experiments in taxing pollution of various forms, though this was largely ineffective due to the low charge levels and inflation, as well as more areas of protected land, but there was difficulty overseeing these areas due to small budgets.<ref name=":0" /> In 1991, the Federal Act on the Protection of the Natural Environment was passed in the independent Russian Federation, and the ''Goskompriroda'' became the Ministry of the Environment, or the ''Minpriroda'', and developed sustainable development goals.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /> In 1996, Yeltsin demoted the Ministry of the Environment to the State Committee on Environmental Protection, and in 2000 Putin ended the State Committee on Environmental Protection and the Federal Forestry Service and tasked the Ministry of Natural Resources with their responsibilities.<ref name=":0" /> In 2001, to the ire of many environmental advocates, Russia passed a law that allowed the acceptance, treatment, and storage of nuclear fuel from other nations for profit.<ref name=":0" /> The Environmental Doctrine was passed in 2002, the Water Code was passed in 2006, and the Forest Code was passed in 2007, though these policies have been critiqued for the difficulty in enforcing them.<ref name=":0" /> Today, Russia has a low population density with most citizens gathered in the cities, so environmental degradation is concentrated in certain areas.<ref name=":0" /> Putin is criticized by environmental advocates for prioritizing economic gain over environmental protection, and there are high levels of greenhouse gas emissions and frequent oil spills.<ref name=":0" />

==== Ukraine ====
{{wipe|Ukraine}} is made up of a diverse landscape consisting of plains, temperate forest, and mountains, five densely populated cities, and agricultural land that makes up 70% of the country.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Nazarov|first1=Nikolai|last2=Cook|first2=Hadrian F.|last3=Woodgate|first3=Graham|date=September 2001|title=Environmental issues in the post-communist Ukraine|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=63|issue=1|pages=71–86|doi=10.1006/jema.2001.0460|pmid=11591031|issn=0301-4797}}</ref> Ukraine heavily increased industrial and agricultural production in the Soviet period, which had negative effects on the environment, as did the 1986 Chernobyl disaster.<ref name=":2" /> Many of these issues have not been addressed post-independence due to lack of funding. Since independence, Ukraine has experienced a decrease in agricultural and industrial productivity and an increase in diseases, birth abnormalities, and child mortality, claimed to have been caused at least in part from the Chernobyl disaster and from polluted water and air.<ref name=":2" /> The number of cars in Ukraine has increased post-independence.<ref name=":2" /> Sewage waste has increased, but there has been no increase in wastewater treatment facilities to accommodate it, diverting the waste into natural bodies of water; the Black and Azov seas have been polluted by wastewater, though this occurs less with the reduction of industry; agricultural runoff has led to decreased fish populations, particularly in the Azov Sea.<ref name=":2" /> The damming of the Dnipro for hydroelectric power caused flooding in local and residential areas, though the river has been recovering from contamination caused by the Chernobyl disaster.<ref name=":2" /> Radioactive waste remains from the Chernobyl accident, the uranium industry, mining, and industrial processing.<ref name=":2" /> There are numerous environmental agencies in Ukraine. In 1991, the Ukrainian Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) was formed. It manages the environment and its resources, but it has experienced decreased funding and staff since 1996.<ref name=":2" /> There is also the Ministry for Forestry, the State Committee on Geology and Natural Resource Use, the State Committee on Water Management, the State Committee on Land Use, the Health Ministry, the Road Traffic Inspectorate of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Committee on Hydrometeorology. Environmental education was also introduced into the school curriculum in the 1990s by the Ministry of Education.<ref name=":2" /> ''Zelenyi svit'', or "Green World," was a successful Ukrainian environmental organization whose mission was to hold the Ukrainian government accountable for their environmental failings, particularly the Chernobyl disaster, and to protect the Azov Sea through preventing construction of the Danube-Dnieper Canal.<ref name=":8" />

