View source for Earth:Solimana (volcano)

{{short description|Mountain in Peru}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Solimana
| photo = Solimana volcano.jpg
| photo_caption =
| elevation_m = 6093
| elevation_ref = <ref name="VatinOliver1992-330">{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=30 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|page=330|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V}}</ref>
| parent_peak = [[Earth:Coropuna|Coropuna]]
| prominence_m = 1461
| prominence_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.andes-specialists.com/solimana-6093|title=Solimana|website=Andes Specialists|language=en|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref>
| range = [[Place:Andes|Andes]]
| listing =
| location = Arequipa Region
| map = Peru
| range_coordinates =
| map_caption = Peru
| map_size = 200
| label_position = left
| coordinates = {{Coord|15|24|36|S|72|53|35|W|type:mountain_region:PE_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =
| topo =
| type = [[Earth:Stratovolcano|Stratovolcano]]<ref name="SI">{{cite gvp|vn=354803|title=Solimana|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref>
| age =
| last_eruption = [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]]<ref name="SI"/>
| first_ascent = 08/02/1970 - Mario Bignami (Italy) and Julián Blanco Herrera (Peru)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fantin|title=Le Ande|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1971|title=AAJ (American Alpine Journal)|url=|journal=AAJ (American Alpine Journal)|volume=|pages=421|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1971|title=Alpine Journal|url=|journal=Alpine Journal|volume=|pages=244–245|via=}}</ref>
| easiest_route =
}}

'''Solimana'''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peru 1:100 000, Cotahuasi (31-q)|publisher=IGN (Instituto Geográfico Nacional – Perú)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/12073089|title=Adivinación y oráculos en el mundo andino antiguo|last=Ziółkowski|first=Mariusz|publisher=Fondo Editorial PUCP – IFEA|year=2008|isbn=9789972428463|editor-last=Curatola|editor-first=Marco|location=Lima|pages=121–159|chapter=Coropuna y Solimana: los oráculos de Condesuyos|editor-last2=Ziółkowski|editor-first2=Mariusz}}</ref> is a [[Earth:Volcano|volcanic]] massif in the [[Place:Andes|Andes]] of Peru, [[Earth:South America|South America]], that is approximately {{convert|6093|m|ft|0}} high.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers and Skiers|last=Biggar|first=John|publisher=Andes|year=2020|isbn=9780953608768|page=181}}</ref>
{{efn|Other data from available digital elevation models: SRTM yields {{convert|6020|m}},<ref>{{cite web|last1=USGS|first1=EROS Archive|title=USGS EROS Archive - Digital Elevation - SRTM Coverage Maps|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/usgs-eros-archive-digital-elevation-srtm-coverage-maps?qt-science_center_objects=4#qt-science_center_objects|accessdate=12 April 2020}}</ref> ASTER {{convert|6010|m}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=ASTER GDEM Project|url=https://gbank.gsj.jp/madas/map/index.html|access-date=2020-04-14|website=ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp}}</ref> and [[Engineering:TanDEM-X|TanDEM-X]] {{convert|6015|m}}.<ref>{{cite web|last1=TanDEM-X|first1=TerraSAR-X|title=Copernicus Space Component Data Access|url=https://spacedata.copernicus.eu/web/cscda/missions/tandem-x|accessdate=12 April 2020}}</ref> The nearest key col reaches an elevation of {{convert|4632|m}} and the volcano has a [[Earth:Topographic prominence|topographic prominence]] of {{convert|1461|m}} with a dominance of 23.98%. Its parent peak is [[Earth:Coropuna|Coropuna]] and the [[Earth:Topographic isolation|Topographic isolation]] is {{convert|29.1|km}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solimana|url=http://www.andes-specialists.com/solimana-6093|access-date=2020-04-12|website=Andes Specialists|language=en}}</ref>}} It is considered an extinct [[Earth:Stratovolcano|stratovolcano]] that is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the volcanic belts of the Andes. It features a caldera as well as traces of a sector collapse and subsequent erosion. The volcano is glaciated.