==== Central Asia ====
Proper water resource management is a significant environmental concern in the post-Soviet nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and the Karakalpakstan region, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=David R.|date=June 1995|title=Environmental Security and Shared Water Resources in Post-Soviet Central Asia|journal=Post-Soviet Geography|volume=36|issue=6|pages=351–370|doi=10.1080/10605851.1995.10640997|issn=1060-5851}}</ref> Central Asia has an arid climate with hot summers and cold winters.<ref name=":9" /> Once within the USSR, the Aral Sea Basin now crosses the geopolitical boundaries of these independent nations. Along with the Aral Sea Basin, Central Asia nations also extract freshwater from the Syr Darya, Amu Darya, and Zeravshan rivers.<ref name=":9" /> These rivers receive the snowmelt of surrounding mountains.<ref name=":9" /><br />Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the newly independent states kept their Soviet-era internal administrative structure but were unpracticed in cross-national natural resource management.<ref name=":9" /> This has led to conflict regarding proper water allocation to meet the agricultural, industrial, and consumer demands of these nations.<ref name=":9" /> Water quality degradation, diversion, and withdrawal has led to increased insecurity and conflict.<ref name=":9" />

Most of the water is used for irrigation of agriculture, with Uzbekistan the largest user of agricultural water.<ref name=":9" /> Uzbekistan has double the population of its fellow nations and uses 3/5 of regional water supplies.<ref name=":9" /> Together, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan use twice the amount of water for industrial activities used by Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.<ref name=":9" />

The Interstate Coordinating Commission for Water Resources was formed in 1991 to allocate water from the Syr Darya and Amu Darya but has had difficulty distributing water fairly among nations due to limited funding and physical infrastructure.<ref name=":9" /> This has led to conflict between the states.

To alleviate the stress on water resources in Central Asia, international organizations looking at the situation have advocated for creation of a river basin commission to represent each nation, equitably distribute water, and peacefully resolve conflicts.<ref name=":9" /> It has also been suggested that each nation take responsibility by limiting its downstream environmental effects through reducing agricultural runoff, informing fellow nations of proposed actions which may impact water quality and supply, and sharing data regarding these natural water sources.<ref name=":9" />

==== Baltic states ====
The three Baltic countries — Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania — were ''de facto'' part of the Soviet Union after WWII until they restored independence in 1991. Afterwards, they have had difficulty acquiring fuels and meeting their energy needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Salay|first1=Jürgen|last2=Fenhann|first2=Jörgen|last3=Jaanimägi|first3=Karl|last4=Kristoferson|first4=Lars|date=1993-11-01|title=Energy and Environment in the Baltic States|journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment|volume=18|issue=1|pages=169–216|doi=10.1146/annurev.eg.18.110193.001125| doi-access=free|issn=1056-3466}}</ref> For this reason, they were reliant on Russian oil, and did not have the capacity to acquire fuel from other producers, which had led to frequent fuel shortages.<ref name=":11" /> Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania primarily used fossil fuels for energy including imported gas, oil, and petroleum products.<ref name=":11" /> The Baltic states used fuels with high amounts of sulfur and pollutants, which has had a negative effect on the environment. Power plants constructed in the Baltic states under the USSR were inefficient, as they were designed to power the entire northwestern region of Soviet territory.<ref name=":11" /> During this time, environmental monitoring and regulation were controlled at the local level, but the Baltic states had little influence over the state-managed industrial activities in their area.<ref name=":11" />

Concern for the environment fueled a desire for independence from the USSR.<ref name=":11" /> Since declaring independence, the energy consumption of the Baltic states has declined due to a decrease in industrial activity, and each nation has created its own environmental oversight body: the Ministry of Environment in Estonia, the Environmental Protection Committee in Latvia, and the Environmental Protection Department in Latvia, all of which were under the legislative branch but independent from executive government.<ref name=":11" /> Air pollution was high in the Baltic states due to the high sulfur and other pollutants emitted from their fuel sources. Water pollution was also considerable due to agricultural and industrial activity, as well as the legacy of Soviet military installations.<ref name=":11" /> Emission charges were enacted in the Baltic states to reduce pollution levels.<ref name=":11" />