==Geomorphology and geography==
===Regional===
It is situated in the Arequipa Region, Condesuyos Province, in the districts of Chichas and Salamanca, and in the La Unión Province, in the districts of Cotahuasi and Toro.<ref>escale.minedu.gob.pe – UGEL Map of the Condesuyos Province (Arequipa Region)</ref> Several towns lie around the volcano.<ref name="Map" />

Solimana is part of the Peruvian segment of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone in this segment has both generated large composite volcanoes which rise {{convert|2|-|3|km}} above their basement and [[Earth:Monogenetic volcanic field|monogenetic]] volcanoes and [[Earth:Volcanic field|volcanic field]]s. This zone of volcanoes includes, from northwest to southeast, Sara Sara, Solimana, [[Earth:Coropuna|Coropuna]], [[Earth:Andagua volcanic field|Andagua volcanic field]], [[Earth:Huambo volcanic field|Huambo volcanic field]], [[Earth:Ampato|Ampato]], [[Earth:Sabancaya|Sabancaya]], [[Earth:Cerro Nicholson|Cerro Nicholson]], Chachani, Misti, [[Earth:Ubinas|Ubinas]], Huaynaputina, Ticsani, and [[Earth:Tutupaca|Tutupaca]], some of which have been active during historical time.<ref name="DelacourGerbe2007-582">{{cite journal|last1=Delacour|first1=Adélie|last2=Gerbe|first2=Marie-Christine|last3=Thouret|first3=Jean-Claude|last4=Wörner|first4=Gerhard|last5=Paquereau-Lebti|first5=Perrine|title=Magma evolution of Quaternary minor volcanic centres in southern Peru, Central Andes|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=1 April 2007|volume=69|issue=6|page=582|doi=10.1007/s00445-006-0096-z|issn=0258-8900|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/322329/files/445_2006_Article_96.pdf|bibcode=2007BVol...69..581D|hdl=20.500.11850/67949|s2cid=128636358|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Local===
Solimana rises above an approximately {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} high basement.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331" /> It has a [[Earth:Caldera|caldera]],<ref name="BromleyHall2011-307" /> which gives it an asymmetric appearance; further on the south flank both the basement and inner parts of the edifice crop out. This asymmetry was caused by large [[Earth:Sector collapse|sector collapse]]s and subsequent erosion of the southern flank.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331" /> The main edifice is formed by a compound volcano accompanied by  [[Earth:Lava dome|lava dome]]s and lava flows as well as pyroclastic flows and [[Earth:Lahar|lahar]]s, the latter relating to the formation of the collapse structure.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-333" />

Solimana has a high relief reaching approximately {{convert|2000|m}},<ref name="BromleyHall2011-306" /> the consequence of glacial erosion.<ref name="BromleyHall2011-307">{{cite journal|last1=Bromley|first1=Gordon R.M.|last2=Hall|first2=Brenda L.|last3=Rademaker|first3=Kurt M.|last4=Todd|first4=Claire E.|last5=Racovteanu|first5=Adina E.|title=Late Pleistocene snowline fluctuations at Nevado Coropuna (15°S), southern Peruvian Andes|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science|date=1 March 2011|volume=26|issue=3|page=307|doi=10.1002/jqs.1455|language=en|issn=1099-1417|bibcode=2011JQS....26..305B|hdl=10379/14782|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Neighbouring [[Earth:Canyon|canyon]]s have begun to incise the edifice.<ref name="KaratsonTelbisz">{{cite journal|last1=Karátson|first1=D.|last2=Telbisz|first2=T.|last3=Wörner|first3=G.|title=Erosion rates and erosion patterns of Neogene to Quaternary stratovolcanoes in the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes: An SRTM DEM based analysis|journal=Geomorphology|volume=139–140|page=131|doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.10.010|year=2012|bibcode=2012Geomo.139..122K}}</ref> The Cotahuasi Canyon runs north of Solimana, and the southern flank is drained by numerous ''quebradas''.<ref name="Map">{{cite map |author=Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center, Washington DC|title=Cotahuasi; Peru|url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/topo/peru/cotahuasi-2340-100k.pdf|year=1977|scale=1:100000|series=Joint Operations Graphic|edition=1|location=Solimana|format=PDF}}</ref>