===== Estonia =====
Northeastern Estonia and the Narva region in particular was the site of an oil-shale industry which provided electricity and heat.<ref name=":11" /> Estonia was the only nation to have ever had an oil-shale based energy system.<ref name=":11" /> Mining for oil-shale caused Estonia to have the highest amounts of pollution in the Baltic states.<ref name=":11" /> Surrounding nations pressured Estonia to reduce its emissions, but a lack of desulfurization equipment has forced Estonia to instead lower its energy production, which has hurt the nation economically.<ref name=":11" /> Water pollution has also been considered among the worst of Estonia's environmental problems because it does not have the infrastructure to effectively treat as much sewage as is created.<ref name=":11" />

===== Latvia =====
Latvia produces the least amount of power and pollution and has the highest amount of forest damage of all the Baltic states.<ref name=":11" />

===== Lithuania =====
Lithuania is the largest producer of electricity of all three Baltic states.<ref name=":11" /> Lithuania's land area is roughly 31% forested and is both state and privately owned.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Lazdinis|first1=Imantas|last2=Angelstam|first2=Per|last3=Lazdinis|first3=Marius|date=2007-07-01|title=Maintenance of Forest Biodiversity in a Post-Soviet Governance Model: Perceptions by Local Actors in Lithuania|journal=Environmental Management|volume=40|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.1007/s00267-005-0387-8|pmid=17464529|bibcode=2007EnMan..40...20L|s2cid=21279014|issn=1432-1009}}</ref> Under the USSR, forest and other natural resources were state-owned and centrally managed.<ref name=":10" /> The State determined how resources would be used and excluded the public from influencing forest policy.<ref name=":10" /> The transition to a post-Soviet political and economic system led to privatization of forests and a market economy.<ref name=":10" /> Today, Lithuania's forests are managed democratically and sustainably so as to preserve biodiversity and forest resources.<ref name=":10" />

==Health==

==Post-Soviet nostalgia==
[[File:2018-05-09. День Победы в Донецке f171.jpg|thumb|People in Donetsk celebrate the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany on 9 May 2018]]
Ever since the dissolution of the Soviet Union a certain number of people (predominantly people around the age of ~ 55–80, which is most likely due to the USSR's peak performance in the time of Brezhnev) have expressed a longing for the Soviet period and its values. The level of post-Soviet nostalgia varies across the former republics. For example, certain groups of people may blend the Soviet and post-Soviet experience in their daily lives.{{clarify|date=August 2012}}<ref>See: Kaprans, M. (2009) [http://www.satori.lv/raksts/3114 Then and now: Comparing the Soviet and Post-Soviet experience in Latvian autobiographies]''Keywords'' 2.</ref>

A 2009 Pew Research Center poll showed that 62% of Ukrainians felt that their lives were worse off after 1989, when free markets were made dominant.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2009/11/02/end-of-communism-cheered-but-now-with-more-reservations/|title=End of Communism Cheered but Now with More Reservations|date=2009-11-02|work=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|access-date=2018-05-14|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519112519/http://www.pewglobal.org/2009/11/02/end-of-communism-cheered-but-now-with-more-reservations/|archive-date=19 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> A follow-up poll by Pew Research Center in 2011 showed that 45% of Lithuanians, 42% of Russians, and 34% of Ukrainians approved of the change to a post-Soviet market economy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/12/05/confidence-in-democracy-and-capitalism-wanes-in-former-soviet-union/|title=Confidence in Democracy and Capitalism Wanes in Former Soviet Union|date=2011-12-05|work=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|access-date=2018-05-14|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520020300/http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/12/05/confidence-in-democracy-and-capitalism-wanes-in-former-soviet-union/|archive-date=20 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to July 2012 polling in Ukraine by RATING, 42% of respondents supported the formation of a unified state of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus; earlier in 2012 this support had been 48%.<ref name=RatingJuly12>[http://ratinggroup.com.ua/en/products/politic/data/entry/14004/ The language question, the results of recent research in 2012], RATING (25 May 2012)</ref>