During the last glacial maximum a number of [[Earth:Glacier|glacier]]s developed on Solimana, the longest of which occupied the Quebrada Caño on the northern flank<ref name="BromleyHall2011-307" /> and reached {{convert|9|km}} length.<ref name="BromleyHall2011-309">{{cite journal|last1=Bromley|first1=Gordon R.M.|last2=Hall|first2=Brenda L.|last3=Rademaker|first3=Kurt M.|last4=Todd|first4=Claire E.|last5=Racovteanu|first5=Adina E.|title=Late Pleistocene snowline fluctuations at Nevado Coropuna (15°S), southern Peruvian Andes|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science|date=1 March 2011|volume=26|issue=3|page=309|doi=10.1002/jqs.1455|language=en|issn=1099-1417|bibcode=2011JQS....26..305B|hdl=10379/14782|hdl-access=free}}</ref> There have been approximately five episodes of glaciation on Solimana in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2007AM/finalprogram/abstract_131033.htm|title=Late Quaternary glacier fluctuations and climate change at Nevado Coropuna, Southern Peru |website=gsa.confex.com |access-date=2017-11-10}}</ref> Later glaciations after the Last Glacial maximum emplaced conspicuous moraines, which are well preserved by the arid climate. Presently, glaciers are restricted to a valley on the northern slope and the steep southeastern flank;<ref name="BromleyHall2011-307" /> a report in 1992 indicated the presence of an ice cap covering a surface of {{convert|50|km2}}.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331" /> In addition, [[Earth:Rock glacier|rock glacier]]s are present on Solimana.<ref name="Dornbusch2005">{{cite journal|last1=Dornbusch|first1=Uwe|title=Glacier-rock glacier relationships as climatic indicators during the late Quaternary in the Cordillera Ampato, Western Cordillera of southern Peru|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|date=1 January 2005|volume=242|issue=1|page=77|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.242.01.07|bibcode=2005GSLSP.242...75D|s2cid=129250875|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/242/1/75.short|language=en|issn=0305-8719}}</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Solimana Coropuna Sabancaya.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial photo of Solimana (foreground), Coropuna (upper right) and Sabancaya (upper left)]]
The [[Earth:Nazca Plate|Nazca Plate]] [[Earth:Subduction|subducts]] beneath the South America Plate at a rate of {{convert|61|±|3|mm/year|in/year}}; it has slowed since the [[Earth:Oligocene|Oligocene]]. This subduction process is responsible for the formation of the Andes mountains in the region.<ref name="DelacourGerbe2007-585" />

Together with Sara Sara and Coropuna, Solimana is located on the northwestern end of the Central Volcanic Zone; no volcanism occurs farther north where the Nazca Plate subducts at a shallower angle than beneath the Central Volcanic Zone.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-330" /> Of these volcanoes, Solimana is considered to be the oldest and Coropuna the youngest.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331" /> Solimana together with [[Earth:Ampato|Ampato]] and Coropuna form the Cordillera Ampato.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peruvian Cordilleras|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386i/peru/occident.html|website=usgs.gov|publisher=USGS}}</ref>

The [[Earth:Basement (geology)|basement]] dates back to the [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]]-[[Earth:Paleozoic|Paleozoic]] and is buried beneath several pre-[[Earth:Oligocene|Oligocene]] formations. The Tacaza formation forms a Miocene-Oligocene layer of volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are overlain by [[Earth:Quaternary|Quaternary]] volcanoes, which include the Barroso Group formation and the Pliocene Sencca formation.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331">{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=30 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|pages=331–332|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V}}</ref>