A 2016 poll of Russian citizens conducted by Levada Center showed that the majority viewed the collapse of the USSR negatively and felt that it could have been avoided, and an even greater number would openly welcome a revival of the Soviet system.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} A 2018 poll showed that 66% of Russians regretted the collapse of the USSR, setting a 15-year record. The majority were people older than 55.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ностальгия по СССР |url=https://www.levada.ru/2018/12/19/nostalgiya-po-sssr-2/ |publisher=levada.ru |date=2018-12-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Maza |first=Christina |date=December 19, 2018 |title=Russia vs. Ukraine: More Russians Want the Soviet Union and Communism Back Amid Continued Tensions |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-vs-ukraine-soviet-union-communism-1264875|work=Newsweek|access-date=December 21, 2018}}</ref> A 2019 poll found that 59% of Russians felt that the Soviet government "took care of ordinary people". {{wipe|Joseph Stalin}}'s favorability also hit record highs that same year.<ref>{{cite news |date=June 24, 2019 |title=Most Russians Say Soviet Union 'Took Care of Ordinary People' – Poll|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/06/24/most-russians-say-soviet-union-took-care-of-ordinary-people-poll-a66125|work=The Moscow Times|access-date=July 5, 2019 }}</ref>

== Characteristics of regionalization ==
[[File:PostSoviet Regions Map.png|upright=1.15|thumb|right|Regional categorization of post-Soviet states:<br />
{{legend|#688856|[[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]}}
{{legend|#ffc600|[[Place:Eastern Europe|Eastern Europe]]}}
{{legend|#0065c8|[[Place:Baltic region|Northeastern Europe]]}}
{{legend|#f2553e|{{wipe|Russia}}}}
{{legend|#f18cbf|[[Place:South Caucasus|South Caucasus]]}}]]

Various regional structures have emerged in the post-Soviet geography, which is fragmented in political and geopolitical terms. The first of these was the Independent State Society (CIS), which included former Soviet countries outside the Baltic countries. The failure of the CIS to meet the foreign policy needs of many post-Soviet countries has set the stage for a new regional integration. At the initiative of [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgia]], {{wipe|Ukraine}}, [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and Moldova, a GUAM organization was established in Strasbourg on October 10, 1997.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a67/e22258ccad6db8e1857071f660a718ce1dbc.pdf|title=On The Role of The 'Caucasian Tandem' in GUAM|journal=|year=2008|s2cid=55012247|last1=Papava|first1=V.}}</ref> The purpose and principles of the organization were determined at the first summit of GUAM on 7 June 2001 in Yalta. The countries participating in the GUAM aimed to maintain their national independence and sovereignty and to increase their maneuverability against Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.taraskuzio.com/International%20Relations_files/guuam_emergence.pdf|title=Promoting Geopolitical Pluralism in the CIS: GUAM and Western Foreign Policy|website=Taraskuzio.com|access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
* Border states (Eastern Europe)
* Eastern Bloc
* Frozen conflict
* Operation Provide Hope
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe statistics
* Russification
* Russophilia
* Russophobia
* [[Finance:Second World|Second World]]
* Union of Sovereign States
* [[Organization:Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization|Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]
*[[Organization:Русь|Общность Русь]]

{{clear}}


==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/0762c770bc3906dee8048cb763359dc8/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=506316|title=Geopolitical and Economic Significance of Central Eurasia: Indian Perspective|work=Kundu, Nivedita Das. Indian Foreign Affairs Journal; New Delhi Vol. 5, Iss. 3, (Jul–Sep 2010): 324–337.}}

==External links==
* [http://www.4020.net/eastbloc/ Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc] September–December 1991, in the last months of the USSR
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215042300/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552518 New Directions Post-Independence] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215065814/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552656 Post-Soviet Russia and its Neighbor States] from the [http://www.library.georgetown.edu/digital/krogh Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [http://folk.uio.no/palk/ch03History.htm Discovering The Centuries-Old State Tradition], professor Pål Kolstø, University of Oslo
* [https://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3110979 Former Soviet war zones |The hazards of a long, hard freeze], ''[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]]'', 19 August 2004
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827171444/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003211792_caucasus20.html 4 enclaves' post-Soviet fate in limbo], ''The Seattle Times'', 20 August 2006
* [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/09/BA6F0EF6-04A6-4D50-A114-486B978A1F54.html Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?], ''Radio Free Europe'', 15 September 2006


[[Category:Former countries in Europe| ]]
[[Category:Eurasia]]

{{Sourceattribution|Post-Soviet states}}