===Composition===
Samples taken from Solimana are [[Earth:Andesite|andesite]] and [[Earth:Dacite|dacite]], but more recently [[Earth:Basaltic andesite|basaltic andesite]] was erupted as well.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-334">{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=30 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|page=334|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V}}</ref> The rocks contain [[Chemistry:Hornblende|hornblende]], [[Chemistry:Hypersthene|hypersthene]], and [[Chemistry:Plagioclase|plagioclase]],<ref name="AramakiOnuma1984-227">{{cite journal|last1=Aramaki|first1=Shigeo|last2=Onuma|first2=Naoki|last3=Portillo|first3=Felix|title=Petrography and major element chemistry of the volcanic rocks of the Andes, southern Peru|journal=Geochemical Journal|date=1984|volume=18|issue=5|page=227|doi=10.2343/geochemj.18.217|doi-access=free|bibcode=1984GeocJ..18..217A}}</ref> with additional [[Chemistry:Olivine|olivine]] in the phreatomagmatic deposits.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-334" />

The geochemistry of volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone typically displays strong evidence of [[Earth:Crust (geology)|crustal]] contamination, which is attributed to the thick crust that has developed in this region.<ref name="DelacourGerbe2007-585">{{cite journal|last1=Delacour|first1=Adélie|last2=Gerbe|first2=Marie-Christine|last3=Thouret|first3=Jean-Claude|last4=Wörner|first4=Gerhard|last5=Paquereau-Lebti|first5=Perrine|title=Magma evolution of Quaternary minor volcanic centres in southern Peru, Central Andes|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=1 April 2007|volume=69|issue=6|page=585|doi=10.1007/s00445-006-0096-z|issn=0258-8900|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/322329/files/445_2006_Article_96.pdf|bibcode=2007BVol...69..581D|hdl=20.500.11850/67949|s2cid=128636358|hdl-access=free}}</ref> A [[Earth:Granulite|granulitic]] basement may be a plausible origin of this contamination,<ref name="VatinOliver1992-349">{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=30 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|page=349|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V}}</ref> with additional contribution of subducted sediments.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=1 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|pages=329–355|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V|issn=0040-1951}}</ref>

==Vegetation==
Llareta and [[Biology:Jarava ichu|ichu grass]] form the thin vegetation up to about {{convert|5000|m}} altitude.<ref name="BromleyHall2011-307" />

==Archeology==
The Inca considered Solimana and [[Earth:Coropuna|Coropuna]] to be sacred mountains.<ref name="BacaMolak2014">{{cite journal|last1=Baca|first1=Mateusz|last2=Molak|first2=Martyna|last3=Sobczyk|first3=Maciej|last4=Węgleński|first4=Piotr|last5=Stankovic|first5=Anna|title=Locals, resettlers, and pilgrims: A genetic portrait of three pre-Columbian Andean populations|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=1 July 2014|volume=154|issue=3|pages=402–412|doi=10.1002/ajpa.22524|pmid=24801631|language=en|issn=1096-8644}}</ref>

In 2008, an Inca archeological site was discovered on Solimana's eastern flank, in the locality of Minticocha. The site most likely served religious and ceremonial purposes. According to colonial period sources, Solimana is the site of a major oracle, but this oracle is more likely to be located at Muyu Muyu close to the town of Yanque than at Minticocha.<ref>{{cite news|title=Descubren altar inca en el Solimana|url=http://noticias.universia.edu.pe/en-portada/noticia/2008/07/02/732569/descubren-altar-inca-solimana.html|access-date=11 November 2017|publisher=[[Organization:Universia|Universia]]|language=es|date=2 July 2008}}</ref>

==Eruption history==
Solimana is an extinct volcano. It was active during the Miocene and Pliocene between 4 and 1.5 million years ago,<ref name="VatinOliver1992-331" /> with the last eruption occurring between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago.<ref name="BromleyHall2011-306">{{cite journal|last1=Bromley|first1=Gordon R.M.|last2=Hall|first2=Brenda L.|last3=Rademaker|first3=Kurt M.|last4=Todd|first4=Claire E.|last5=Racovteanu|first5=Adina E.|title=Late Pleistocene snowline fluctuations at Nevado Coropuna (15°S), southern Peruvian Andes|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science|date=1 March 2011|volume=26|issue=3|page=306|doi=10.1002/jqs.1455|language=en|issn=1099-1417|bibcode=2011JQS....26..305B|hdl=10379/14782|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The collapses occurred at some time between 3.05 and 1.5 million years ago and after the collapse volcanism became centered inside the collapse scar and its margins, with the youngest activity forming phreatomagmatic deposits within the caldera and a scoria cone on its south.<ref name="VatinOliver1992-333">{{cite journal|last1=Vatin-Pérignon|first1=Nicole|last2=Oliver|first2=Richard A.|last3=Goemans|first3=Pierre|last4=Keller|first4=Francine|last5=Briqueu|first5=Louis|last6=Guido Salas|first6=A.|title=Geodynamic interpretations of plate subduction in the northernmost part of the Central Volcanic Zone from the geochemical evolution and quantification of the crustal contamination of the Nevado Solimana volcano, southern Peru|journal=Tectonophysics|date=30 April 1992|volume=205|issue=1|page=333|doi=10.1016/0040-1951(92)90434-8|bibcode=1992Tectp.205..329V}}</ref>

Solimana may be the source of the Lomas pyroclastic flow deposit and the Upper Sencca [[Earth:Ignimbrite|ignimbrite]].<ref name="ThouretJicha2016">{{cite journal|last1=Thouret|first1=Jean-Claude|last2=Jicha|first2=Brian R.|last3=Paquette|first3=Jean-Louis|last4=Cubukcu|first4=Evren H.|title=A 25 myr chronostratigraphy of ignimbrites in south Peru: implications for the volcanic history of the Central Andes|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|date=1 September 2016|volume=173|issue=5|page=754|doi=10.1144/jgs2015-162|url=http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/173/5/734.short|language=en|issn=0016-7649|bibcode=2016JGSoc.173..734T|s2cid=131293712}}</ref> The Upper Sencca ignimbrite was erupted between 1.76 and 2.09 million years ago and filled several valleys with {{convert|13|-|32|km3}} of material, while the Lomas deposit was erupted between 1.56 and 1.26 million years ago.<ref name="ThouretJicha2016b">{{cite journal|last1=Thouret|first1=Jean-Claude|last2=Jicha|first2=Brian R.|last3=Paquette|first3=Jean-Louis|last4=Cubukcu|first4=Evren H.|title=A 25 myr chronostratigraphy of ignimbrites in south Peru: implications for the volcanic history of the Central Andes|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|date=1 September 2016|volume=173|issue=5|pages=750–751|doi=10.1144/jgs2015-162|url=http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/173/5/734.short|language=en|issn=0016-7649|bibcode=2016JGSoc.173..734T|s2cid=131293712}}</ref> Solimana still features fumarolic activity within the caldera<ref name="VatinOliver1992-333" /> and the Peruvian geophysical institute has installed a [[Geodesic|geodesic]] control point on the volcano.<ref name="VargasAlva2020">{{cite journal |last1=Vargas Alva |first1=Katherine Andrea |last2=Cruz Igme |first2=John Edward |last3=Villegas Lanza |first3=Juan Carlos |title=Monitoreo de la deformación volcánica con GNSS en los volcanes activos del Perú |date=April 2020 |page=9 |url=https://repositorio.igp.gob.pe/handle/20.500.12816/4782}}</ref>

== Notes ==

{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Andean volcanoes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sulimana}}

{{Sourceattribution|Solimana (volcano)|1}}